THE JOTIRNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE
VOL XLIV APRIL. 1937. TO MARCH. 1938
INDEX
1937
No. I. APRIL -
No. 2. MAY -
No. 3. JUNE -
No. 4. JULY - - . .
No. 5. AUGUST -
No. 6. SEPTEMBER -
No. 7. OCTOBER -
No. 8. NOVEMBER - - _
No. 9. DECEMBER - - -
1938
No 10. JANUARY 927-1040
No. li. FEBRUARY 1041-1152
No. 12. MARCH - - 1153-1256
Pages
1-104
105-200
201-304
305-416
417-512
513-608
609-712
713-824
HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE
LONDON :: EDINBURGH :: MANCHESTER ' BELFAST
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 1 April, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Weed Destruction
Ai’AKT iroin sprints ciiUivations that may be directed to
weed destruction and the jireparation of a clean secd-bed for
sugar-beet, root and other crops generally, a good deal may
be done towards weed destruction by spraying cereal crops
with a solution of sulphuric acid or suljihate of ammonia, or
dusting them with cyanamide.
There is plenty of iwidence to show that tlu'se methods are
\'erv suciessful in destroying the bulk of Charlock and many
other annual weeds, and so n-ducing tlu' distribution of further
weed seeds upon the land. Another advantage is that the
reduction in weeds will surely add to the yield ot cereal
straw and gram. In addition, where the corn crop is in need
of nitrogen the sulphate of ammonia or cyanamide used will
provide what is required. If, however, the land is in good
lu'art, and an increase in nitrogen may tend to make the
crop “ go down '’--as where land has been sheeped — it will
probably be better to use sulphuric acid lor weed destruction.
Sulphate of ammonia may be used at the rate of l-lg cwt.
in 8o to 100 gcd. of water pc-r acre; sulphuric acid is most
commonly used as a 7 to 10 ^x'r cent, solution, or 7 to 10 gal.
of Brown Oil of Vitriol (B.O.V.) in 93 or C)o gal. of water per
acre; cyanamide is distributed, preferably by a blower, at the
rate of i-i| cwt. per acre. The sprays may be used at any
suitable time up to the end of May, and, if the corn is not too
high, even into the first or second week of June. Cyanamide,
however, should be applietl somewhat earlier, preferably
when Charlock has lour rough leaves, or the cereal is no more
than six inches high. It is best to carrj' out the treatment
during a spell of fine wa-ather, though as far as the spraying is
concerned heavy dewv or slight rain will matter little, while it
is desirable to apply cyanamide early in the day when the
dew' is on the leaf.
A
I
Nuies I'OK THE Month
This brief note is intended merely as a pointer to indicate
the possibilities; tanners who have seen the results of correct
treatment at the right moment, will appreciate the value of
what has been done. It may be added that those who have,
not hitherto made use of these methods of weed destruction
in cereal ciops, but desire to do so this season, may safely
follow the advice of the agricultural advisers of the organiza-
tions that direct the distribution of the three materials in
question; they may in the first place prefer to consult the
Agricultural Organizes lor their county.
The Output of Glasshouse Crops
In thc‘ early part of last j^'ar the Ministry undertook a
sjjecial inquiry into the output of crojis grown under glass
in England and Wales during 1935. The main features of
the results of the inquiry were published in the Ministry’s
Agricultural Market Report for February 26, 1937; the follow-
ing is a summary : —
The total number of lorms dispatched was 15,118 compared
with less than 8,000 in 1931 and about 6,000 in 1925. Replies
that could be tabulated represented about 42 per cent, of the
fonns dispatched and approximately one-half of the total
glasshouse area of the country. On the basis of these rei>lies
the total area of glass is estimated to be about 3,360 acres,
including 3,100 acres of glasshouses and 260 acres of frames,
compared with a total area of 3,150 acres in 1931. It is
estimated that 59,000 tons of tomatoes, 75 million cucumbers
and 2,030,000 lb. of grapes were sold in 1935 as against 54,000
tons, 54 million and 1,150,000 lb., respectively, in 1931. No
quantitative estimate ol the output of flowers, etc., is available,
but the estimated values of the various crops sold in 1935
compared with the two earlier inquiries, which are given in
the following table' with the proportion of the total values
represented by each crop, indicate that the output of the
flowers, etc., group represents an increasing proportion of
the total output.
Inquiries were also made as to the labour employed and
the cost of fuel used in the industry during 1935. I'rom
the replies received to these questions it is estimated that
41,100 workers were employed during the season although it
seems probable that tt) some extent this figure includes
workers who would be employed for part of their time on
other agricultural operations. Of the paid workers, 27,0(X)
2
Notes for the Month
were regularly and 8,800 casually employed, while unj^aid
family or other workers totalled about 5,joo. The fuel bill
of the industry in 1935 is estimated at approximately
£880,000.
I ‘I
-3
i‘J 3 i
1933
fro-
Fro-
id-o-
1 )<'s‘ rijitioii
portion
ICsli-
portion
ICsti-
jiortion
mated
of
mated
ot
mated
ot
\ aliie
Total
\ ahie
dotal
3 \iliie
Total
i
1
Willie
\d\liii‘
Value
i
000 /
ttOO /
0
000 ^
0
0
Fruit and X’c^ctal
)lcs .
1
'roniatf)cs . .
r*
ioo
3 '>
3 ^^
('uciimlHTs
750
13
77 ^>
14
cS(K)
I 2
(i rapes
‘ 3 ^>
3
<10
' 13
2
All (dhers
230
>
4
4
Flowers. jM)lia;,i(‘
and
I^lants
F
3.-'»3
I 01 AL
j 00
">■ 37 ^^
1 00
J (MT
Agricultural Statistics, 1935 (Part II)
The Ministry’s Annual Report on the prices and supplies
of agricultural produce and recinirements was published at
the beginning of March. The Report discusses the movement
in prices and changes in the source ot supply of the principal
agricultural commodities in th(' year 1935, in comj)arison with
those in j^revious years. The Report shows that the improve-
ment in the general price level ol agricultural j)roducts that
was recorded in 1934 was continued in 1935. The general
index of prices reached 117 and was thus \ points higher than
that for 1934. The group index for live stock and live stock
products showed a decline of i point. The index for the
cereals and farm crops group rose by 4 points, while that for
fruit and vegetables rose to 184, an increase of 52 points abo\'(‘
that for 1934, and was the highest inde.x for this group since
1922. In addition to the usual tables, tliree diagrams are
included, showing a long-term comparison ot the prices of
British and certain imported oats, the changes between 1899-
Kpo and I 9 ^i 4‘35 '*1 Imnie production of l)eef, and the
index numbers of the prices of fat and store sheep for the
years 1911 to 1935. The review of the quantitative regulation
of imported product; contained in the Report for 1934 has
A 2 3
Notes eok tuiv Month
been brought up to date, and the recent changes in Customs
duties arc included in an Apjx'ndix that shows in detail the
period of operation, amount of duty, etc.
Copies of the Report, which forms Part II of the Agricultural
Statistics, 1935, may be purchased throiigh any bookseller,
or direct from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House*,
Kingsw'ay, London, W.('.2, price is. («/. net, or is. Sd.
post free.
Agricultural Indebtedness
The Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Economics, and
Sociology* is publishing a well documented study on
Agricultural Indebtedness. The first part of this study
appeared in the January, 1937, number of the Bulletin and is
divided into two sections, the first of which deals w'ith the
problem of Agricultural Indebtedness in general, show'ing its
progressive development after the* W'ar, its structure, its old
and recent causes, its ct)nsequences and aggravation follovs-
ing the w'orld economic crisis. Section two consists of a
survey of the measures taken 1)\’ the various (iovernmi'nts
to meet this situation and of the rt'sults of these* mt'asures.
It is compiled on the basis of data gathered from credit
institutions and special researche.s, and deals concrc'te'ly
with the indebtedness problem and the means by which efiorts
have been made to lighten its effects in the following countries ;
(A) Central and We'stern Eurojie : (iermany, Belgium,
France, Italy, Switzerland. The February issue of the
Bulletin continued the study and dealt w'ith (B) Scandinavian
countries and Finland : Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland.
Other countries to lx* dealt w'ith in following issues are: (C)
Central and Eastern Europe : Bulgaria, Clreece, Hungary*,
Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia; (D) Baltic
countries: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia; (E) Asiatic countries:
India, Japan; (F) North America: Canada, United States;
(G) South America: Argentina, Brazil; (H) Australia.
This study is related to the methodical work of obsei-vation
and analysis on economic conditions of w'orld agricultun* in
general— work the results of which are to be found in the
annual volume published by the International Institute of
Agriculture: The World Agricultural Situation. \
* Published by the Tiiternational Institute ot Aj^riculture, i, \'illa
Pmberto, Koine. Obtainable from P. S. Kin.i; and Son Jjd , (ireat
Smith Street, Pondon, S.W, i, ])nee 13s. hd. }>er annum.
•f Obtainable from 1 *. S. Kini; and Son Ltd., juice los.
4
Notes for the Month
National Institute of Ag^ricultural Botany
The sev(‘nleonfh Report of tlie National Institute of Agri-
cultural Botany is now available, and copies may be obtained
on application to the Institute. The work of the Institute is
directed to supplying the farmer with unbiassed information
as to the seeds he sows, and tlu' report deals with methods by
which this information was obtained in 1936.
New varii'ties of all farm crops are tested by the Institute
as soon as they ai)p(‘ar, the trials being conducted on a field
scale at six permanent stations in England, and in some
cases at additional centres on a fanner’s own land. In all
instaiues the varieties are grown as they would be by
the farmer himself. Eveiy feature of the varieties is noted
and the results are of considerable value. For instance,
()1 all the new varieties of winter whi-al that have been tested
in the last ten years, only one has proved to be worthy of
general recommendation by the Institute. This is the Dutch
variety Juliana, which has in tht' past two years’ trials given
slightly better results than Wilhelmina.
The position with other crops is \’ery similar, and it is clear
that fann(>rs will be wc'll advised, before deciding to grow
a new variety, to apply to the Agricultural Organizer for their
county, or direct to the Institute, for information as to the
merits of the variety in cpiestion.
Bibliography of Literature on Agricultural Meteorology
The Ministry has issued a third ininu-ographed Bibliography
of Litt- ratiire on Agricultural Meteorology in continuation of
previous works published in 1932 and 1936, the former of
which is no longtT obtainable. It is not claimed for the present
bibliography that it is a com})lete refi'rence to papers, etc.,
dealing with agricultural mete(mology; it consists of the titles
noted in the Ministry during the ordinary course of the
administration of the Agricultural Meteorological Scheme from
the jx'rusal of the original periodicals, digests, and other
sources. The titles so noted between October, 1933, the
end of September, 1936, are included.
The bibliography has been widely circulated, both in
(Ireat Britain, in the Dominions and Colonies, and elsew'here
overseas. A few copies of the second and third bibliographies
are available, gratis, to workers and others interested.
5
Notes the Month
Applications should be addressed to the Secretary, Agri-
cultural Meteorological C'ommittee, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, lo, Whitehall Placr*, London, S.W.i.
Interesting Birds : (2) The Nightjar
The Nightjar is one of th(' most notable of our birds, being
not only ol interesting and peculiar habit, but valuable to
the agriculturist. It is, in fact, one of the most useful of all
our summer r'isitors, and it is unfortunate that it has been
burdened with certain local names that are likely to convey
a false impression as to its real character. The names “ Fern
Owl ” and “ Night Swallow ” are not objectionable, and are
indeed rather apt, sinci' tlu' bird is of nocturnal habit, has a
swallow-like flight, and is often found in clearings and on
commons where bracken is plentiful. “ Nighthawk ” and
" Goatsucker,” howe ver, an‘ misleading. The former name
suggests that the bird is of a predatoiy nature and likely to be
a menace to young poultry and other birds. The latter
has its origin in an absurd belief that the bird sucks milk from
goats, a belief that is, of course, entirely erroneous.
In a quiet way the Nightjar is a handsome bird, its ])lumage
being beautifully mottled with black and various shades of
brown and grey. When at rest during the daytime', this
colour scheme makes the bird difficult to detect, especially
when perching on the branch ot a tree'. It lies lengthwise
along the branch and not across it as do mo.st other birds.
In such a situation it is easily mistaken tor a fungoid growth
or a woody excrescence.
The Nightjar does not make a ne-st, but lays its 2 eggs on the'
bare ground, usually on a he ath ejr a common or in a cle'aring
of a wood. The eggs, which are e'longated oval iji shajx',
with very little difference' Ixitween their e'lids, are jm-ttily
marbled w’ith brown, lilac and grey.
The food of the Nightjar consists entirely of insects. The
bird does much good work by destroying noctuid and other
moths, many of which are harmful to agriculture, cockchafers,
and other injurious insects. Its large, hair-fringed mouth is
especially well adapted for the capture of these. In any list
of beneficial birds the Nightjar would rank highty. It is never
common in this country, and should be encouraged and
protected in every possible way.
6
/<• t<ftr
L'hti )i w th
Notes for the Month
Sugar-beet Seed
The lollowing nolo has been rommunicated by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany: --
The Institute has conducted field trials with sugar-beet
strains over a jx riod of tt years in the most important beet-
growing districts of England. The results show that certain
strains are superior to others on the basis of sugar yields, and
also clearly indicate that some arc* more suitable than others
for special circumstances, such as early sowing or for grow-
ing on very rich soils. It should, howe\er, be pointed out
that although the Institute’s trial centres are in typical beet-
growing areas it is obvious that they cannot represent all
classes of soils within each area, b'or this reason, although
tin* results have been lound ol very wide application, it is
advisable for growers to ask advice of the Factoiy Agri-
culturist*^ whenever special conditions have to be met. Every
grower -.hcmld, fher'etore, give caroful attention to the choice
of ',train->, and in taking advantage of the wide choice ol
seed oifered by lactones, should be influenced by the
rcTommeridations of the N.I.A.B. and the Factory .Agri-
cultural Deiraitments.
riie lollowing strains have given high sugar yields
in .iddition to satisfactory field behaviour and can be
rc'commended for gc'tieral cultivation: Kleinwanzleben E,
Sharpe’s I'higlish-grown Kleinwanzleben E, Kleinwanzleben
N, Alaisters British Hilk'shog, Johnson’s Perfection, Kuhn P,
Dipfu* E, Dippe W I., StiulH' K, and Hoerning H.S.;
Dobrovice N, and Zapotil N have also, in cer tain areas, provc'd
their rnei'its as reliable strains.
Non-bolting strains have a sjKcial value for early sowing.
Marsters British Hilkshog has proved almost completely
resistant to bolting, and Kuhn P is almost as good.
Johnson’s Pi'rfection, Kleinwanzleben E, Sharpe’s Klcin-
wanzleben E, Kleinwanzlebt'ii N, and Sharpe’s Kleinwanzleben
N, have also b<*en fairly free from bolters even when sown
early. For districts when' conditions are usually \’eiy
favourable to bolting, the Institute recommends Marsters or
Kuhn P for tin* earliest sowings.
k'or earlj' lifting, any of the strains mentioned in the
preceding paragrapli will do well when sown early. The best
“ E ” strains give good sugar yields e ven when lifted early,
but they are more suitable lor late lifting since their great
7
Notes for the Month
vigour and continued late growth lead to a still higher sugar
yield when lifting is deferred until, say, the middle of
November.
Large topped strains are apt to be troublesome on very rich
soils. In recent trials in the Fens, Marsters, which has the
smallest tops, and Klcinwanzlcben E, although a large topped
variety, gave the best results, followed by Kleinwanzleben
Z, Kleinwanzh'ben N, Johnson’s Perfection, and Kuhn P.
The last two have larger tops than Marsters but smaller ont's
than the Kleinwanzleben strains.
All the above* strains arc ultimat(*ly of Continental origin
and much of the seed used here is grown abroad. Trials have,
however, shown that English seed produced from stocks ol
the above-mentioned C'ontinental .strains gives just as good
results as foreign-grown seed, i)rovided it is properly grown
and harvested under good conditieuis.
Last year, preliminary observation ])lots were grown of
two strains of .seed of Russian origin. These proved to bolt
badly. It is understood that other Russian strains will bi*
introduced in the coming year in the hope that th(*y may
prove to be less j)rone to this defect. For growers who buy
Russian seed it is suggested that it be used for the later
sowings.
Fuller particulars of the leading strains are given in a k allet
that may be obtained free of charge from Factoiy Agri-
culturists, County Agricultural Organizers, or direct from the
Institute, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge.
The Official Seed Testing Station in 1935-36
The Report* for the year 1934-35 shows that, during the
twelve months ended July 31, 1936, the Official Seed Testing
Station tested 29,870 samples from outside sources. This is
the highest number ever tested during the twelve-month
period, and compares with the 1934-35 total of 28,327, itself
a record figure. In addition, 2,035 samples were dealt with
in the course of various investigations.
Seed-borne Diseases. Celery seed samples were again
submitted to the Station for examination for the presence of
seed-borne diseases, and of the forty samples examined, only
three were found to be free from infection with Septoria apii
* The seventeenth Report of the National Institute of Agricultural
Botany, Cambridge, 1935-36.
8
Notes for the Month
(celery leaf-spot). Twenty-four contained up to lo pt',r cent,
and six contained nion; than 6o }X‘r cent, of infected seed.
Over half the samples were free from infection with Phoma
apiicola (Phoma root-rot) and in only one instance did the
degree of infection reach lo per cent. Fifteen samples
contained from i per cent, to 9 per cent, of infected seed.
Several samples of wheat were received, to be examined
for adhering spores of Bunt (Tilletia caries). Helmintho-
sporium avenue develo|)ed upon a number of oat samples
during the course of the routine germination test, and special
examination, upon request, was made for the presence of this
organism in a few samples. Ascochyla pisi was recorded on
a relatively large number of pea samples, and samples were
submitted for examination for “ Marsh Spot.” Specimens
of bunt balls, ergots, and ('arcockles wen* received for
identification, with requests for information concerning the
organisms responsible.
Organic me rcury compounds in the form of seed dressings
have become widely used for the control of certain seed-borne
diseases of ctut'als, and are in certain instances likely to be
of protective value when api>lied to other seeds. From
inquiries received from time to time, it is evident that little
is known with regard to their relative toxicity to seeds other
than those of cereals, sugar-beet, mangolds, and peas, and
work has now been commenced to investigate the toxicity of
such compounds to the smaller seeds.
Work has already been done to determine the effect upon
the ” keeping quality ” of cereals, after having been dressed
with organic mercurj’ compounds, and this work is now being
further extended.
Moisture Content of Seeds. The services of the Station
in detennining the percentage moisture content of seed samples
were taken advantage of to a greater extent than in any
previous season, a total of 231 samples being submitted for
this purpose. The majority of these samples were of sugar-
beet .seed, some eighty samples coming from beet sugar
iactories. The moisture content of seed plays a part in fixing
the price of certain seeds, and is of importance in connexion
with field trials. It is, however, perhaps not fully appreciated
how great a part the moisture content plays in the complex
question of loss of vitality of seeds. Too high a moisture
content of stored seed, apart from the obvious risks, invariably
leads to rapid loss of vitality, and in this connexion the
9
Notes for the Month
Station has in course of preparation data showing the average
moisture content of air-dry seed of most of the species listed
in the Seeds Regulations.
Wild White Clover Certification Scheme. During
the season under review, the number of “ head ” samples
collected from pastures inspected under the scheme and
received at the Station reached 15. A further 24 were received
during August of this 3^ear, bringing the total of plots sown
down from “ head ” samples since 1930, to 914. In addition,
type samples trom j)astures finally certified under the scheme
have been sent to the Station and plots sown down from them
for checking purposes, a total of 103 such samples having been
received since 1931.
Peas. From time to time the Station is asked to conduct
greenhouse soil tests upon pea samples in addition to tests
by the standard laboratorj' method. To Ix' of value, such
tc'sts .should be conducted in a uniform manner under properly
controlled conditions and in this connexion many tests have
been made upon bulks of }^X!as of varying quality, in order to
compare results by the standard sand method with those trom
tests made under various “ greenhouse " conditions. The
effects of a number of factors, such as d(‘pth of planting, nature
of medium, and degree' of moisture' e)t seed bed, have' bee'n
investigated.
Arising from an inquiry coneerning a crop failure', an
investigation was undertaken to dete'rmine the toxicity to peas
of those arsenical salts and compounds available to the public.
It was found that in certain e oncentrations arsenic in some*
forms is highly toxic to peas.
Plant specimens in considerable number were rece ived for
identification during the year. In addition, almost every
week during the se'ason the Station received seeds for identifi-
cation, with requests in a number of instances for notes upon
the species concerned.
10
LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY BILL:
Livestock Markets and Central Slaughtering
Two important parts ot the Livestock Industry Bill,
namely, Part IV dealing with livestock markets, and Part V
relating to slaughtering, have aroused widespread interest.
The following extracts from statements made by the Minister
during the discussion of the Bill in the House of Commons
and in Standing Committee give a general indication of the
intention and scope of these parts of the Bill.
Part IV. Livestock Markets. [Second Heading —
January 20. ] 1 now wisli to turn to the proposals for dealing
with livestock markets. Though it is a difficult problem,
from which (lovernments have at times shrunk in the past,
some reform is overdue. It has been mentioned by commission
aftt'r commission and committee after committee that the
redundancy of markets inflicts damage upon producers. . .
It is 90 years since the House passed a Markets Act, and in
those go years immense changes have taken place. . . What
is the object of a market ? Its object is to attract a sufficient
number of jxitential buyers, so that there shall exist healthy
competition between those buyers to secure the produce which
is offered for sale, and it is obvious that where there are small
and redundant markets there is no real competition; there is
not a real market at all and the producer suffers. There are
other ways in which markets need improvement. Some ot
them do so little business that they have not been properly
equipped, though the equipment of a market is often a
matter of vital importance to the producer and may in the
(md affect the return for his labours. Many markets are to
this day shackled by ancient charters. In some cases there
may be two markets in neighbouring towns, and even in tlie
same town, taking place at the same time, and distributing
between them business which is only sufficient for one.
I am anxious not to overstress this problem of redundancy.
The question is not one of dealing with the small market,
necessarily, but with the market which is redundant, that is,
a market the continued existence of which operates against
the interests of producers. It is a regional problem ; it depends
II
T-ivest()('k Industk’V Bile
on tlu' demands ol llic area wlu-lher a market is redundant
or not, and the Bill ])rojx)ses that the commission shall make
recommendations tor dealing with the country area by area.
Ample safeguards are provided. ... I am anxious that the
House should realize that the important part about the
proposals is not the closing of markets, but an improvement
in the efficiency and etiui})ment t)f thi' vast majority w'hich
will remain. We propose that the ('ommission should be given
power to deal comprehensively with equipment, and also to
make by-laws six-cifying math'rs which make for efficiency
and fairness in the markets.
[Committee — March 4.] Powers of Commission. The
Commission cannot close any market at all. They have no
power to close a single market in this country, and they will not
have any such power when the Bill becomes law. That is the
first point that I would like hon. Members of the Committee
thoroughly to grasp. All that the ('ommission can do is to
survey the problem area by area, and make proposals for the
better equipment and better regulation of markets within the*
area. The proposals have no force at all until they are con-
firmed in a livestock markets ordtT. The authority of thc‘
Minister, and, if it is opposed in any w'ay, the authority of
Parliament, is necessary before a single market can be
interfered with. That is an important and fundamental fact.
When the enabling character of this legislation is thoroughly
grasped, I venture to think that many of the quite legitimate
apprehensions which are felt in many parts of the Committee
as to the powers of the Commission will be dissipated. When
you are framing enabling legislation, w'hcn you are setting
out to tackle this great and urgent and long delayed problc'm
of markets by an instrument which can act by way of making
proposals for a reform, what do you do ? You draft your
enabling legislation so that the Commission may take into
consideration such-and-such questions, and you draft that
part as widely as possible, remembering that by so doing you
are not conferring wide powers of executive action upon the
Commission, but are merely enlarging the sphere which they
can survey in order to make their proposals. It is quite a
different procedure when you are setting up an executive
body which by its own authority has power to interfere with the
normal life of citizens in this country. Then, quite rightly and
properly. Parliament is jealous of delepting executive rights
to interfere with people without putting in stringent safeguards.
12
Livestock Industry Biel
The safeguards here arc complete to the last degree. 1 doubt
whether any draftsmen could have devised words more apt
to ensure that no legitimate interest can be affected without
the fullest consultation, the fullest discussion, and the fullest
resort to Parliamentary opposition up to the very last stage.
If anyone can suggest improvements in that machineiyc wc
shall be very glad indeed to consider them, but I would ask
the Committee to remember that Parliament is the authority
all the time, that in the matter of these livestock markets
orders the Commission’s power is to survey and make
proposals.
For that reason, the Committee would not be advised by
me to insert in the Claus(>s of the Bill any provisions which
would tend to limit or restrict the area which the Commission
can survey, or to knock out from their consideration certain
factors which may become vital for a proper execution of their
duties. Our object in adopting this procedure at this stage
is to set up an instnunent which will relieve Parliament from
having to legislatt' again on this subject in specific instances
for a long time, while at the same time maintaining to the full
the control of Parliament over the specific proposals made by
the Commission. I think it would be very unwise, seeing that
this legislation is to be of a permanent character, to put in
too many restrictions upon what the Commission’s proposals
may contain. A projwsal which in this year of grace may
look a little drastic, may, at some time or other, not appear
so. Realizing that full control is kept, I would ask the Com-
mittee not to insist upon restrictive amendments limiting the
power of the ('ominission to make proposals. Let them make
their proposals, and let us di-al with the proposals on their
merits when they come.
Redundant Markets. 1 have tried to make it clear that it
is not the size or the turnover of a market which is the dis-
tinguishing feature of its usefulness to the community. If
you are in a remote district, as in some parts of Wales, two
small markets may exist at a very short distance from each
other as the crow Hies. Men and cattle certainly are not crows
and have not the power of flight, and the two markets may
be separated by some mountain range, lake, or some other
natural barrier, which makes the journey between them a
very long one. In remote districts of that character, it is
often necessary for a small market to continue to exist, if the
opt'rations of agriculture are to be conducted with facility and
13
Livestock Inuustky Bill
ease. The only thing that is aimed at is the market which is
redundant on its merits, having regard to all the facilities
existing in the neighbourhood and the circumstances of each
locality. It is for that reason that the Commission propose
to proceed area by area, to take in precisely those local factors
which determine whether or not a market is of service to an
agricultural community or merely a load on the backs of the
producers in the district.
1 hope that my hon. Friends will see that in this Part of the
Bill th(!re is no object to be attained by limiting in any way
th(* sphere of action of the Commission, remembering that
the authority remains where it must remain, with the Minister,
and with Parliament in the long run.
v' Part V. Slaughtering of Livestock. [Secono Keapinc;
— ^January 20.] I pass to the slaughtering provisions ot the Bill.
In the discussions which have taken place, some people have
said that centralized slaughtering is the key which would unlock
the door to the whole problem of the live stock industry. Others
have held that while centralized slaughtering has worked with
remarkable proficicaicy in South America, such conditions did
not obtain in our country, and they were disinclined to believa'
that there was anything in the idea. The Ooveniment believe
that there is certainl}'^ enough in the idea to warrant an
experimental approach to the problem.
[Committee. March 18.] The ordinary public slaughter-
house run by a local authority really consists of a common roof
provided by the authority under which butchers come to
slaughter their own beasts in separate pens ;is they require
the facility. This is something different. It will have all tin;
advantages, from the point of view of public health, of the
central slaughterhouse conducted by a local authority, b\it
it will have the added advantage that we shall try to do
something to meet the economic position of the producer, of
the butcher, and of the consuna'r by using more modern
methods, and by bringing to this highly skilled technical
process the best assistance which modern inventions can
bestow. Because we are all interested in public health,
if we add these additional advantages to these three slaughter-
houses it is no reason why they should be any worse ; it is an
added virtue in them, and I would commend the experiment
on that ground to the Committee. Of course, the slaughter-
house run by the public authority at the present time for
14
Livestock Industry Bill
reasons of public health is necessarily confined to its own civic
boundaries for the area in which it can prohibit the competi-
tion of private slaughterhouses. This is not the same thing.
The area will depend upon the scheme, upon what it is intended
to produce as a throughput, and can only be judged in the
light of the circumstances. I would ask the Committee clcarl}'
to distinguish, as I have previously asked them, between this
Part of the Bill and the one which preceded it. The other is
a pennanent regulation of markets in the country; this is
merely a provision to let us try out these three experiments in
the slaughtering of animals.
There has been some talk about what can be dealt with by
the slaughterhouse and what cannot. This Bill confers upon
nobody any power to trade' in meat. ... 1 wish to make it clear
that under the system which we imagine will come into opera-
tion the butcher wlio brings his beast to the slaughterhouse
will have control over it; that is to say, he can get his own
beast back at the end of the process, plus any offals of an
edible character which he wishes to take away for sale in
his shop. But it is evident that you cannot treat things like
blood, scraps, and bile on an individuaUstic basis; they must
go into a common pool and be sold for the purposes for which
they are best suited. . . .
There has been so much criticism of the Bill made by those
who fear that their interests in the butchering trade will be
affected. I have dealt with the matter of the power to trade.
If the body which comes forw'ard with a proposal for a
slaughterhouse already i>osscsses the jwwer to trade, under
the common law there is nothing in this Bill as it stands at
present which takes away that power. If, on the other hand,
it is not a body v\’hich possesses that power, there is nothing in
the Bill which confers the power upon it.
With regard to local autliorities, w'ho will be interested in
the matter, although we have gh’en them certain powers, they
have not been given tlie power to trade in meat, even if they
have one of these schemes. The question whether or not the
power to trade in meat is a thing which may be included in
the scheme would arise in this way and at this point of time.
The Commission would have before it, and the Ministry would
have to approve, proposals of different characters. If a
proposal were made in circunustances in which trading in
meat would be against the public interest, I should imagine
that that would be a case where the Commissioners and lht‘
t5
Livestock Industry Bill
Ministry would regard the scheme with a certain amount of
examination to see that no legitimate interest was involved:
but it is at that stage and not during the discussion of the Bill
that the question would arise for solution. . . .
The initiative for the commercial proposal must come from
some local body. When the Commission have examined the
proposal and made up their mind that it is a good one the
Commission bring the scheme into operation to safeguard
the proposal and to make it a commercial proposition. It is
quite obvious that no one would come forward with a pro-
posal of this character without knowing what powers he was
going to get out of the scheme, and really it is true to say that
nothing can happen without the initiative of some local body.
One hears talk of confiscation of property and so on. I
would say that there is nothing about that to be found in any
part of the Bill. The process of slaughtering is a matter with
which we are very familiar. In Scotland power is given to
close down a private slaughterhouse in a town once the central
slaughterhouse is provided, and that without compensation.
That will not be the case here. One has heard a good deal
about the effect of this process upon meat. I think that that
discussion would be more apt from the point of view of a
discussion of whether central slaughtering was a good thing
or not. That is not exactly the question before us. The
question is : Is central slaughtering sufficiently interesting
from the point of view of the producer to allow experiments
to be made to ascertain the facts ? That is the point with
which we arc confronted in this Part of the Bill, and not with
its effect upon meat. I would say in this connexion that, in
my view, there is nothing to show that meat treated in this
highly specialized manner suffers in the least degree. . . .
Now with regard to the suggestion of transport difficulties,
I venture to think that it is exaggerated. People have spoken
as if the Bill is going to upset transport arrangements to a
revolutionary degree. The municipal central slaughterhouses
which exist to-day for reasons of public health take no account
of that difficulty, and no one has suggested that we should
abandon that method of preserving public health. Modern
slaughterhouses to-day are never sited with primary regard
to the convenience of the producer and the transport ease of
the situation. It would be quite possible for slaughterhouses
to be so situated in this country that that difficulty would not
arise. These are matters which will have to be taken into
i6
Livestock Industry Bill
consideration when the scheme is before the Commission. I
would say also that we should not in any way be put off by
threats that there will be a great increase in the consumption
of foreign meat. I am myself convinced that if our own meat
is given a good chance, with facilities which are available to
our competitors overseas, it will prove to be of as fine a quality;
and I would remind Members that the time when there was
an unrestricted supply of that commodity has gone.
I do not wish to make a speech justifying central slaughter-
ing. I would ask the Committee to agree with me in this,
that at least there is a case for an experiment. I do not think
there arc many hon. Members of this Committee who really
object to this. Do they say that nothing should be done about
this problem at all when it has been reported upon by
Committee after ('ommittee drawing attention to this matter ?
Do they say that the slaughtering of animals in this country
is conducted in such an ('fficient manner that it cannot be
improved ? 1 am sure no one could say that. Would any-
one say that the case against central slaughtering is so clear
that no experiment should be conducted for this purpose ?
I am sure there is no one who would assert that it will react
against the interests of owners of livestock. Does anyone say
that we are going too far by this particular proposal ? If not,
then I would ask hon. Members of the Committee to devote
their attention, which I shall greatly appreciate, to helping
me, in the course of the discussions which follow, to make
this scheme, which on its present lines is so abundantly
justified, more workable for the purpose which we are all
agreed should be followed.
17
COUNTY COUNCIL SMALL-HOLDINGS IN DORSET
AND HAMPSHIRE:
I. DESCRIPTIVE AND SOCIOLOGICAL
Edgar Thomas, B.Litt., B.Sc.,
Agricultural Economics Department. Reading University.
While there may be grounds for genuine differences of
opinion about the wisdom of extending land-settlement in
this country, there can be no doubt about the need for taking
every step possible to improve the financial and economic
well-being of the smallholders already established on the land.
Finding out what type of smallholders and what kind of
small-holdings are proving most successful under existing
conditions appears to be an essential step in this direction.
It was for this purpose that the group of investigators
associated with Lord Astor requested and enabled the Agri-
cultural Economics Department of Reading University to
conduct a comprehensive survey of existing county council
small-holdings in Dorset and Hampshire. The Department
has to thank Lord Astor and his colleagues for their financial
assistance, and for permission to publish this summary of the
findings. It has also to thank the County Land Agents and
their staffs in the two counties for their invaluable help
throughout the course of the inquiry. The inquiry itself could
not have proceeded without the willing co-operation of the
many smallholders who placed the results of their financial
experiences at the disposal of the investigators.*
The Sample Studied. The first step in the inquiry was
to make a preliminary statistical analysis of the statutoiy
small-holdings in the two counties according to acreage and
t5q)e of farming. This analysis covered a total of 853 hold-
ings — 616 in Hampshire and 237 in Dorset. It revealed a
striking difference in the type of small-holding that had been
encouraged in the two counties. In Hampshire there is a
preponderance of the very small holding devoted to fruit and
market-garden production. In Dorset, on the other hand, the
* The field work of the survey was carried out by Messrs. R. P. Askew,
B.A., H. T. Williams, B.A., and J. Harrison, B.Sc., of tliis Department.
Mr. Williams was also responsible for the statistical analysis of the
evidence collected.
18
County Council Small-Holdings
dairy holding of from 25 to 50 acres has been encouraged
almost to the exclusion of all others. Thus, in Hampshire
82 per cent, of the holdings are under 10 acres and 84 per
cent, are concerned with fniit and market-garden production,
while in Dorset 80 per cent, are over 10 acres and 76 per cent,
are dairy-holdings.
Between the middle of July and the end of September, 1935,
information about their economic and financial results was
collected from 215 smallholders in the two counties. These
smallholders were distributed as follows : —
Dair>' holdings . .
Hauls.
2 h
Dorset
59
Tola
85
Market gardening and/ or fruit-lioldiiig.s
5
Poultry-holdings
2 1
—
21
Miscellaneous or mixed holding*>
^4
4
28
1 JO
fyh
^ 1.5
It is obvious that dairying and fruit or market-gardening
arc the two main tyjies, and that the bulk of the dairying
holdings are in Dorset, while practically all the market-
garden and fruit holdings are in Hampshire.
Length of Tenure, Ages and Social Origins. With the
exception of iQ, or 8 8 pt'r cent., all the smallholders had
entered on their present holdings during or since the War.
The exact position is shown by the following frequency
distributions of lengths of occupations of present holdings and
of approximate ages of occupiers.
Length oj (hcnluUion A pproxiniate
< »/" Presc ut if old i ugs
0
0
Age-group
A 0.
0
0
Under 5 years
47
2 1-9
Under 30 . .
9
4 -
5 and under 10 N ears
53
25-6
■ 30 and under 40
39
27-4
10 and under 15 yt'ars
94
43 '7
40 and under 50
bi
28-4
l*re-\var
19
8*8
30 and under Oo
60
279
Oo and over . .
2b
12- r
. ,
-i '3
looo
-213
roo-o
Of the 215 smallholders 182 wen; country-bred and 33
were town-bred. It is interesting to note that ii of the town-
bred persons were on poullty-holdings, a fact that may
reflect the greater attraction of poultry-keeping to those with
no previous agricultural experience. All but eight of the
smallholders were married, and, in view of the great
importance of the hou.scwifc on the small-holdings, it is
19
County Council Small-Holdings
significant that 175 of the wives (84-5 per cent.) were
country-bred.
Not only were the majority of the smallholders country-
bred, but most of them had always been engaged in
agricultural or rural callings. The following statement gives
the occupations of all 215 smallholders previous to taking on
their small-holdings : —
67 farmers’ sons.
2C) smallholders’ sons.
17 farm -workers.
17 army or navy.
9 gamekeepers.
7 engineers.
0 carpenters.
5 i arm-managers.
5 farming abroad.
5 gardeners.
5 dairymen.
3 builders.
3 clerical.
3 t hatchers.
2 butchers.
2 labourers.
2 bakers.
2 motor-driv'crs.
2 electricians.
2 policemen.
2 shopkec])ers.
I each, shepherd, nui.seryman, gioom, blacksmith, i)ostman,
publican, salesman, cheese-factory worker, grocer,
motor-mechanic, painter, auctioneer, dock-labourer,
warehouseman, sailmaker, bricklayer, timber-feller,
tailor, as3dum-attendant, tanner.
Degree of Dependence on Holding. With all the 85
dairying smallholders the holding was the chief source of
employment and of income, but 25 of the smallholders stated
that they had somt; supplementary employment. Only 49
(or 60 per cent.) of the horticultural smallholders were
entirely occupied on their holdings; of the remainder, 18
worked most of the lime on the holdings and 14 regarded
their holdings as supplementary to some other main occupa-
tion. With two exceptions all the 21 poultry smallholders
were fully occupied on their holdings, although 10 were in
receipt of pensions or had private sources of income. In the
group of 28 miscellaneous holdings, three smallholders
regarded their holdings as of secondary importance, and a
further 13 had some supplementary occupation or source of
income. The other occupations of the 85 smallholders not
entirely dependent on their holdings, were as follows: —
31 pensions or ])nvatc income. 3 fruit salesmen.
13 farm-workers. 2 thatching.
11 haulage 2 shopkeepers.
4 gardeners and nursery workers. 2 builders’ labourers
3 keeping visitors. 2 coal merchants.
2 engineers.
each, selliug feeding stuffs, wife working out, newsagent, bricklayer
carpenter, huckster, water-bailiff, asylum attendant fish-
monger, cattle-dealer.
20
('OUNTY ( OUNCIL SmALL-HoLDINGS
It was found that 57 of the, dairy smallholders were
members of the National Farmers’ Union, 15 were also
members of a farmers' co-operative society, two members
of a milk recording society and one a member of the Producer
Retailers’ Association. Among the 81 horticultural small-
holders there were 6 members of a smallholders’ association,
14 members of a fruit-growers’ association, 2 members of a
co-operative purchasing society, and i member of a glass-
house growers’ association. Of the 21 poultry smallholders
3 had received technical training in poultry keeping, 6 were
members of the Scientific Poultry Breeders’ Association, i was
a member of the National Farmers’ Union, and i a member
of a co-operative purchase* society. 'I'he 28 miscellaneous
smallholders included 8 members of the National Farmers’
Union, and i memlx'r of the Scientific Poultry' Breeders’
Association.
Numbers Employed. All the smallholdings are, of course,
predominantly family undertakings in the sense that the
members of the family do the bulk of the manual labour.
There was considerable variation in the concentration of
employment on the various tvjx's of holdings, and in order to
show this, the jxisition in each ty-’pe group will be given in
turn.
The total number of persons, family' and hired, employed
on the 85 dairy-holdings was 250, w-hich is equivalent to 2 0
persons per holding or 42 j>ersons per 1,000 aen s. On 30
holdings there was no hired labour at all, while on a further
21 holdings only' a very' small amount of hired casual labour
was employed. On 51 holdings (60 per cent, of the total),
therefore, practically all the labour was family labour. Of
the other holdings 15 employed one hired man regularly,
three employed one man and some casual labour, five
employed one man and one boy, three employed two men,
two employed three men, and one employed three men and
one boy.
For these dairying holdings information is also available
concerning the size of the family and the numbers of children
of working age who had remained to work on their parents’
holdings and the numbers who had sought work elsewhere.
On 20 holdings there were no children, on 24 holdings there
were children of school age only, and on 41 holdings there
were children of working age. The total number of children
21
County Council Small-Holdings
on these 65 holdings was 149, of whom 96 (52 sons and 44
daughters) were of working age. Of the sons, 27 had
remained on their parents’ holdings; 6 while doing other full-
time work, assisted on the holdings in their spare time; the
majority of the remaining 19 had taken up non-rural occupa-
tions away from home. Of the 44 daughters, 17 had remained
on the holdings, while 27 had either found other employment
or were married.
The total labour force on the 81 horticultural holdings was
185, which equals 23 persons per holding or 260 persons per
1,000 acres — a very much higher concentration of employ-
ment than on the dairying-holdings. Nearly 73 per cent, of
the holdings were practically dependent on the family for the
supply of labour. On 32 holdings no labour outside the
family was employed, while on a further 27 holdings a little
seasonal labour was employed in addition to that performed
by the family. Of the holdings, employing hired labour,
eleven employed one man regularly, seven employed two
hired men, one employed three hired men, one employed four
hired men, one employed one man and one boy, and one
holding employed one boy. Unfortunately, it was not possible
to obtain much information about the size of families on these
holdings.
The 21 poultry holdings gave employment to 45 persons
which equals 21 persons per holding or 30 per 1,000 acres.
On 14 holdings family labour alone was employed. Of the
other 7 holdings one employed one hired man, one employed
one man and one boy, one employed one man and two boys,
three employed one boy, and one employed thr^ boys.
On 8 of the holdings there were no children. The total
number of children on the other 13 holdings was 24, of whom
5 were of school age and 19 (il sons and 8 daughters) were
of working age. Of the ii sons, 2 had remained on their
parents’ holdings, 2 had other full time work, but rendered
some spare time assistance, i was a poultry-farm manager,
and 6 were employed in non-rural occupations away from
home. Of the 8 daughters 6 had remained on the
holdings.
The information on employment on the 28 miscellaneous
holdings is not so complete as that already given. On all the
holdings the family supplied the bulk of tiie labour, 18 hold-
ings employing no hired labour, nine employing regular hired
workers, and one employing casual labour only.
22
County Council Small-Holdinos
General Layout and Equipment. The 85 dairy-holdings
were isolated holdings in the sense that they were not grouped
together, although in several instances two or more holdings
were fairly close together, having been carved out from a
previously-existing large farm. There was considerable
variation in the general layout; on 46 holdings the land was
practically within a ring fence and the fields reasonably
arranged, but on the other 39 holdings the fields were
scattered and their lay-out was inconvenient. There was also
considerable variation in the buildings; on 14 holdings the
buildings were ample and in very good condition, 38 holdings
had good and adequate buildings, but on 33 holdings the
buildings were poor and inadequate for the proper conduct
of the holdings. The average distance of all holdings from
a railway station was -i miles and from market 65 miles. The
means of transport used were as follows: 42 holdings relied
entirely on horses, ',0 hin'd mot{)r-vehicles when necessary
and 13 j)Ossessed their own motor-vehicles. Only 5 holdings
were on the tele]')hone, while 63 holdings had wireless sets.
Only 9 holdings were equipped with electric-light, 2 used
gas, and the remaining 74 holdings using oil lamps for
lighting.
Th(' horticultural holdings differ in many ways from the
dairy holdings in their general lay-out and equipment. They
are much more closely grouped together, being more or less
in small colonies. Again, the houses do not form an essential
part of the holdings in the same way as they do on the dairy
holdings. In most instances the houses could be described as
tow'n or suburban dwellings, and in only 50 per cent, of the
holdings was the land attached to the house. The land itself
was, also, in most instances divided into two or more separate
plots. These holdings differ further from the dairy-holdings
in that they need very little by wa3' of out-buildings for their
conduct. In a way, they have the appearance of large allot-
ments, with a roughly constructed shed for keeping the
necessaiy impUments and a few machines. Most of the hold-
ings had fairly ready access to a roadway. The average
distance from a railway station was 1-8 miles and from
market 5 miles. For the transport of produce 24 small-
holders depended on hiring, 29 had their own horses and
vehicles, and 28 had their own motor-vehicles. Only 6
holdings were on the telephone, but the majority possessed
wireless sets. Proximity to the towns accounts for the fact
23
County Councii. Smaix-Hoi.dings
that 28 of the smallholders’ houses had clcctric-light and 12
had a gas supply.
All the 21 poultry-holdings were within a ring-fence,
although two of the houses were some distance from the
holdings. No holding was over 8 miles distant from either
a railway station or a market. For purposes of transport 2
holdings had their own horses and horse- vehicles, 8 had
motor-vehicles and ii hired transport when required. Only
3 holdings were on the telephone, while 15 had wireless .sets.
Electric-light was installed on 4 holdings, i used gas, the
remaining 16 holdings using oil lamps for lighting.
The 28 miscellaneous holdings presented a variety of lay-
out and equipment. Their average distance from a railway
station was 3 miles and from market 5 miles. For transport,
4 holdings used their own liorse- vehicles, 9 had motor-
vehicles of their own, and 15 hired transport when needed.
Only 2 were telephone subscribers, but 19 2:)ossessed wireless-
sets. Electric-light was installed on i holding only, and 2
used gas.
{To be continued .)
24
BREAKING UP GRASS LAND
A. W. Oldershaw, B.Sc.,
Agricultural Organizer for East Suffolk.
The condition of our grass land cannot be regarded with
any degree of satisfaction. Sir Thomas Middleton places the
production of ordinary pasture at no more than 90-100 lb. of
lean meat per acre per annum, and he considers, if both
quality and quantity are taken into account, that the best
pastures produce quite three times as much as the average
and are ten or twelve times as productive as the poorest. He
considers that the nation does not derive more than 72 lb.
of meat or 1 gal. of milk per acre per annum Irorn her
grass lands.
Much further valuable information on this subject will be
found in Professor K. G. Slapledon’s book, “ The Land, Now
and To-morrow.”
Sir Thomas Middleton })laces the relatiw productivity of
arabk* and grass land as follows:
Xuviher of Persons
supplied u'lth a
100 acros
very poor grass coin ertt‘d into meat . .
sitbsLsfevce diet (or
one year
100
medium
IOC) , ,
very good ,,
^ 5-^0
100
mangolds (average crop) ,, ,,
35
100
wheat (average) ,, breatl ..
200
100 ,,
potatoes (average) as vegetable
. . 400
There is evidence from Saxmundham Experimental Station*
that weedy grass land, broken up, put through a course of
tillage and then re-seeded with a modern grass mixture,
becomes very much more productive of grass, which is also
of better quality.
Grass land may be broken up with the object ;
(1) Of re-seeding it with better mixtures in order to
increase its productivity as grass; or
(2) Of increasing the food supply of the country b)'
increasing the tillage area ; or
(3) Of increasing the profit to the individual farmer In-
growing valuable arable or fruit crops; or
* Oldershaw, a. W. : Thirty Years’ Grass I.ancl Exporiinents at
Saxmundham, Jour. R.A.S.E., Vol. 95.
25
Breakinc; Up Grass Land
(4) Of tapping the fertility of the soil accumulated
during a period in grass; or
(5) Of turning into arable, land which in the opinion of
the occupier is better suited for that purpose:
and for various other reasons.
In view of the interest taken in the subject at the present
time it seems desirable to examine briefly the question of
breaking up grass land, in order to see how it may best be
done in order as far as possible to avoid the many crop
failures that arc apt to occur.
Lord Ernie, in his book “ The Land and Its People,” gives
the following figures regarding land broken up from grass
during the War. It appears that out of 1,400,000 acres of
broken pasture, throughout the country, 250,000 acres were
cropped witli wheat, wliich, including total or partial failures,
gave an average crop of 31-3 bus. per acre. Oats wen; sown
on 850,000 acres of broken grass, and gave an average crop
of 437 bus., some crops being veiy good and some very bad.
Barley was grown on 75,000 acres, and gave the not ver\’
high average of 28-8 bus. Potatoes, on 32,0(X) acres, gave
the very useful average of 71 tons; beans, on 14,000 acres,
averaged 27 5 bus. ; and peas, on 15,000 acres, gave 26 0 bus.
These figures are taken from returns furnished by the Agri-
cultural Executive Committees and represent average figures
from the whole country and from very varying conditions.
The writer has made notes of the methods adopted, and
the results obtained, in a considerable number of instances in
which pasture was broken up during, and since the War,
these observations extending over a period of about eighteen
years. There seems to be very little doubt that the methods
likely to be successful depend to a great extent upon the type
of soil and the local climate. In spite of this, however, it is
possible to arrive at certain general conclusions, according
to the type of grass land involved.
(1) Grass Land consisting largely of Weeds and
Inferior Herbage. There is in this country a very large
area of so-called " grass ” that has never been properly
seeded down, and that, for various reasons, consists largely
of weeds and inferior herbage. Where these weeds are such
as are likely to persist in the arable land, as they frequently
are even when they are thoroughly buried, there can be very
little doubt that it is best, in most instances, to give the land
a thorough fallow before cropping. If this is not done, the
26
Breaking Up (iRAss Land
land will have to be fallowed in a year or two, so one might
as well make a good start, with clean land. The land may
be broken up by mechanical or horse power, as soon as it is
fairly dry in spring, and a whole summer fallow given, or
the first flush of the grass may be utilized, and it may be
broken in late June or early July, and a late summer fallow
given.
(2) Land covered with a Mat of Undecayed Vegetable
Matter. This is very likely to be poor in lime, and the
opinion of a soil chemist should be obtained as to this. After
breaking up, satisfactory’ crops of oats and potatoes may be
obtained without lime, but many of the other farm crops arc
likely to fail. As the action of lime is apt to be slow, any
application necessary would be best given as soon as possible
after ploughing.
A convenient way of breaking up land that has a mat of
vegetable matter on the surface is to use two ploughs, one
following the other. The first plough goes to a depth of
only 2 or 3 in., and throw’s the turf to the bottom of the
furrow. This is follow’ed by a second plough, w’hich
thoroughly buries the turf. In one instance, a tractor was
used to draw the second plough, and the wheel of the tractor
wedged the surface material deeply down, so ensuring the
thorough consolidation that is so important in breaking up
grass land.
Even when there is no surface mat, the method of having
two ploughs, one following the other, the first one throwing
the turf to the bottom of the furrow’, has much to commend
it. It ensures that practically all grass is buried, and in con-
sequence this does not come up in the follow’ing crop. By
the time the first crop is removed, the grass has thoroughly
rotted.
This method of double-ploughing can only be used where
there is a good depth of soil, as a rule it is unwise to bring
any considerable quantity of subsoil to the surface.
(3) Ordinary Grass Land, practically free from such
perennial weeds as are likely to come up in arable land, and
also free from a surface mat, may be ploughed in the ordinary
way in late autumn or winter. If a skim coulter is used so
that all the pasture grass is thoroughly buried, there should
be no trouble the following season from this grass appearing
in the crop.
27
BRR^K1NG Up Grass Land
The thorough consolidation that is so important may be
obtained by a furrow press following the plough, or on small
areas by the wheel of a cart following the plough down each
furrow, or by repeated rolling with a heavy roller.
It is probable that failure to obtain sufficient consolidation,
and the insect attacks commonly associated with it, are
responsible for more failures after breaking up grass land
than any other single cause; hence for some crops it is quite
worth while to spend as much labour on consolidating the
land as on ploughing it.
Subsequent Treatment of Ploughed-up Grass Land.
Where grass land has been down for a long period, there is
usually a large accumulation of vegetable matter that renders
the land “ light ” and spongy in texture for a number of
years. This condition, whilst good for certain crops, such
as potatoes, is not at all suitable for others, such as cereals,
hence special care must be taken for a number of years after
breaking up, to secure sufficient consolidation.
Condition of Fertility of the Broken-up Land. The
success or failure of subsequent crops depends very largely
upon careful consideration being given the question of
fertility. Good, or even average grass land when broken
up often contains a very considerable store of fertility,
especially of nitrogen. Sometimes this may be so great that
for a number of years all com crops are very apt to be laid
flat, and, in consequence, to be to a great extent ruined. In
such circumstances, it would be wise to grow crops such as
cabbages, kale, mangolds, and sugar-beet, which can
profitably utilize a large supply f)f nitrogen. Although there
may be an excess of nitrogen present, there is very likely to
be too small a store of available phosphates, lime, and potash,
especially of the two former.
On good land, the first few crops grown may very likely
require very little nitrogenous manure or farmyard manure,
but may be very responsive to mineral manures. Poor grass
land, on the other hand, may contain very little available
plant food, especially in the first year after breaking. In
subsequent years, the vegetable matter tends to decay and
become available. In the first year, a little readily-availablc
nitrogen, phosphates and potash may make all the difference
between a crop and no crop. Readily-available manure also
28
Breaking Up Grass Land
often greatly helps the crop in surviving the attack of soil
insects.
Thus poor grass land in a high-lying or late district,
ploughed up and put in with oats, would be very likely to give
a greatly increased crop if, before the oats were sown, a
dressing of, say, i cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, and 2 cwt. of kainit were applied. The crop
would also be likely to ripen earlier. This earlier ripening
of crops suitably manured has been observed in a very strik-
ing manner in mountainous districts where the harvest is
often very late.
Crops after Broken-up Grass Land. Brief consideration
of a few of the commoner farm crops, with reference to their
suitability for growing on broken-up grass land, may be
useful here.
Oats. As previously mentioned, a large proportion of the
grass land broken up during the War was planted with oats.
On medium and light types of soils under most of the climatic
conditions prevailing in the British Isles, oats are a ver>'
suitable crop, especially if the land is inclined to be acid.
In the drier parts of England, they are less likely to succeed
than in the cooler and moistcr parts. On rather heavy soils,
in a comparatively dry climate, such as prevails in eastern
England, they are veiy risky and apt to fail. Where the land
is inclined to be rich in nitrogen, a stiff-strawed variety
should be chosen, or the crop may be badly laid.
When spring oats follow grass, the land has usually been
ploughed up during the winter. In this ploughing, a skim
coulter should be used, and great care should be taken to
bury all the grass, so that it will not come up again.
Thorough consolidation in spring is desirable. As previously
mentioned, on poor land, and very often in high-lying
districts, the chance of the crop being a success will be greatly
increased if a suitable mixture of chemical fertilizers is given.
Wheat. As previously noted, during the War a quarter
of a million acres of grass land were planted with wheat and
the average yield was a very fair one. Still it must be
recognized that wheat is rather risky as a first crop after
grass.
On land broken up during the summer it is subject
to attack by wire-worms, the wheat bulb fly, and other pests.
It is usually a difficult task to get such land solid enough for
29
Breaking Up (jRass Land
wheat in the autumn, but the land press is a great help.
Where land is ploughed in late autumn, and sown with wheat
almost at once, the chief point again seems to be to get the
land solid. This may be done by means of the land press,
or by repeated rollings. Although land broken up from grass
may contain an abundance of plant food, this may not be
easily available. A small dressing, say 3 cwt., of super-
phosphate per acre, applied before sowing the wheat, will
almost always help rapid and abundant root-formation, and
hence help the plant to withstand insect attack. In early
spring, an opinion may be formed as to whether the wheat
needs nitrogenous manure. On quite a proportion of land
growth may be too rank, and the crop in danger of becoming
laid. If so, it may be desirable to run the sheep rapidly over
it, in order to eat off the rank growth and consolidate the soil
around the roots. The crop should not be eaten down closely.
With crops of this kind, nitrogenous manure would do
harm. On the other hand, there are almost certain to be
instances in which the wheat looks starved, yellow and
poverty-stricken, and in which a small dressing of nitrogenous
fertilizer may very likely greatly improve the crop.
The choice of variety is rather important. A good tillering
kind should be chosen. On poor land, Little Joss is suitable.
It has a great power of filling up in spring if it has been
thinned out by insect attack. On good land, Yeoman tillers
well and stands up reasonably well. On really rich land.
Holdfast is probably suitable. For medium conditions,
Wilhelmina is a safe kind to grow, and probably also Juliana.
Squarehead’s Master is suited for land that is not very rich.
On good land, this variety is apt to get badly laid.
Barley. On the whole, barley is probably the least
suitable of the three commoner cereals to grow after broken-up
grass. Still, there is no reason why it should not be tried
(especially on the lighter loams containing plenty of lime)
where circumstances have prevented the drilling of other
crops. As is well known, barley can be drilled later in spring
than other cereals, with a fair prospect of success.
Rye. There are very few records of instances in which rye
has been put in after broken-up grass. In times of food
shortage, rye is of very great value, since it will grow good
crops of both grain and straw on land that is so light and
poor in lime that it will not grow the other cereals
satisfactorily.
30
Breaking Up Grass Land
Sandy heath-like land, if ploughed deeply, and in such a
way that all the surface vegetation is buried, is very likely
to give an excellent crop of rye as the first crop, especially if
it receives a good dressing of nitrogenous manure. Rye, if
adequately manured, gives quite good yields of grain. Thus,
at Tunstall Experimental Station, Suffolk, on light sandy
land, yields up to 48 bus. per acre have been obtained
regularly over a period of years.
Grass. A considerable measure of success in Wales and
Derbyshire has been obtained on jjoor grass land by simply
ploughing up and burying the old turf, applying lime and
phosphates where necessary, and re-seeding almost at once
with a modern grass mixture containing wild white clover.
Sometimes a few pounds of rapt; p>er acre have been used
as a cover crop. This is fed off with sheep and the treading
helps to consolidate the land. The result of this treatment
has been a vastly improved herbage. The difficulty that
exists on so many inferior pastures, of a mat of undecayed
material on the surface, is got over by burying it. The small
seedling clovers and grasses find the lime and phosphates on
the surface and can immediately utilize them. In certain
circumstances, it is probable that it is worth while adopting
this proceeding even if the new pasture is only left down a
few years, and then broken up again.
After a few years of temporary grass, with a sufficient
supply of lime and phosphates present, the land will be in a
much better condition to give satisfactory arable crops, when
finally brought under the plough. Moreover, the original mat
of undecayed vegetable matter will be largely decayed.
This plan is likely to be most successful when one breaks up
a pasture consisting largely of inferior plants that are likely
to die when thoroughly buried. Certain grass-land weeds
(e.g., buttercup and fleabane) do not seem to be injured by
being buried. If they are present, they will reappear in the
new pasture and be as troublesome as formerly.
Professor R. G. Stapledon has stated* that by re-seeding
and manuring, poor upland pastures now produced over five
times as much edible dry matter as was obtained from pastures
not so treated. Lowland fields, giving live-weight increases
of no more than 120-200 lb. per acre, had, after proper
manuring and rc-seeding, given live-weight increases up to
and exceeding 700 lb. pt‘r acre. Re-seeding was more
* Pap<‘r road boforc the Royal S<icioty of Arts, May 13. 1936.
31
Breaking Up Grass Land
important than anything else. Heavy liming and heavy phos-
phating were the first necessity in many districts. Both gave
maximum value when pastures were broken and re-seeded.
Again, Professor Stapledon states* that, “ By ploughing
up and re-seeding (always with leafy perennial ryegrass and
wild white clover) accompanied by generous phosphating,
poor fescue pastures standing at elevations up to 700 ft. can
be converted into really good rye-grass pastures.”
On the upland pastures of Derbyshire, Mr. J. R. Bond
and his colleagues have been working at the problem of
ploughing up and re-seeding pastures for the past 18 years.
During the summer of 1936, Mr. Wells, assistant Agricultural
Organizer for North-West Derbyshire, showed the writer
certain high-lying pastures on which, by ploughing up and
re-seeding at once, after an application of lime and phosphates,
very great improvements in both quality and quantity of the
herbage had been effected. The improvement was so great
that the resulting pasture was undoubtedly worth three or
four times as much per acre as the original.
Flax {Linseed). The flax plant, either for seed or fibre,
is apparently a very safe one to grow as a first or second crop
after breaking up grass land, as it suffers veiy little from
attack by soil insects. The grass land would usually be
ploughed (using a skim coulter to bury all grass) in winter,
and the seed sown not too early in spring, a fine tilth being
very desirable. When grown for seed, the crop may be cut
with the binder. When grown for fibre, the crop is pulled
in the usual way.
Grass and clover seeds may quite well be sown in flax,
so that, if desired, the land could be sown down again to
grass, using linseed as a nurse crop.
Peas. On most classes of land in a dry climate, field peas
have been observed to succeed well on broken-up grass. The
land is ploughed in autumn or winter, all grass being
thoroughly buried. The variety of peas chosen should be
a vigorous one with a fair amount of straw. A short-strawed
variety is apt to encourage the growth of weeds. For
moderate and poor land. Black-eyed Susan, Norfolk Dun,
Maple, or Prussian Blue will be found suitable. On good
land, Harrison's Glory blue peas will be likely to succeed.
In some instances the more delicate table varieties of peas
have given quite good results.
* " The Land, Now and To-morrow,” p. 165.
32
Breaking Up Grass Land
Peas will not succeed unless the land contains sufficient
lime and is efficiently drained, A small dressing of fertilizer
— say, 2 to 3 cwt. of superphosphate with ^ cwt. muriate of
potash per acre — will usually reduce the chance of crop
failure.
Beans. On average or somewhat poor heavy land, and
in a dry climate, few crops have been observed to thrive
better than field beans, after broken-up grass. Winter beans
may be put in after a summer fallow, to kill the weeds in the
grass; or the grass land may be ploughed in September and
drilled with beans in October, or ploughed in winter and
drilled with spring beans. A skim coulter should be used to
bury all the grass thoroughly.
As a rule, a dressing of phosphates with a little potash will
greatly help the beans. Farmyard manure will also be
suitable for use on the poorer classes of land, but on better
land, it might cause the beans to become too “ rank " and
to have too large a proportion of straw to corn. If beans are
grown on really good grass land broken up, they are very
apt to grow too much straw and very little corn.
A mixture of 2 bus. spring beans and f bus. maple peas
has been found successful on rather poor heavy land, the
mixed crop being cut with the binder.
Vetches, and Silage Mixtures containing Vetches, are very
suitable for broken-up grass land on second-class soils, pro-
vided sufficient lime is present. Probably few crops are less
likely to fail, even on rather poor land. If tire crop is folded
with sheep or made into silage or hay, the land can be broken
up in July and a half-fallow given to it.
Potatoes. On the lighter types of soil and where the land
is fairly good, potatoes are an excellent crop to take on
broken-up grass land. Perhaps the most serious danger is
that they may be attacked and penetrated by wireworms, in
this way being rendered less saleable.
Potatoes may very well follow grass land broken up and
fallowed the previous summer, and this is a very good
preparation for them. Alternatively, the land may be double-
ploughed in winter, the first plough turning in the grass and
weeds, and the second covering them up.
Potatoes on broken-up grass require adequate manuring —
farmyard manure may very well be applied where possible.
The quantity of artificial manure would depend upon whether
farmyard manure had been used and upon the " rankness ”
B 33
Breaking Up Grass Land
of the land. On rank land, rich in nitrogen, the amount of
nitrogenous manure must be strictly limited. On the otiier
hand, on such land the amount of readily available phosphates
and potash may be small, and a good dressing of manures
containing those plant foods may be very desirable. On
average or rather poor land, all three plant foods will usually
be required in average proportions.
Potatoes are likely to succeed even if the land broken up
is slightly acid and lacking in lime. They usually thrive
extremely well on newly broken-up grass for some years
after breaking. They appreciate the sponge-like texture of
the soil, due to the partially-decayed roots of the grass. Sandy
“ grass ” land adjoining or resembling a heath, planted with
potatoes (adequately manured) as a second crop after breaking
up, has often yielded well.
Mangolds and Sugar-heel. Both these crops have given
good results when comparatively rich land has been broken
up from grass. They are well able to utilize the excess of
nitrogen present in all but the very richest of land. In pre-
paring the land, probably the best proceeding is to double-
plough in late autumn, throwing the turf to the bottom of the
furrow. In the spring, the land is worked on the surfact;
(without bringing the grass to the top) and very throughly
consolidated before drilling. The importance of consolidation
cannot be over-estimated.
As a general rule, it will be desirable to apply phosphates
and potash to the crop, also a dressing of nitrogenous manure
depending upon the known fertility of the land. On the
poorer types of land, 2 cwt. of nitrogenous manure might
be applied at the time of sowing. On really rich land, | to
I cwt. per acre — to give the small plants a start- -may be all
that is necessary. The readily-available plant food in the
manure undoubtedly helps the plants to grow away from
soil pests.
There are several records that show that naturally rich
land, though producing very poor quality grass, most un-
palatable to stock, produced most excellent crops of sugar-
beet, both as a first crop after ploughing up, and subsequently.
Cabbages, Kale, and their allies — members of the Brassica
family. Probably few crops are better suited for planting on
redly rich broken-up grass land than are cabbages and their
allies. These can utilize, perhaps better than any other farm
crops, the excessive amount of nitrogen present under such
34
Breaking Up (^kass Land
conditions. Moreover, their tough stems enable them to
resist the attacks of wireworms, leather jackets, and similar
pests that are so frequently troublesome on broken-up grass
land.
These plants, however, are sensitive to soil acidity, and
will not thrive unless there is a sulficient supply of lime in the
soil.
Swedes and Turnips. These have not been very frequently
grown as a first eroj) on broken-up grass. On land broken
up in late spring, there is no reason why they should not be
grown. As a rule, a dressing of superphosphate would help
the plant very much in the early stages of growth.
Rape has been found vt;ry suitable as a nnr.se crop where
the land has been immediately sown down again to grass.
Rape is undoubtedly a very suitable crop to grow, after grass,
where sufficient lime is present, especially where the land is
likel}’ to be too rank for corn. It is also suitable for high
elevations where the climatic conditions are not suited for
corn.
Maize. Although very little intormation on the subject is
available, it seems probable that small areas of rather rich
soil, under grass — possibly over-manured, owing to pro.ximity
to the homestead — might be ver\' suitable for cropping with
maize in the southern parts of England where the crop
succeeds. Double ploughing would probably be desirable.
Mustard. Black mustard, grown for seed, may be a very
suitable crop for growing on the richer types of grass land,
when broken up. White mustard, either for seed, for sheep
folding, or for green manuring, may be quite suitable for
most land except the very' lightest.
Lupins. For sandy heathland, poor in lime, broken-up late
in spring, lupins are a very suitable crop. Blue lupins may
be saved for seed, or folded with sheep (with certain precau-
tions, owing to the poisonous nature of the crop), or ploughed
in as green manure. On land of this type, they are an
excellent preparation for rye.
Black Currants require a considerable amount of nitrogen
in the soil. They have been found to succeed very wt'll on
broken-up grass land of good average qualiW.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTUBY CROP HUSBANDRY IN
EAST ANGLIA (NORFOLK, SUFFOLK, AND ESSEX)
G. E. Fussell,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
The famous Norfolk four-course rotation is the outstanding
achievement of the eighteenth century arable farming. This
course of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat^* became the
standard of good husbandry in Norfolk and East Anglia
generally, although there were many variations from it
in all the cultivated parts of the district. It is doubtful,
however, if the invention of this rotation can be attributed to
the eighteenth century. It was certainly worked out in the
seventeenth, and its first introduction followed the close of
the Civil War.*^ This four-course system is, indeed, still the
basis of arable farming throughout most parts of the country. •'
There is no doubt that its extension to a very widely distributed
area of the country was in a large measure due to the
propagandists of the eighteenth century.
Turnips were cultivated as cattle food in Suffolk before they
were in Norfolk.^ In Suffolk also in the early part of the
century the less fertile arable was manured with chalk,
rubbish, clay, and a then lately discovered “ Cragg ” or
shell marl, and in 1735 it was said to be due to this that many
hundreds of acres had been made to yield larger crops.®
ITiis improvement took place in the first thirty years of the
eighteenth century, because the county was not favourably
regarded by a traveller in 1707, except for grazing, while hc‘
reports that much of Norfolk was fruitful in wheat and sheep,
the latter being folded on the arable.® Carrots, afterwards
so much written about by Young and others, were also
cultivated for feeding cattle in these two counties, as early
as 1739.^
These counties arc freely commented upon by William
Ellis, particularly with regard to the crops grown on the light
soils. The main crop, he says in one place, is barley for
malt or feeding poultry or hogs, and turnips are grown in the
common fields, while white oats may be sown on the light
lands of both these counties and in Kent during April, if the
land has been well dunged. Marling was also done on the
gravels and sands of newly-broken grass. He had seen
* For these references see p. 40.
36
I Ih'sc |>u tines oI the Nortnlk .iiid SuttulK plnuj^lis weie puMisheii in W illi.nn I’e.iRe
(ininul \ I, n <>l Hit li^ihnllnn e/ i yn } to unouia.^e tin lu'ikshin'
htniuR to usi. tli(-^e jiloii!L;iis m ot tlu miu h iK.uiei .in»l l('s^ ellu h nt }>lt)Ui;h
lonimon in tli.it o)uiU\
lojmi 3 <)
18th-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
French wheat (buckwheat) ploughed in for green manure in
Norfolk and thetches, after the head was eaten off, were
also ploughed in, but rye is said to be the saviour of the
Norfolk and Suffolk farmers on their sandy soils. Adapta-
tions of the four-course system to suit varieties of soil are
mentioned. There is, moreover, no doubt in his mind that
more turnips are grown in these counties than elsewhere, and
that hoeing is very important.'' A method of holding the
sand down after sowing hay seed, which sounds curious, was
to lay furze bushes on the land and enclose it by a white thorn
hedge. After a sward was obtained the land was ploughed
for turnips and carrots.® From this date onwards we hear
more and more about the use of carrots as fodder; they were
thought by Young to be a good fallow for barley, while
parsnips and parsley are also reckoned good forage.^®
It is interesting to note that in 1759 the Norfolk farmers
were producing so much grain in excess of their own require-
ments that they jietitioned to be allowed to export the surplus
on the grounds that their farms were mostly arable.”
Young’s Tours afford us a great deal of detailed information
about the cultivation of the districts through which he
travelled, but the detail is so complete that it is not possible
to cite it in extensn here, nor indeed is that necessary. By
the very constitution of his mind he was more inclined to
supply information regarding experiments and innovation
and only to condemn those who carried on in the way of their
fathers; we must, therefore, assess his remarks carefully and
be warned against taking the comparatively isolated marvels
he relates as being indicative of a general state of agriculture.
Even Lord Ernie admits that, in spite of the astonishing rate
of progress made by farming in the eighteenth century,
population before 1760 grew so slowly that the soil, without
any very' great increase in farming skill, or in cultivated area,
produced a surplus, and, again, that it would probably be
tnie to sa}^ that the country as a whole had made no general
advance on the agriculture of the thirteenth century, a
somewhat strong statement.’®
Much emphasis has deservedly been laid upon the work
done by Coke in this district, and this work was the more
creditable because he did not, as is so often stated, settle down
in the midst of a waste, but in a highly cultivated county,
where it was difficult to introduce new crops because the
husbandry was famous.’® Young, moreover, holds the
37
iSth-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
opinion that Townshend introduced the turnip to Norfolk
( ? from Suffolk) , but tliat the idea that he was the first who
marled there is probably erroneous. Marling was, of course,
one of the measures adopted in reclaiming the light lands, and
was often done very heavily, one farmer in Suffolk putting
on as much as eighty loads an acre, each load containing
about thirty-six or forty bushels.*® Oil cake was also impiorted
from Holland, broken up and used for manure, as well as for
feeding purposes, but it is doubtful if this practice was really
widespread.’® Marshall estimates the arable area of Norfolk
at 600,000 acres, divided into 100,000 acres of wheat,
200,000 acres of barley, 100,000 acres of clover, and from
50/100,000 acres of clover seeded annually,’^ and Kent
reports two-thirds of the county under arable cultivation in
1704.'^ Young, who reports on Suffolk, is naturally more
definite about the area of waste than anything else, and
estimates it as 100,000 acres.’”
As Young says, in making a comparison between the farm-
ing of these two counties and Kent, the soil of Suffolk was
good and the farming was more elaborate and productive,
but in Norfolk it was more a work of art. One of the
necessities of fanning, which is a work of art, is to possess
good and efficient implements. Consequently we find constant
praise of the Norfolk and Suffolk ploughs, the former a w'heel-
plough and the latter a swing j^lough of light build (see
illustrations). Even in the early part of the century the
Suffolk plough was used with a single horse, with good
results,”" but the more usual practice was to use two horses
and have one man to drive and guide, thus ensuring economy
of working. Similar light ploughs were used to advantage in
some parts of Essex.”’ The Suffolk swing was improved by
a “ very ingenious " blacksmith named Brand, and it was
built of iron, some time before Young reported on the
county.”” With such light implements it was, of course,
common to plough shallow.””
Young states that the drill roller invented in Norfolk was
gaining ground in Suffolk, but there was some disagreement
about this implement, because Marshall states that drilling
was not done in Norfolk, although there was some drilling of
wheat and peas with a dibbling roller,”* while Young sa}^
that Cooke’s drill was generally- used in Norfolk.”® Trench
ploughing was also practised in these counties, as it also was
on similar soil in some of the northern counties.** It may be
38
18th-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
that, apart from their geographical position, accessible by
sea to Holland and to the great mart of London, the security
of tenure in Norfolk, where leases of 21 years were common,
and the large number of yeomen in Suffolk, have some bearing
upon the development of improved agriculture in these
counties; there was, moreover, the tendency for wheat
cultivation to betake itself to lighter soils, as well as the fine
examples of a few improving landlords.
Essex in the eighteenth century was a county with a great
proportion of small estates like Norfolk and Suffolk it had
a large woollen manufacture. While the marshes of the
Thames Valley and near London were largely employed in
grazing for the supply of London, there was much arable
land in the county, and the characteristic improvements were
hollow draining, and manuring with chalk brought from the
pits on the Kentish coast.^“ Other manures were a mixture
of horse dung and lime for barley, which was also used in
Hertfordshire for the same crop,®® while oil cake w'as used
not only here, but in the reputably badly cultivated county
of Cambridge, at the rate of 6,000 per acre.®* In spite of the
inclosed character of the county, however, Bradley states that
in his day (1727) the three-field system, i.e., wheat, barley,
or oats, fallow was prevalent both here and in the neighbour-
ing county of Hertford, the wheat alone being looked to for
profit, the summer grain, or etch crop, being disregarded in
this respect,®* and there was no very great change by 1768,
although by then some of the large farms were cultivated in
a manner comparable to Norfolk.®®
There were, in addition to the ordinary crops of the arable
land, special crops characteristic of Essex. Amongst these
may be noticed teasels, grown for use in the cloth manufacture,
hops and saffron,®* after the last of which most contemporary
topographers copying Camden (1610), state that barley could
be grown for eighteen years without manure. Lucerne was
also a crop that was early tried in this county as in Cambridge
and a few other districts.®® In Essex potatoes flourished at
the end of the century, near Ilford, probably to a greater
extent than in any southern county,®® and when Young made
his report the drill husbandry had become occasional.®'*
Various different wheats were cultivated in the eighteenth
century, but the writers tell us little of the distribution of the
different sorts. In Essex it appears that “ Eggshell ” was
grown on the lighter soil, and a double-eared or the Red
39
18th-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
Kentish or Poland wheat on the heavier, the latter also being
used in Hertford. The statements made arc not, however,
uniform.*® In Essex they dunged for oats, in order to make
the land fit for wheat after, but in Hertford this was not done.®®
Buckwheat was also sometimes ploughed in for green manure
as it was in Norfolk and Suffolk; apparently this was also
done in Surrey and some other counties.^" Apart from the
ploughs that were similar to those of Norfolk and Suffolk,
there were heavy draining ploughs and a type of mole plough
in use by the end of the century, and some threshing machines
had been established. The waggons were still as massive as
they were in 1750, and when they called forth maledictions
from Young in 1770, although one enterprising farmer had
imported light carts from Edinburgh. By 1761 some attempt
had been made to modify the mouldboard of the plough, for
Mordant tells us it “ is commonly made with an iron shield
board bulging which turns the turf or earth better than any
other sort of plough.”
^ Charles Varlo : New System of Husbandry, 1770, p. 123 II.
H. Home : The Gentleman Farmer, 1776, p. 132.
T. Stone : An Essay on Agriculture , 1785. P- 25 ff.
^ G. C. Broderick: English Land and English Landlords, t88i, pp. ^6
and 47.
See also Museum Rusticum, TV {1764), p. 40 ff.
® J. G. Stewart : Pasture Making in the South East, Jn\ir. B.A.S.R., X('
(1929), p. 81.
* Defoe : Tour, 1724, I, p. 87.
Gentleman of the Inner Temple : A Description of the Diocese of
Norwich, 1735, p. 9.
E. Bowen: A Complete System of Geography, 1747.
® John Kirby : The Suffolk Traveller (who surveyed the county, 17^2- 34),
p. I.
See also Gentleman of the Inner Temple : op, cit.
Museum Rusticum, ijGC), II, p. 132.
* James Beeverell : Les Delices de la Grande Bretagne, 1 707, T, pp. 86, 98.
’ Samuel Trowell : New Treatise of Husbandry, p. 21.
Sec also Robert Billing of Weasenham, Norfolk: An Account of the
Culture of Carrots, 1765.
John Mills : A Treatise on Cattle, 1776, p. 304 ff.
® The Modern Husbandman, 1750, I, p. 25 ; IT, pp. 9, 29 ; TIT, p]). (>6,
67 ; V, p. 93 ; Sept., pp. 33, 63 ; IV, pp. 30-31.
* T. Hale : Compleat Body of Husbandry, 1756, p. 98.
John Mills : A New System of Practical Husbandry, 1767, III, pp. 165,
173, 18 1. (This book is, however, largely copied.)
Young : The Farmer* s Letters to the People of England, 1767, p. 119 ff.
T. Camborne : An Enquiry into the Prices of Wheat, Malt . . . ,
1768, p. 94.
English Farming, Past and Present, 1927, pp. 148, 195,
Annals of Agriculture, II (1784), pp. 353, 364.
iUd., V (1786), p. 121.
40
18th-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
“ aLVSiw sLys concernws Present State of (lie British
Empire, 1772, p. 118. ^ o .r
(A. Young) : Considerations on Agrtcitliure , 1780, !>.
T. Stone : An Essay on Agriculture, 5 > P- ^
Marshall : Rural Economy of Norfolk, 1787, 1, p. 2.
Matthew Peters : Winter Riches, 1771, p. 97-
Marshall : ibid., 1, pp.
ibid., I, p. 197-
County Report, p. 5.
County Report, p. i9*
2® Gentleman of the Inner Temple : op. cit., p 3-
21 Matthew Peters : Rational Farmer, 2nd edition, 1771, p 93-
Nathaniel Kent : Hints to Gentlemen of Landed Property, 1775, p. 92.
A Clergyman: Useful and Practical Observations on Agncidtnre, 1783,
O, ^2.
Mt^shall : Rural Economy of Norfolk, 1787. I, p. 139.
22 A. Young: Suffolk, 1797. P- . r rr v 7
22 Cuthbert Clarke : 'Frue Theory and Practice of Husbandry, 1777, p. 50.
2* Young : ibid.
Marshall: ibid., p. 1^7.
Sec also T. Hale : op. at , p. 399-
Sec ab!()'^TCs!’stoi^e ■ op. cit . p. 142. for a modern (gimoj^ J . IL
iMarshall : Jethro Tull and the Act.' Husbandry, Pxon. Hist. Re\ , II
(1929). P- 5‘>- . „
2® Chas. Varlo : op. at,, p. ^7
On)hFsfze Hunter's Geographical F.s,says, IV (1803), p. 570.
H. of Agricultural Economics,
H Hecline of Landowning Farmers in England, 1904, p. 37.
Sec also Chas. Vancouver : County Report, 1795. P- *'>7-
A. Young : ibid.. 1807, pp. 5».
2* Ernie : 4th edition, p. 192-
Sec also Defoe : Tour. 1724. C P- ”•
Celia Fiennes ; Dinrv (1888), p. 116.
lohn Mortimer : Whole Art of Husbandly. 1 707. P-
Fdward Lisle : Observations in Husbandry, and edition, 1757, p. <>4 ff-
R. Bradley ; Complete Body of Husbandry, 1727, p. 57 «.
T. Hale : op. cit., p. 62.
\V. Ellis: Modern Husbandry, 1750, .Ma>, p. «,•
A. Young: Political Essays, 1772, p. 128.
Nathaniel Kent : op. cii., p. 78-
»" Stephen Switzer : Inconographui Rustica, T;1», p. i/i.
»> R. Bradley : op. cit., p. 89.
” S^‘ A^ GentknS: A New and Complete History of Esse r. 1770, I,
’• A.^oung : Six Weeks Tour, 1768, pp. 59 ~ 70 . 200 ft.
Eastern Tour, 1771. PP- 202-224.
See also Griggs : County Report, 1794. PP-
1807, I, p. 201.
6th edition, March, p. 51-
10, 16, and Young : ibid..
41
18th-Century Crop Husbandry in East Anglia
Griggs : County Repovt, 179^, p. 14.
Young : ibid,, 1807, T, pp. 382, 300, and Political E$$avs, 1772, p. 148.
ihid,, JT, p. 73.
John Laurcncf^ : A New System of Aericultufe, ]726. p. 92.
John Mills : op. cit., p. 71 if.
W. Ellis : Modern Husbandry , 1750, Feb., p. 80 fl.
John Mordant : The Complete Steward, 1761, p. 25.
ibid., pp. 275, 276.
Kahilis Account of his Visit to England, 1748, Tr. losepli Lucas, 1892,
p. T 2 .
A. Young : T's^ex, 1807, \, j^p. 128, 154, u>i.
42
CUTWORMS AS SUGAR-BEET PESTS, AND THEIR
CONTROL
F. R. Petherbridge, M.A.,
and
J. H. Stapley, B.Sc., A.R.C.S.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge.
Cutworms* or Surface Caterpillars are the caterpillars of
several different species of Noctuid moths. They often cause
serious injury to a number of crops, e.g., sugar-beet,
mangolds, turnips, swedes, potatoes, carrots, and Brassicas.
The caterpillars of the Turnip Moth [Euxoa segetum,
Schiff.) and the Heart-and-Dart Moth (E. exclamationis, L.)
are in this country the species that commonly cause damage
to sugar-beet. Occasionally, in some districts, the most
serious damage is caused by the caterpillars of another species,
the Garden Dart Moth {E. nigricans, L.). The caterpillars
of these three species are very similar. In colour they are a
dirty grey, tinged with various shades of brown and sometimes
green.
Observations on “ Euxoa segetum.” In several sugar-
beet fields in 1935 this species was found to comprise prac-
tically the whole of the cutworm population. Damage and
newly-hatched larvae were first found on June 20, and as
daily examinations had previously been made, this date is
very near that on which the first egg hatched. Within a
week very small larvae, not exceeding | in. in length, were
found in several different localities. Subsequently they
proved to be exceptionally widespread and were often present
in very large numbers. Examination of lifted beet at various
factories showed that cutworm injuiy was extremely common
on beet grown in various types of soil. The caterpillars were
much more numerous in July when they were young than
later in the year. In some fields the later stages were
* These are often wrongly called Leather Jackets by the fanner. A
Leather Jacket is the grub kage of a Crane Fly or Paddy-longlegs, and,
unlike the cutworm, has no legs.
43
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
common everywhere, whereas in others they occurred in
definite patches.
The newly-hatched cutworms ate small round holes in the
beet just below soil level. Larger holes and, later on, large
cavities were made as the cutworms increased in size. The
damage caused to larger beet was seldom of a serious nature,
amounting only to a slight loss in weight. Late sown beet,
not so far advanced at the time of attack, suffered more than
beet sown early. Two fields in particular were badly attacked ;
the worst field had been drilled on May 13, and at the end of
July the beet were still quite small. Cutworms were eating
the roots at ground level, and killed many of the plants
(Fig. 4). Often as many as six cutworms could be found at
one beet. In September large and small bare patches could
be seen in the field (Fig. 5) and the crop as a whole was very
poor. The adjoining field, which probably contained as
many cutworms, was drilled on April 15 ; here the beet were
much bigger and although badly attacked were not killed.
Crops that were badly attacked soon after the first
appearance of the cutworms, often grew rapidly and suffered
little loss of plant. Fresh damage could still be found on
attacked fields at lifting time. Fields of carrots and young
brassicas were completely ruined by attacks of this cutworm.
In 1936 no damage to sugar-beet by newly-hatched cutworms
of E. segetum was found in the field, nor later in the season,
although moths were abundant in some districts. Large
numbers of moths were collected at night in a field near
Ramsey (Hunts.) on June 30 and July 3, when the following
species were found : —
Elixoa exclamationis . .
,, segetum.,
Agrotis pronuha
Other moths . .
. . 50 per cent.
..30
•• 5
..15 »» ..
It is of interest that we had not previously found cutworms
of these species in sugar-beet fields in this neighbourhood.
Only slight cutworm damage was found by examining large
quantities of beet at the factories.
Observations on " Euxoa nigricans.” Cutworms of this
species, which has not previously been regarded as a serious
beet pest, caused severe damage to beet seedlings in the Fens,
especially in the Ramsey (Hunts) district, in 1936. Similar
44
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
damage had been recorded from this district in 1930 and 1935,
and it is probable that the same species was responsible.
On May 14, 1936, Mr. O. S. Rose, of the Peterborough
Beet-Sugar Factory, called our attention to the severe damage
that cutworms were causing to sugar-beet near Ramsey. The
infestation was then at its height, but the cutworms had
probably been active for at least ten days. Sugar-beet seedlings
were eaten off at ground level and by scraping away the soil
the stumps were easily found. Larger plants were also
attacked at ground level and cavities eaten into the side of
the crown, several leaves often being cut through. Leaves
cut off in this way and lying on the soil near the plants usually
indicate the presence of cutworms.
A survey of 63 fields of sugar-beet in the Ramsey, Warboys,
Chatteris area showed that 32 of these were badly attacked
and for the most part would require re-drilling in order to
obtain a satisfactory stand. A large percentage of the attacks
occurred in fields that had grown potatoes in 1935. This crop
commonly precedes sugar-beet in this district. Bad attacks
were also seen where sugar-beet followed carrots or celery.
Although cutworms were found in every beet field inspected
in the Ramsey district, very little damage occurred where the
beet followed corn, but in one field at Willingham, Cambs,
where beet followed wheat, considerable damage was seen.
By the middle of June the cutworms had disappeared. In
the laboratory pupation commenced on June 13. Great
difficulty was experienced in finding pupae in the field, but
a few were eventually found.
About TOO caterpillars were brought back from this district
and put into pots. From these pots 67 moths emerged from
July 16 to the end of August. These all proved to be E.
nigricans. Cutworms damaging young beet in other parts
of the Eastern Counties proved to be E. nigricans, with one
exception — two specimens of Euxoa tritici, L., being bred
from cutworms obtained near Thetford. E. nigricans is said
to occur most commonly in the Eastern Counties.
The above observations show that the damage to sugar-beet
occurs in two distinct periods in the growing season; (i) to
seedlings and young beet in May and June, by E. nigricans;
(2) to older beet from the end of July up to lifting time, by
E. segetum.
Damage during the early period has been found almost
exclusively in the Ramsey district of the Fens and here it is
45
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
caused by caterpillars of the species E. nigricans. We have
no record of damage caused by these caterpillars later in the
season.
Damage during the later period is caused by the caterpillars
of E. segetum and possibly of E. exclamationis (although the
writers have never bred E. exclamationis from caterpillars
collected in sugar-beet fields) hatching from eggs during the
growing season. We have no evidence of injury to seedlings
by overwintered caterpillars of these species.
Control Measures Against Euxoa segetum.” Experi-
ments were carried out at Snailwell, near Newmarket, to test
the value of a poisoned bait in the control of E. segetum.
In this field cutworm damage was first noticed on June 29,
and the small cutworms were found on June 30. On July 2,
in addition to a large number of newly-hatched larvae, a few
eggs were found in the soil, close to the young beet plants.
On July 4, two plots each ^ acre in area were baited with a
mixture consisting of Paris Green ^d of a lb. and bran 10 lb.
The Paris Green and bran were thoroughly mixed and then
evenly moistened just sufficiently to enable the Paris Green
to adhere to the particles of bran, but not to cause the mixture
to become lumpy. On one plot the bait was broadcast by
hand, rather more than 10 lb. being used on the J acre. On
the other J-acre plot 10 lb. was more carefully distributed
along the rows. On examining the plants on July 15 the
following figures were obtained : —
Cutworms,
per 40 plants
Not baited . . . . . . . . 08
Bait broadcast . . . . . . . . 24
Bait carefully applied . . . . 14
At a later examination (on July 22) the results were as
follows : —
Cutworms,
per 40 plants
Not baited . . . . . . . . 21
Bait broadca.st. . . . . . . . 5
Bait carefully applied . . . . o
At a still later examination (on September 23) the cutworms
were full-grown and on the unbaited part of the field there was
now about one cutworm to every three beet plants and fresh
damage to the beets was observed. After a careful search
no cutworms could be found in either of the baited plots, and
there was no sign of fresh damage.
46
.j ( lo])) Injwr\ by tatcrpillars ol IC sc^ctuui
Pliotcigraph takon July 30
l ie 5 (llotlumj Bare patches in a held of late-sown beet,
due to loss of plants by K. segetum injury.
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
From this experiment it would appear that the caterpillars
of E. segetum arc readily controlled by means of a Paris
Green bait at the rate of 40 lb. per acre early in July.
Control Measures Against “ Euxoa nigricans.” Experi-
ments were carried out near Ramsey to test the effect of
poison baits on the caterpillars of E. nigricans. These
cutworms had eaten off nearly all the young beet plants in
a field of 14 acres before the middle of May. On May 16 the
grower prepared a Paris Green bait as described above.
Immediately after the land had been prepared for a second
drilling and the beet seed drilled, this bait was broadcast.
Three days after baiting dead cutworms were found and a
count of dead and living specimens at intervals yielded the
following results on that part of the field w'hich was baited at
the rate of 40-50 lb. per acre.
So, of days Caterpillars. Caterpillars
after hatting alive dead
3 33
11 21 2.}
18 h 22
The final result shows that approximately 80 per cent, of
the caterpillars had been killed.
On this part of the field the second drilling of beet at the
rate of 17 lb. per acre produced a satisfactory plant. Owing
to the limited supply of bait, part of the field received only
20-25 lb. of bait per acre. On this, the beet were subjected
to a moderate attack of cutworms and large gaps were made
in the rows. An adjoining field, in which the cutworms had
ruined the first sowing, was re-drilled about the same time as
the above field. This was not baited and here the plant from
the second drilling was completely ruined by cutwonns.
Further evidence of the usefulness of the Paris Green and
Bran bait was provided by another field which was baited
on May 18 after re-drilling. Here the following counts were
made on May 27 ; —
S^o. of days Caterpillars Caterpillar'^ l^ercentage
after bailing alive dead killed
g 6 ig 76
The living cutworms from these baited fields were brought
back and after ten days in the laboratory (i.e. , about three
weeks after baiting) 16 out of 35, or about 45 per cent. died.
47
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
On June 4, when many of the caterpillars were almost
full-grown, the following bait mixtures were tried on small
plots: —
A. Paris Green . .
I lb.
JMolassed pulp (dry)
20 lb.
B. Sodium Fluoride
I lb.
Molassed pulp (dr^^)
20 lb.
C. Sodium Fluoride
2 lb.
Bran . .
20 lb.
Treacle
1 lb.
The baits were all wetted before
use.
The following results were obtained : —
No, of days Caierptllays
Caierpillays
Percentage
Bait
after baiting ahve
dead
hilled
A
5 5
21
8j
B
5
1 1
48
C
5
9
82
Fate of living caterpillars (kqH in laboratory) from the above counts
A
1.4 2
3
60
B
14 4
8
66-6
C
14 T
I
50*0
From these experiments it appears that Paris Green makes
a satisfactory bait whether used with bran or molassed pulp,
but that sodium fluoride needs to be used at a higher con-
centration than Paris Green to give comparable results. Bran
is probably a better medium for carrying a poison than
molassed pulp, owing to its much greater bulk.
Handpicking. Some of the small-holders saved their beet
by means of handpicking. This is not difficult as the cutworms
are present just below the surface of the ground and easily
found. On large areas this would be rather a slow method,
but could be used to supplement baiting.
Conclusions. The trials indicate that the cutworms of E.
nigricans can be reduced by means of poison baits and
even when there is a severe infestation the second sowing of
beet can be saved by timely baiting. No experiments were
carried out on the first drillings as our attention was not
called to this trouble until the crop was severely damaged.
It is probable that the first drillings could be saved by baiting
early enough.
It would appear that beet in the fen district between Ramsey,
Peterborough and Chatteris is particularly subject to attacks
from this caterpillar. Action should be taken by growers to
prevent serious damage to the first drillings with its con-
48
Cutworms as Sugar-Beet Pests
sequent loss of crop. In cutworm-infested areas it is important
that growers should look for the caterpillars in the very early
stages of growth of the beet, in order that baiting can be
carried out before serious damage occurs.
Summary. The above observations show that the cut-
worms of fte Turnip Moth {E. segetum) feed on sugar-beet
plants from the end of June until lifting time, and are
capable of causing severe injury to late-sown crops. No
damage has been seen from overwintered cutworms of this
species in April and May.
The caterpillars of the Garden Dart Moth (£. nigricans ) —
hitherto unrecorded as a beet pest — caused severe damage to
young beet seedlings in the fens in 1935 and 1936. This
damage was caused in May and June. Carrots, celery, and
brassicas also suffered severely from the ravages of this pest.
Experiments show that both species of cutworm are readily
controlled by poison baits.
The authors are very much indebted for the facilities
afforded by those growers on whose farms the above experi-
ments were carried out, and to Dr. I. Thomas and Mr. 0 . S.
Rose for their interest and help.
49
THE BLOWFLY IN AUSTRALIA: SOME METMODS
OF PREVENTION
George Berrie
In Australia, the blowfly pest runs the rabbit closely for
first place, if indeed it cannot claim precedence, for the rabbit
can be exterminated — at a price. In spite of careful scientific
investigation extending over many years, no method of striking
at the root of the trouble has yet been discovered. There
are blowfly " experimental farms *’ in several leading sheep
districts, and considerable data have t)een accumulated as
to the fly’s habits. An insect known as the “ Chalcid wasp,”
which preyed on the pupae of the fly, was imported, but it was
ineffectual.
The sheepowner is, therefore, compelled to rely mainly on
certain methods of prevention. Unfortunately, conditions in
Australia make it impossible to destroy the fly’s breeding-
ground in the shape of rotting carcasses in the conscientious
way that obtains in Britain. The size of sheep stations, and
the large losses of stock that occur during every drought,
make it a very difficult problem. It may often happen that
a carcass will be discovered miles from the timber necessary
to burn it, or that if timber is available it would be madness
to run the risk of starting a bush-fire. To bury carcasses in
the brick-hard ground in summer time would be impossible.
The radius of the fly has been established as being anything
up to ten miles, so that even in the more closely settled
districts, carcass destruction would need to be universal and
compulsory to be effective.
The writer first remembers seeing instances of fly-blown sheep
thirty odd years ago. Before 1902 — the concluding year of
one of the country’s most calamitous droughts — no sheep, no
matter how dirty or daggy, became maggot-infested, and
lambs were tailed by the million and let go without being
dressed. No satisfactory theory as to why the fly suddenly
decided to attack sheep has yet been propounded. One
favourite argument is that wholesale rabbit poisoning provided
the fly with a more extensive breeding ground and at the same
time took a heavy toll of bird life that might have kept it in
check. The theory is untenable for two reasons. One is that
SO
Blowfly in Australia
every periodic drought provided more than sufficient in the
way of breeding ground, and that the fly was just as countless
long before it selected wool as a depository for its eggs.
Another is that at the present day there are places in
Queensland, hundreds of miles from where a rabbit has ever
been seen, let alone poisoned, and the ravages of the fly are
as serious there as anywhere. It is much more likely that
the development of the merino sheep and a certain constitu-
tional alteration is at the bottom of the trouble.
Crutching. Of the two main methods of prevention.
Clutching and jetting, the former is the more popular. There
are, of course, seasons when the fly will strike anywhere and
everywhere and nothing short of complete shearing will really
relieve matters, and then only for a time. Ordinarily,
however, crutching, if properly done before the fly begins its
attack, and twice with hoggets and maiden ewes, will carry
a flock from shearing to shearing with a minimum of trouble.
Machine shears are, of course, an essential; the closest work
with blades is of little use. The wool is closely shorn from
below the udder and the inside of the legs round the thighs to
just above the butt of the tail. If shearing has taken place in
the spring — it varies widely according to climatic conditions —
several months’ immunity may be looked for in ordinary
seasons. By midsummer the wool has grown sufficiently to
have become dirt-stained and to provide the fly with a strik-
ing ground. The experienced manager docs not wait until
the fly begins to work; he puts his whole flock through the
shearing shed and insists on the w'ork being thoroughly done.
The cost is about ys. Od. })er loo, and a competent crutcher
will do from 300 to 400 in an eight-hour day. As w'ith the
ordinary shearing, much of the work is done by contractors,
particularly on larger sheep stations. They bring complete
teams of men, and the crutched wool, if of sufficient length, is
sorted and pressed as shorn. On smaller farms, the owner
often does his own crutching, either with his permanent
employees or the help of his immediate neighbours.
If lambing does not take place until some months after
crutching, the ewes may be done again — as close to lambing
as may be considered safe. If seasonal conditions are
favourable they are left severely alone during the lambing
period, and the necessity for making them fly-proot will be at
once apparent. In addition, the absence of wool for several
51
THE GREY BULB ROT OF TULIPS AND ITS CONTROL
Walter Buddin, M.A.,
University of Reading.
Even though they may not be aware of the cause, most
growers of tulips are probably familiar with the effects of the
Grey Bulb Rot disease, which takes its toll of the plants
whether they are grown in outdoor beds or forced in boxes
under glass. The total failure of badly-attacked bulbs to
produce shoots leads to gaps in the beds or boxes, whilst in
milder cases the growths that do appear are either quite
crippled at an early stage or consist merely of badly torn,
ragged foliage with no flowers (Fig. i). It is significant that,
although the greater part of the bulb itself becomes badly
rotted, its root system is usually well developed and sound.
If the abortive bulbs or the diseased growths are examined
carefully, there will already be found on many of them the
resting bodies, or scleroiia, of a fungus {Sclerotium Tuliparum
Klebahn), and this is the cause of the disease. These sclerotia
consist of compacted masses of mycelium or spawn, and are
white at first, but turn brown later. When dry they are
almost black. They are rounded or roughly spherical in
shape, and range from i to J in. in diameter. Fig. i shows
these sclerotia developing on an attacked tulip bulb. The
food-absorbing mycelium of the fungus is, of course, within
the bulb and causing its rapid decay. The sclerotia, built
up from this food, enable the fungus to persist through adverse
periods and they also secure its dispersal. They reach and
accumulate in the soil in which the bulbs are planted, and
may, of course, be transported with such soil.
So far as is known at present the fungus does not produce
spores, and no epidemic spread of the disease by means of
spores occurs. Indeed, numbers of perfectly good flowers are
frequently cut for market from the unattacked individuals in
boxes in which a proportion of the bulbs have failed completely
owing to Grey Bulb Rot. In this respect, Grey Bulb Rot
differs markedly from tulip “ Fire ” (due to Botrytis Tulipae
(Lib.) Lind), a disease that often leads to almost complete
loss through disfigurement of the flowers consequent on
rapidly developing infection from air-borne spores in a warm
humid atmosphere.
54
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips
Darwin tulips are particularly susceptible to attack by Grey
Bulb Rot and the disease is not confined to tulips, for it also
occurs in Irises (particularly Imperator and Wedgwood),
Scillas, Crocuses, Ixias, Fritillaries, Hyacinths, Colchicums,
and Narcissi, though usually in less severe form.
It was shown many years ago that the sclerotia can retain
their vitality for several years, so that soil containing them
remains “ infective ” for a long period. After a period of
rest, and when tulips or certain other susceptible hosts are
planted in soil containing them, fresh, vigorous spawn or
mycelium develops from the sclerotia, and this, on reaching
the bulbs, enters them at or near the nose or attacks any
young growth that may already be proceeding from them
just at soil level, I'hus, the disease usually starts early and
the tulip is so vigorously and rapidly attacked that no new
bulb can be formed. Rarely, however, attack may start
later, on a plant much further developed or even nearly ripe,
and then its effects may be comparatively slight; a new bulb
may have been produced already, and it may be harvested.
Some of the mycelium or even one or two small sclerotia may
be attached to the nose of such a bulb ; and if it is not discarded
during cleaning and sorting operations, the bulb will cany
the parasite with it to garden or forcing-box in the following
season. On planting, attack will start again and the bulb will
be destroyed. This kind of thing, if it ever occurs, must do
so with extreme rarity, and, speaking broadly. Grey Bulb
Rot is not a disease that is transmitted with the bulb. Where
a substantial attack occurs it can be concluded at once that
it arose from contaminated soil and was not introduced with
the bulbs.
It has been known for at least a decade that total elimination
of the disease can be achieved by steam sterilization of the
soil, experimental results having been published by Whetzel
and Arthur* in the United States. These workers used the
*' pan ” method, outdoor beds being treated for one hour.
In Holland, too, this method has been employed by Van
Slogteren. f Experiments made by the present writer have also
shown the excellent effect of routine soil " steaming.” Some
of the results will be found in the figures given in Table i, and
they are also illustrated in Fig. 2.
* Whetzel, H. H., and J. M. Arthur : Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta„ Memoir
No. 89, 1925,
t Van Slogteren, E. : Floralia, XLVI, 547, 1925,
55
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips
Disinfection of contaminated soil with various chemicals has
also been tried by previous experimenters, and the most
successful results have been obtained with formalin. Whetzel
and Arthur describe plot trials with various strengths of
solution, and state that the “ results indicate clearly that the
bulb rot pathogene may be largely eradicated and a good
stand obtained by soil disinfection with formalin.” The
quantity recommended is i to lb. of the commercial liquid
added to an amount of water sufficient to penetrate the loosely
dug soil to a depth of 6 to 8 in., per 5 to 6 square feet.
The writer has had considerable experience with the experi-
mental forcing of tulips, and has repeatedly obtained almost
perfect control of another tulip disease. Shanking, J by
copiously treating the contaminated soil when in a compara-
tively dry condition, several weeks before planting, with a
2 per cent, solution of commercial (38 per cent.) formalin, the
soil being kept covered for a few days after treatment. With
Grey Bulb Rot, however, similar treatment has proved quite
ineffective. Results of some of the trials are included in
Table 1 while the point is also brought out in Fig. 3, right-
hand box.
Clearly, the sclerotia of the Grey Bulb Rot fungus are much
more resistant to the action of formalin than the two fungi
responsible for Shanking. Quite probably the soil used in the
boxes illustrated was more heavily contaminated with
sclerotia than the soil of the outdoor beds treated by Whetzel
and Arthur, but even these workers claimed only a better
" stand ” of plants in the treated soil, and that the fungus
was " largely eradicated ” — not completely eliminated.
More satisfactory results were obtained by thoroughly
incorporating a fungicidal powder, not containing mercury
but in which the effective constituent is believed to be a
chloronitrobenzol preparation, with contaminated soil at the
rate of 12 oz. per cubic yard, several weeks before planting.
A second dose of the powder, at the same rate, was applied
to the top soil in the boxes when the bulbs were " boxed.”
The results of the experiment are included in Table i.
Before describing a simple way of escape from the worst
effects of this disease, it should be stated emphatically that
the ideal is undoubtedly a vigorous attack on the causative
t See Gard. Chron., 87, March, 1930, 171. Experiments at Reading
have shown that Shanking is caused by Phytophthora cryptogea and by
P. erythroseptica, both of which are soil-infesting fungi,
56
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips
agent as soon as it is first noticed, with the object of effecting
its complete elimination from the garden or nursery. Good
general sanitation, or plant hygiene, is inseparable from good
gardening. In outdoor plantings particularly, as soon as a
plant is seen to be attacked by Grey Bulb Rot, it should be
carefully dug up, together with any visible fungus growth,
including sclerotia, that may be present. A reasonable amount
of the surrounding soil should also be removed, and the whole
should be burned, or buried deeply. At the same time, or
even earlier, " misses " should be investigated, and the
rotting bulbs dealt with similarly. Apart from any soil treat-
ment an adequate rotation of cropping must be followed on
any soil in which the disease has occurred, each and every one
of the susceptible hosts being kept off for a period of four or
five years, and special attention being given to “ rogues " or
“ ground keepers.” For forced bulbs, fresh clean soil, clean
boxes, and uncontaminated ashes must be used.
While infested soil continues to remain in the garden or
nursery, serious and unexpected losses arc apt to occur, but
growers who find soil sterilization impossible, or who cannot
obtain clean soil, may find it worth while to resort to a
modified system of planting, devised by the writer, and now
to be described, that will almost certainly enable them to
obtain a fair crop of forced tulips, even in contaminated soil.
It has already been pointed out that tulips attacked by
Grey Bulb Rot show good root development. It has also
been noticed during experimental work extending over some
years, and in the coui'se of examination of numerous out-
breaks of this disease in commercial nurseries and private
gardens, that it is chiefly tlie very young shoots pushing
through the soil that first become badly attacked by the
fungus. Plants that escape attack during this stage and look
reasonably healthy a week or so after the boxes have been
taken indoors, usually produce flowers of good quality, even
when their immediate neighbours may fail entirely. These
observations suggested that heavy losses might be avoided
even in badly-contaminated soil, by planting in such a way
that one-half to two-thirds of each bulb is exposed above the
soil level. Experiments carried out along these lines have
fully justified this supposition.
Other conditions being ideal, it seems that the very best
results in forcing tulips are obtained by plunging the boxes
into a bed of well-washed ashes, as soon as the bulbs have
.57"
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips
been planted. In this way the soil, bulbs and roots are kept
cool and moist during the autumn months while the root
system is developing. In commercial nurseries this method
is often impracticable, and it is usual for the forcer of large
numbers of bulbs to cover his planted boxes outdoors. with a
layer of straw. In the best practice the bulbs for forcing are
inserted so that their “ noses ” are either only barely visible
or are just covered with soil. A good depth of soil for the
roots is, of course, necessary, and with the shallow boxes
commonly used, equally good results are obtained (even in
the absence of disease) by shallow planting, provided water-
ing is well done. It was therefore but a small step forward
to proceed with the idea of inserting the tuUp bulbs with their
noses projecting clear above soil level, and covering the boxes
during the preliminary rooting period with good, long straw.
The experimental results (obtained in a wet autumn) showed
that not only could a good crop of flowers be obtained by
this method, but also that it has considerable advantages
when the soil employed is badly infested with the sclerotia
of the fungus responsible for Grey Bulb Rot.
'J'ABLJi I
Shomtig the Number of Healthy Plants arising from William Coplaml
Tulip Bulbs planted in Infected Soil in each Box after the Treatments
indicated
Treatment
Soil A
Soil B Soil A ~\-B
Soil untreated
0
0
Duplicate ; soil untreated
1
—
Soil steamed
25
25
Soil treated with formalin
0
I
Soil treated with powder
Soil untreated ; bulbs shallow-planted,
covered with lonpf straw during
21 ' -
rooting . .
'll
24 22
It will be seen from Table i
that nearly 90 per cent, of
the plants were thus enabled to “
escape
” the fungus in each
of three badly contaminated samples of soil. Comparable
plants growing in the same infested soil untreated were almost
a total failure and are shown on the right in Fig. 2. Fig. 3
shows clearly the difference in development in the same con-
taminated soil of Copland tulips planted witii projecting noses
and covered with straw and those planted and “ plunged ”
in the ordinary manner, even in soil that had been treated
with formalin.
Unfortunately, considerable fluctuations of temperature
were unavoidable in the only glass house available for the
58
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips
experiments, and thus many of the flowers failed to develop
normally. However, the numbers of normal healthy plants
obtained afford an adequate basis for comparison of the
various treatments.
Since the above account was written the results of a further
series of experiments, made during the past forcing season,
have become available. The soil was obtained from a
commercial nursery. In the spring of 1936 a crop of Iris
grew in it and was slightly infected with Grey Bulb Rot. The
soil was well mixed, placed in boxes and subjected to the
treatments shown in Table 2, twenty-five William Copland
tulips being planted in <'ach box and flowering taking place
early in January, 1937.
1 AHJ.K 1
Showing the Nmnher oj Marketable Floa'crs ptoduced from 25 William
Copland Tulip Bulbs planted in Infected Soil in each Box after the
Treafwent<; indicated
Marketable
1 u atment
I'loit 'CIS
Soil untreated
1
Soil steamed
24
Soil treated with lormalin
0
'i'op soil treated with powder
23
Soil untreated, bulbs shallow -planted,
co\'ert‘d
with long straw during rooting, .
2 2
The best growth was in the contaminated soil that had been
steam sterilized, but the bulbs planted with projecting necks
“ escaped ” from attack and flowered very well. Soil treat-
ment with formalin was again unsatisfactory. The non-
mercurial fungicidal powder, when mixed with the top soil
only at the time of boxing at the rate of 14 oz. per cubic
yard of soil, gave a good stand of plants, of which 90 per
cent, flowered successfully. The results of this second series
of experiments therefore confirm those of the previous
season.
59
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates oi
producer-retailers’ contributions for February, I 937 » ^.re
given below, with comparative figures for January, 1937 '
and February, 1936. The monthly wholesale liquid milk
l)rice was is. per gal. in each period.
Pool Prices Producer-Retailers'
Contributions
Region
Feb.
Jan,
Feb,
Feb,
Jan.
Feb.
X 937
1037
1936
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern
14
14
i 3 i
2i
3 *
North-Western . .
14
M
Mi
H
3 ft
Eastern . .
Mi
Mi
i 3 i
2*
2*
3 i
East Midland . .
Mi
Mi
mJ
21^
2*
3 i
West Midland . .
Mi
Ml
Mi
2il
2li
3 *
North Wales ;
Mi
Mi
Mi
2 il
2«
3 ift
South Wales
M
M
Mi
2f
2f
3 i'if
Southern . .
Mi
Mi
Mi
2i
2*
2 tt
Mid-Western
Ml
M
i 3 i
2«'
2*
3 *
Far- Western
mI
Mi
M
2ii
2«
3 *i
South-Eastern . .
Mi
Mi
M
2 A
2i
2|
Unweighted Average . .
14*07
M *05
M *30
2-57
2-59
3*21
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited
Producers’ premium of id. per gal.
The number of producers who qualified for the accredited
premium was 19,170 and the sum required for the payment
of the premium was equivalent to a levy of -352^. per gal.
on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at i\d.
per gal., compared with 2d. per gal. in February, 1936. A
levy of \d. per gal. was made for general expenses.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
Feb., 1037
(estimated)
Feb., 1936
Gal.
Gal.
Liquid
. 45,024,857
44.547.968
Manufacturing
14,976,520
20,511,219
60,001,377
65,059, T87
Percentage liquid sales
•75-04
68-47
Percentage manufacturing sales
24-96
31 -.53
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
February was 6-26d. per gal., compared with 5-88^. per gal.
for February, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into
60
Marketing Notes
cheese on fanns was 342,674 gal. compared with 351,617 gal.
in the previous month and 369,803 gal. in February, 1936.
Increase in Sales of Milk for Liquid Milk Consumption. In
each month since June, 1936, the consumption of liquid milk
has been at a higher level than in the corresponding month of
the previous year. According to the Board’s provisional
estimates, contract sales of liquid milk have increased over
the corresponding months in the prevous year as follows : —
1936
Per cent.
•• 1-5
jcj 3 (>— October
l*er c
. . 0-8
July.. ..
1*0
,, November
. . 2*0
„ August
. . 1*7
,, December
•• 3*5
,, September
. . 1-7
^ 937 —
. . 4*4
,, February
•• 4*3
Since there was i day less in February, 1937, than in
February, 1936, the increase has been calculated on the
average daily sales for those months.
Potatoes from Northern Ireland. The North of Ireland
Potato Marketing Association and the Potato Marketing Board
have made a covenant regarding the shipment of potatoes from
Northern Ireland into Great Britain. The Association agree
to limit shipment to 200,000 tons in a year when United
Kingdom supplies appear to be in excess of the demand, and
also agree to conform to certain specified marketing practices.
Hops Marketing Scheme. Sales of 1936 hops to date are
slightly below the estimated market demand, and there is
likely to be a call on the levy fund provided by the brewers.
Meanwhile, the Hops Marketing Board will make a further
payment on account to growers.
Pigs and Bacon Marketing Schemes : Elections of Board
Members. Elections of district members of the Pigs Market-
ing Board held on February 27, 1937, resulted in the return
of the sitting member for Scotland, Mr. J. Blackley, and the
election of Mr. N. S. Perkins in the place of Mr. M. T. Davies
for Wales. The retiring members for the West Midland and
Northern districts, Mr. J. H. Wain and Mr. J. A. Fox, were
returned unopposed. Captain E. T. Morris has been returned
unopposed as a special member.
The annual elections of representative members of the
Bacon Marketing Board, held in Scotland on February 17,
and in England on February 24, resulted in the return of all
the retiring members.
61
Marketing Notes
Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936 : Manufacturing Milk. Advances
made by the Ministry up to March 15, 1937 in respect of
manufacturing milk were as follows; —
Section
of Act
Period of
Manufacture
Quantity Advances
1 ' , '
j (a) JMilk Marketing Board for England and Wales
1 In respect of milk : ’ Gallons
' £
1
1 M cl 11 Iliac til red at April, 1934,
' lactories 0 t h c r Jan., 1937
50^,550.(^31
•i.i55.4(>5
1 than the Board’s
i Manufactured by April, 193^1, to
the Board . . Sept., 1935
■i.573.(>(>-:
12,850
3
: Made into cheese April, 1934, to
on farms . . Dec . 193b
13.'>58,147
i<>3-07*^
* Total tor Kngland and Wales
548,782,440
1
^.3<Ji.393
6
(6) Government of Xorthern Ireland .
In respect ot milk : ,
Manufactun‘d into , April, 1934, to
cream and butter ' Dec., 193b
<'5.o79..5<>y
385,200
at registered!
creameries
Total
61 3,862,000
’2,74<’.593
♦Owing to the Cheese-Milk Prices for August and September, 1936,
being iij excess of the Standard Price, no subsidy was payable in respect
of milk produced and manufactured in these monthsS.
Cheese-Milk Price. For the purpose of payments under
the Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936 (whether by the Exchequer to
Milk Marketing Boards or by Boards to the Exchequer) in
respect of milk used for manufacture, the Cheese-Milk Price
has been certified by the Minister and the Secretary of State
for Scotland to be 4 90 pence jier lb. for the month of March,
1937 -
Wheat Act, 1932 : Sales of Home-Grown Wheat, Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with thd Wheat Com-
mission by registered growers during the period August i,
1936, to March 5, 1937, cover sales of 15,488,859 cwt. of
millable wheat as compared with 24,544,811 cwt. in the
corresponding period (to March 6) in the last cereal year.
Advance Payment to Registered Growers on account of
Deficiency Payments for 1936-37. In accordance with their
By-law No. 31 the Wheat Commission have decided to make
62
Marketing Notes
a payment in advance to registered growers on account of
deficiency payments that will become due under the Wheat
Act for the cereal year ending July 31, 1937. This advance
will be made in respect of all proper applications received from
registered growers on valid wheat certificates delivered to the
Commission on or before Thursday, March 18, 1937.
The payment that will be made on or about April 17, 1937,
will be at the rate of 8d. per cwt. equal to 3s. per quarter of
504 lb.
Wheat Fund Accounts. The account of the Wheat Fund
showing the revenue and exiM?nditure attributable to the cereal
year ended July 31, 1936, together with the Report of the
Comptroller and Auditor General thereon is now available.
Copies can be obtained from H.M. Stationery Office or through
any bookseller— price 2d. net.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936 : Production
of Home-Grown Beet Sugar, during the 1936-37 Campaign.
According to information furnished to the Ministry by the
British Sugar Corporation, Limited, the total quantities (cwt.)
of beet sugar manufactured in Great Britain during February,
1937, were:— •
IVhilc . . Raw Total
56,107 .. 5,897 .. 62,004
The 1936-37 campaign has now closed and the total
quantities (cwt.) of sugar produced during the campaign, with
corresponding figures for the 1935-36 campaign, were; —
White Raw Total
Campaign i93<^37 • ■ 5.375.7‘<> 5,37i.t»3 10,7.47.329
.. 1035-36 • • 4.330,975 5-406,525 0,746,500
Supplementary Payments to Growers for Poor Crop.
In pursuance of the provisions of the Sugar Industry
(Reorganization) Act, 1936, the Minister, after consultation
with the Sugar Commission, has considered the outcome of
the 1936 sugar-beet campaign, and has decided that no
supplementary payments fall to be made to growers in respect
of the 1936 crop.
Cattle Fund. The table on p. 64 gives particulars of
pa5rments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Marketing Notes
Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936, and shows the numbers of
animals marked on importation into Great Britain: —
April 1, 1936,
to
Feb. 28, 1937
April I. 1935,
to
Feb. 28, 1936
♦Sept. I, i 934»
to
Feb. 28, 1937
I’ayinents
Animals in respect
of which payments
0.63^.79-!
/.3.5 19,323
;^9,530.I48
^\'erc made . . . . |
Average payment per '
I,^«3.789
4,0 JJ, 400
animal
Imported animals ,
marked at I’orts ’
7 ol \
\
j
i- 7 5
7 5
(Ch*eat Britain only)
520,667 1
j
42^,587
1
1,263.819!
* Coninieiiccincni ol subsidy payments,
t As from August 6, 1934.
Trade Agreement with Canada. The Trade Agreement
made with Canada at Ottawa in 1932 has been superseded
by a new Agreement signed on February 23, 1937. The new
Agreement is terminable at any time on or after August 20,
1940, subject to six months’ notice having been given by
either side. The earliest date of termination is thus exactly
three years after the earliest date of termination of the 1932
Agreement. The principal agricultural products affected are
dairy produce, bacon and hams, beef and cattle.
Canadian produce at present free of duty, will continue to
enjoy free entry into the United Kingdom, subject to the
reservation by the United Kingdom Government of the right
to impose duties on Canadian eggs, poultry, butter and cheese,
and other milk products, or to subject these products to
quantitative regulation. This reservation is subject to the
provisos that existing margins of preference on these products
will be maintained, and that quantitative regulation, if
introduced, will apply to imports from all sources. Existing
margins of preference are also guaranteed on a number of
Canadian products not covered by this reservation that at
present enjoy free entry.
The Canadian Government recognize that the promotion of
orderly marketing is the United Kingdom Government's
policy in respect of bacon and hams, and cattle and beef,
and they agree to assist in the execution of this policy as far
as possible. In accordance with the United Kingdom Govem-
64
Marketing Notes
ment's declared policy, free entry of imports of these
products from Canada is guaranteed. The new Agreement
modifies the undertaking in the earlier Agreement in respect
of supplies of bacon and hams from Canada by giving the
United Kingdom Government the right to regulate imports
from Canada if they expand towards the 2| million cwt.
maximum at an abnormal rate such as to endanger the
effective working of the system of supply regulation. Any
regulation of imports from Canada will only be initiated after
consultation with the Canadian Government.
Canada falls in the group of the smaller supplying countries
concerned in the International Beef Conference arrangements,
and the United Kingdom Government therefore promises, if
requested, to represent Canadian interests at the Conference
and to endeavour to secure for Canada an equitable share
of the market. The Agreement embodies certain other
provisions in conformity with the Beef Conference Scheme,
and, as with bacon and hams, it gives the United Kingdom
Government the power to regulate imports of beef and cattle
from Canada if, after consultation with Canada, this appears
essential for the effective working of a general scheme for
orderly marketing in this country.
Trade Arrangement with Irish Free State. On
Februaiy' 25, IQ37, the Secretary of State for the Dominions
gave the following reply to a question asked in the House of
Commons : - -
Mr, M. MacDonald : In reply to the hon. Member for Colchester
^Mr. O. Le^vis) on January 19, I stated that it had been agreed to
continue, for a further period of one year, the trade arrangement with
the Irish Free State concluded at the beginning of 1936, subject to
possible modifications of detail. As a result of subsequent discussions
it has now been agreed to make minor adjustments in the arrangements
for the regulation of United Kingdom imports of cattle and bacon from
the Irish Free State during 1937. Further, the United Kingdom
Government have agreed to remove the present special duty of 20 per
cent, ad valorem on live horses imported from the Irish Free State. The
Irish Free State Government, for their part, have agreed to remove
the existing emergency duties on sugar and subsidiary products
imported from the United Kingdom. Treasury Order removing the
United Kingdom special duty on horses will be made at once and come
into force on Monday. I understand that the Irish Free State Order
removing the emergency duties on sugar will also take effect on Monday.
The minor adjustments referred to provide for a limited
switch from fat to store cattle on the basis of the 1936 alloca-
tions, and for a 5 per cent, increase in the bacon allocation,
c 65
Marketing Notes
Regulation of Imports of Meat, July to December, 1936.
The following statement shows imports of meat from Empire
and foreign countries in the second half of 1936 (the whole
year as regards mutton and lamb from Empin' countries)
compared with the agreed maxima and allocations;--
Empire Countries
h'oreign Countries
Agreed
Alloea-
Maxima
Imports
tions
Imports
oou ( u t.
000 CV’t
ooo cv t.
(KK) cwt.
riiillc'd and Frozen B(‘cf
and Vc'«il
h'rozen Mutton ami
1 • j
1 ,S(»o- 3
1
|. ^0.) 3*
Lamb
Frozen Pork (cxiliidiiig
5, <>30 -of
3,030 - of
3 ' 7 ■ 7
507-2
pork for curing)
280-3
*31 '>
iSS 0
I2<r3
* FLxchiding tongues f Figures for the whole year.
t Includes 107,080 cut. chilled beet carried ftirward from 1935, and
70.400 cvvt. of frozen beef allowed in lieu of frozen beef rcjilaced by chilled
beef in the first half of 1936.
Regulation of Imports of Bacon and Hams. In the light
of a recommendation ot the Market Supply Committee, It
has been decided that the foreign bacon quota for the second
quarter shall be fixed provisionally at the rate operative in
the first three months of the year. The allocations to the
individual foreign exporting countries for the period April i
to June 30, are as follows: —
CoioUiv
I )('nmark
Netherlands
Poland
Sweden
Lithuania
Estonia
Finland
Latvia
U.S.S.R ’
Argentina
U.S.A
Allowance for imports from foreign countries
not scheduled to the Bacon (Import Regula-
tion) Order . , , . . . . . *
Mlocalious
Cut (d)
1-^5.513
b2,ogO
.^«.975
9,90c»
.=>.-285
11,230
9,248
105.695
3L904
'I OTAL
L353.L50
(a) Subject to amendment, as regards certain individual countries, in
respect of overshipment .s or undershipments in previous periods.
66
Marketing Notes
National Mark Dressed Poultry. The aggregate output
of the authorized packing stations during 1936 was 1,547,561
birds, of which 337,905 were packed under National Mark
labels, including 15,764 turkeys and 713 geese that were
graded and marked under the special National Mark Christmas
Scheme for Turkeys and Geese.
The National Mark Scheme for dressed poultry now provides
for the packing of the various specified classes of poultry under
two grades, namely. Select and Prime. The number of birds
j)acked during 1936 under these grades was 228,755, and
109,150 resi)ectively.
Inspections of National Mark dressed poultry during the
\’ear indicate that authorized packers in the scheme are
complying satisfactorily with the prescribed standards both
in regard to the quality' of their produce and the method ot
|)acking. The introduction of the Prime grade has met
generally with the approval of both the packers and the whole-
sal(Ts. It is anticipated that the inclusion ot this grade will lead
to a steady increase in the quantity ot graded poultry available
on the market.
National Mark Creamery Butter Scheme. During the 12
months ended December 31, 1936, the output ot all authorized
packers of National Mark creaiTKTv butter amounted to
24,^28 cut. pre-packed in retail packages, and 5,798 cut.
packed in bulk containers, a total of 30,226 cu t. The corres-
ponding figures for the first ii months of the scheme
(January 2S-December 31, 1935) were 12,156 cut. pre-packed
butter and 2,192 cwt. butter in bulk, totalling 14,348 cwt.
Union of South Africa : Agricultural Marketing Bill.
A note in the August, 1936, issue of this Journ.vi. (p. 474),
outlining the proposals contained in the Union Government’s
Marketing Bill, concluded with an intimation that the Bill
was not likely to be proceeded with until time had been
allowed for fuller consideration of its proposals. Eventually,
it was decided not to proceed with the 1936 Bill, but to
introduce a new one.
The new Bill differs from that of 1936 principally in the
proposals for central organization ; the provisions as to
marketing schemes and boards remain substantially un-
changed. The somewhat cumbrous machinery contemplated
in the previous Bill for the investigation of marketing schemes
has been simplified, and in place of the Agricultural Advisory
67
Marketing Notes
Council and the Agricultural Investigation Board previously
envisaged, it is now proposed to establish a National Market-
ing Council, consisting of two officers of the Department of
Agriculture and Forestry, as chairman and deputy chairman,
and three other members appointed by the Governor-
General.
The National Marketing Council is to carry out investiga-
tions and to advise the Minister on marketing matters
generally. It is to examine and report on schemes submitted
and may itself draft schemes or submit amendments to exist-
ing schemes. It is also to exercise a measure of control over
schemes in operation. Each board is to render to the Council
an annual report on its activities, and the Council is to report
to the Minister at least once in every year as to schemes in
operation. The Minister may recover from boards certain
of the expenses of the Council relating to schemes. The
Council is given power to carry out inspections and to require
the audit of accounts, and it is to report to the Minister on any
decision of a board to fix prices or restrict the channels of sale
or the grade or quantity of the regulated product that a
producer may sell. Before reporting to the Minister on any
investigation concerning the fixing of prices, it must consult
the Board of Trade and Industries. It may recommend to
the Minister the prohibition or regulation of imports or
exports.
Regulatory boards may be assisted out of an agricultural
marketing fund provided by Parliament, but all advances so
made must be repaid within five years. Regulatory boards
may also borrow from the Land and Agricultural Bank against
suitable security.
Provision is also made for the establishment of a Producers’
Advisory Committee and a Consumers' Advisory Committee,
to be appointed and convened by the Minister. These
Conunittees are to act in an advisory and consultative capacity,
and may make representations to the Minister and the Council
on matters affecting the interests they serve.
One of the purposes of the Bill is to provide a statutory
basis for the voluntary National Mark Scheme, which, as
stated in the December, 1936, issue of this Journal (p. 887),
was recently introduced in respect of certain products. The
Governor-General may prescribe a National Mark for applica-
tion, under certain conditions, to any product in connexion
with its sale in any area or at any place.
68
APRIL ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
The present month is one of great activity on farms of
every type. " Nature ” makes a definite step forward and
the farmer makes haste to keep pace with her.
As regards live stock, the welcome prospect of relief from
expensive winter keep is keenly anticipated, and the progress
of pastures is a matter of close observation. Winter com
gives definite indications as to the possible crop at harvest,
while spring corn, potatoes and root crops all receive the
attention of the arable farmer.
The weather conditions of the previous winter months have
a very definite effect on April prospects both as regards
availability of pasturage and the condition of the land to
receive the seed of spring-sown crops.
In most districts little spring work has been possible owing
to the sodden condition of the soil following frequent heavy
rain. The rainfall since the beginning of the year in the
north of England, as in most parts of the country, has been
much more than the average, with the result that a larger
amount of work than usual remains to be tackled by the
arable farmer.
The present spring promises to be one in which the
advantages of mechanization in helping work forward will
be fully appreciated.
In a late season when work cannot be hurried forward the
tendency is to plant or sow without obtaining really good
cultural conditions, or if suitable conditions are to be obtained
sowing may have to be delayed. Either of these contingencies
will add to the risk of failure or reduced yield.
Sheep. On lowland farms lambing is practically finished
and ewes and lambs are away from the lambing pens on to
the paistures. Risks associated with the early days of the
lamb’s life are over and the object now is to promote growth
and well doing. On the early fanns many lambs will already
have been sold fat and others will be nearly ready for market,
but most of the lambs are but a few weeks old and at the stage
when a check may result in considerable financial loss.
On many farms succulent foods are running short and can
fc* 69
April on tHe Farm
only be replaced by young grass. Nothing can equal young
grass for nursing ewes in April, but on short pastures it is
most important to keep the concentrates going until enough
grass is available. Lambs to be sold fat at an early age need
to be encouraged to eat concentrates, but it is important that
the milk supply of the ewes should be maintained. The lambs
should as far as possible be fed through the ewes.
The application of a nitrogenous fertilizer as a top-dressing
to pasture may do much to speed up growth in a late season
and prove a profitable investment. Two or three shillings
less price per head at weaning time may mean a greater loss
than the expenditure of a few pounds on a top-dressing.
On hill farms ewe hoggs return from lowland winter
grazings at the beginning of the month and ewes commence
lambing from about April 8. The hill farmer is more
completely dependent on the weather for food than his low-
land neighbour. On most hill farms no supplementary food
apart from hay is supplied. Losses are usually higher on
these farms. Quite frequently a crop of lambs may be
practically loo per cent, at birth and 70 per cent, or less at
weaning time. Diseases take a heavy toll of ewes and lambs
on many hill farms during April. Investigations have shown
that these losses are due to a number of different diseases,
several of which are preventable. Lamb dysentery, pulpy
kidney disease, braxy, and pining are all preventable
diseases, and flockmasters should endeavour to obtain an
accurate diagnosis of the trouble. In all instances it is best
to submit one or two dead lambs to an expert and invite his
opinion. Diseases carried by the sheep tick are also very
important, especially in the north of England, and control
by modem methods of dipping is giving encouraging results
in trials now being carried out in Northumberland.
Cattle. Outlying cattle will now respond to improved
weather conditions, and in the earlier districts will find an
increasing amount of food from the pastures.
Many sales of store cattle take place at this time of the
year, and it is interesting to note the value placed on “ hair ”
at the different sales. Outwintered cattle usually command
quite a few shillings a cwt. more than cattle wintered indoors.
It is right that they should, as cattle wintered indoors
experience a much greater change when they go out to grass.
If this change can be made gradually it is an advantage,
70
Aprii, on the Farm
although it is not always practicable. At Cockle Park for a
number of years blue-grey stirks seven months old were
wintered in two lots, one of which was out of doors and the
other indoors under good conditions in light airy yards. At
the end of March the valuers invariably placed a much
higher value on the outwintered cattle, usually from 30s. to
£2 per head, in spite of the fact that they were nearly ^ cwt.
lighter than those wintered indoors. After both lots had been
at grass for a period of six weeks, practical farmers could not
distinguish the two lots. It should be noted that the manage-
ment of both lots was as good as could be desired. The cattle
wintered out of doors cost as much for food as those wintered
indoors.
Most stockmen recognize the value of the type of feeding
animals have had before purchase, but there is no doubt that
in the spring it is as important to know the conditions under
which the animals have been housed. Animals badly housed
in dark, ill-ventilated buildings make very slow progress for
some considerable time after going to grass.
Dairy cattle in the south will be turned out during the
greater part of the month, but in the north, April as a rule
provides little out-door keep, and with roots finished on many
farms it is often an expensive month for milk production.
Ventilation needs to be carefully watched when dairy cattle
are indoors, otherwise cowsheds may be much too warm with
warmer atmospheric conditions. A thermometer should be
part of the normal equipment of a cowshed, and it is desirable
that the temperature should not exceed 52” F.
During damp weather, pasture may be unduly laxative,
and with high-yielding cows it is often advisable to restrict
the grazing and feed a little roughage. When concentrates
are being fed less protein can be used and a starchy or
carbohydrate food, e.g., a cereal, provides a better balanced
diet along with young spring grass.
Many owners of dairy herds are considering the question of
the establishment of tubercle-free herds. At this time, when
cows are changing their winter quarters, a start can con-
veniently be made. It is wise to consult a veterinary surgeon.
Good advice if faithfully carried out may avoid many pitfalls
and disappointments. Farmers who are considering the
establishment of a tubercle-free herd will be well advised to
consider at the same time the advantages to be derived from
a herd which is also free from contagious abortion,
c**
71
April on the Farm
Meadow Hay. Very often permanent moadow-hay ground
is required during the month for grazing ewes and lambs.
On hni farms enclosed meadows are particularly valuable and
are often eaten well into May.
The maximum amount of hay is required from these meadows
for winter sheep feed in bad weather. Purchased hay can
only be secured at a relatively high price and transport is
often a very difficult matter also. Hill flockmasters usually
prefer hay grown on the farm.
Experiments carried out on several hill farms in Northum-
berland by Pawson and Wannop, have shown that very
considerable increases in the quantity of hay produced can
be secured, in most instances, by judicious complete manur-
ing. A report on trials carried out in 1935 at three centres
shows increases of from 33 per cent, to over 200 per cent,
yield in addition to improved feeding value.
Grass and Clover Seeds are sown on most farms in April.
Much difference of opinion exists as to the best method of
sowing. It is essential, however, to have a fine seed-bed.
Tilth and firmness greatly help in plant establishment. What
counts most is not the number of seeds per acre that may be
sown or even the number that germinate, but those that become
established and produce a plant. How often the seedsman
is blamed for failure of seeds, when the real reason is cultural
and weather conditions ! Purity and germination are a useful
guide in the purchase of seeds, but strain and origin of stock
are also of importance. Low-priced grass and clover seeds
are not necessarily the least costly. Good, vigorous, reliable
strains should be asked for, and reliable seedsmen will usually
be able to supply them. In the seed trade, as in most others,
we usually get what we pay for. It is not enough to make
purity and germination the only considerations in the purchase
of seeds.
Cereals. A much larger acreage of cereals will be sown
in April than is usual. Correct seeding is an important matter.
Varieties with large grain and poor tillering properties need
a much heavier seeding than small-grained varieties or
varieties tiiat tiller well. Sandy oats sown at the rate of
2 i bus. per acre have given a thicker crop at Cockle Park
than Yielder sown at 6 bus. per acre. Where cultural and
climatic conditions are favourable a lighter seeding is needed
72
April on the Farm
than on soils in cxjxised situations where jxwr tilth has been
obtained.
After the wet winter of 1935-36 nitrogenous fertilizers gave
profitable returns when applied as a top-dressing to both
autumn- and spring-sown com. Much available nitrogen
will have been lost from the soil during the wet periods of
the last few months, and 1937 promises to be another year
when nitrogenous top-dressings will leave a profitable return.
When sulphate of ammonia is being used, care should be
taken not to apply it when white frosts are occurring followed
by bright sunshine.
Potatoes and Root Crops. It is often said : “ Plant
potatoes when you will, they won't grow till April." The
vagaries of our climate and the volume of spring work on
arable farms, makes it desirable to get on with the work
whenever favourable opportunities occur after the begin ning
of March. In a late season, such as the present, the advantage
of sprouting will be found by those who adopt this practice.
Experiments have shown that sprouting in boxes, even in
an early season, gives the advantage of an increase in crop.
Where planting has to be delayed, even greater advantages
are obtained. Boxed sets have made some growth and are
ready to make rapid progress, while unboxed seed tubers
left in the clamp until late spring have produced long white
sprouts that are invariably broken; off in handling before
planting, and secondary shoots have to be developed, so
delaying the start of the crop.
Marrow Stem Kale has increased in p)opularity as a root
crop, and larger acreages are being sown. It is in many ways
a more certain crop than swedes. The period during which
it can be sown with reasonable prospects of a crop is longer.
Sowing may commence from early April and extend to June.
.It suffers rather less from the turnip fly, and once a crop is
established it can be pushed on by liberal top-dressings to
produce a heavier weight of crop per acre than swedes on
most soils. While it is undoubtedly a good food for dairy
cows, it cannot be stored, and during periods of severe frost
it is not always available. The absence of a succulent food
after being included in the ration upsets the cows, and it is
wise to have a small supply of swedes or other succulent,
which can be stored available for such periods. This should
be allowed for in planning the root break.
73
April on the Farm
Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of a fine
seed-bed for root crops. The first essential for a crop is to get
the plant established. The quicker this can be done after
sowing the better, and a suitable seed-bed greatly helps to
this end.
While tractors will work long hours without fatigue, horses
during the month will have a heavy time. It is important to
do ail possible in the way of feeding and careful management
to keep horses in condition for the long and hard days ahead.
In practice, we frequently do not recognize the need for extra
care and attention until the horses have lost flesh and are not
so able to stand the strain of long, heavy days.
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.
School of Agriculture, Cambridge.
Manuring: for Swedes. Recent experiments on die
manuring of this crop have been chiefly concerned with testing
the value of some particular fertilizer, e.g., the experiments
carried out under the aegis of the Permanent Committee on
Basic Slag set up by the Ministry of Agriculture, and with
investigating the effects of minor element deficiencies, e.g.,
the incidence and control of Brown Heart. The results of
these experiments confirm the conclusions drawn from the
older trials regarding the importance of phosphate for the
swede crop.
This is well illustrated by the results of experiments
recorded in the 13th and 14th Interim Reports of the
Permanent Committee on Basic Slag. These reports give
the results of 15 exjieriments on swedes carried out in the
two years 1934 and 1935. All the experimental centres were
situated in Scotland, but the results serve to show both
the general importance of phosphates for swedes and the
superiority of a high-soluble over a low-soluble slag for this
crop, even in the North. Phosphate failed to increase the
yield of swedes at only one of these 15 centres, and, omitting
two centres where the results were irregular, the average yields
at the remaining 12 centres were as follows : —
Yield of Roots, in Tons per Acre
No
Basic
Slag
Low-soluble Slag (a) | High-soluble Slag (b)
' 1 , '
:3i cwt. p.a.j 7 cwt. p.a. ,3^ cwt. p.a. 7 cwt. p.a.
6 Centres in
: ; j
1934
60
— (c) ! 13-6 j — (r) ' 18-2
6 Centres in
1 1
1935 • .
II-4
' 17-7 ; ■23-3
; 1 1 <
Notes. — (a) Total P,0$ = 13-68 per cent. , citric .solubility of the
PjO, =23-6 per cent.
(i>) Total P,0, = 13-81 per cent.; citric solubility of the
P, 0 , =89-3 pCT cent.
(r) Only the heavier dressing was used in 1934-
The single and double dressings supplied 0-5 cwt. and
I • o cwt. of P,Oj per acre respectively, i.e., they were appro.\i ■
mately 3J cwt. and 7 cwt. of slag per acre.
75
Notes on Manuring
The need for a considerable amount of phosphate is shown
by the fact that, in 1935, the double dressing of high-soluble
slag was better than the single dressing, i.e., 3J cwt. of high-
soluble slag per acre is not always sufficient.
This response to phosphatic manures, combined with the
fact that many farmers prefer to apply most of the phosphate
for the whole rotation to the root shift, makes it very desirable
to give at least 4 cwt. per acre of superphosphate or basic
slag to the swede crop, and on many farms this dressing might
well be raised to 6 cwt. per acre, especially in districts where
heavy crops of roots can be grown and on farms where
phosphate is not applied to any other crop in the rotation.
There seems no doubt that basic slag is a suitable source
of phosphate in many parts of the country, but it seems wise
to use a high-soluble slag for this purpose, preferably one of
at least 80 per cent, citric solubility. In the eastern part of
England, basic slag can be used provided it is applied early,
and, again, only a high-soluble grade should be chosen. For
late spring applications of phosphate in this part of the
country, superphosphate is generally regarded as safer than
basic slag, though the latter is sometimes quite satisfactory,
especially on the heavier soils. In all districts, on soils hover-
ing on the verge of acidity, basic slag is often preferable to
superphosphate, not because the latter makes the soil acid, for
in the light of evidence published during recent years such a
statement is not true, but rather because of the lime content
of the basic slag. It cannot be too strongly urged, however,
that where a soil has gone past the borderline of acidity, i.e.,
has become sufficiently acid to cause serious trouble with
crops such as barley, clover, swedes, etc., the most economical
course in the long run is to lime the soil and not to try to carry
on with slag or any other fertilizer supplying only small
amounts of lime. Basic slag, nitro-chalk, niteate of lime and
cyanamide may be satisfactory on soil just bordering on
acidity, but their lime content is too small for a normal
application of any of these fertilizers to have much effect on
the acidity of a definitely acid: soil.
One further point in connexion with the choice of a
phosphatic fertilizer for swedes, is that this crop has a greater
power of using phosphate supplied in the form of ground
mineral phosphate than most other agricultural crops
commonly grown in this country. Under conditions in which
ground mineral phosphate is likely to act fairly quickly,
76
Notes on Manuring
therefore, e.g., the heavier soils in wet districts, it is worth
while considering this relatively cheap form of phosphate when
selecting manures for the swede crop.
Swedes show little response to heavy dressings of nitrogen
or potash. Where a good dressing of farmyard manure is
used it is not often necessary to include potash in the artificials
except where other conditions are favourable to the produc-
tion of a really heavy crop. In the latter circumstances i to
li cwt. per acre of sulphate of anunonia or its equivalent
can also be used, but in the south and east of England it rarely
pays to use any potash, and no more than about J cwt. per
acre of quick-acting nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied,
when farmyard manure has been given. From i to cwt.
of nitrogenous fertilizer and \ cwt. per acre of muriate of
potash is usually ample even when no farmyard manure is
given. Phosphatic dressings on the lines suggested in the earlier
paragraphs should always be applied, however, irrespective
of whether the crop has received farmyard manure.
It is perhaps also worth mentioning that here the trouble
known as Brown Heart or Raan in swedes has recently been
prevented by applying small quantities of borax to the soil . The
trouble seems to be most prevalent in parts of Wales and
Scotland. The presence of Brown Heart has not, so far,
been found to cause any serious reduction in yield, but the
feeding value of the roots is said to be reduced, for affected
roots become fibrous and their sugar content is reduced.
Affected roots show no external sign of the trouble, but when
they are cut a brownish discoloration may be seen in the
flesh of the root. Such roots are not saleable for human
consumption. A good deal has been written on the use of
borax for controlling this trouble. A dressing of 20 lb. of
borax per acre is usually adequate, but, before adopting this
treatment growers are advised to seek the guidance of their
County Agricultural Organizer.
Marrow Stem Kale. Many farmers have replaced the
swede crop by marrow stem kale, and when its relatively
high feeding value is taken into account there is little doubt
that it is often a better proposition than swedes, at any rate,
during the early part of the winter. The manurial require-
ments of the two crops are not the same, however, and the
farmer who attempts to substitute kale for swedes without
adjusting the manurial treatment of his land, is almost certain
77
Notes on Manuring
to be disappointed. Like all brassicas, marrow stem kale
should receive a dressing of phosphate, usually about 4 cwt.
per acre of superphosphate or high-soluble basic slag, accord-
ing to circumstances. Farmyard manure is also very
desirable for the kale crop especially so since kale differs
from swedes in being exceptionally responsive to applica-
tions of nitrogenous fertilizer. In some instances dressings
of 6 to 9 cwt. per acre of nitro-chalk have been reported as
giving a profitable increase in yield, and on the general farm
it is quite reasonable to expect a good return from as much
as 4 cwt. per acre of a fertilizer such as nitro-chalk or sulphate
of ammonia in addition to a dressing of dung. From ^ to
I cwt. of muriate of potash is also desirable, especially if only
a small dressing of farmyard manure is available. Liberal
manuring, especially with nitrogen, is essential for heavy
yields, and, provided the crop is sown fairly early, the yield
increase brought about by fertilizers will more than pay for
their cost. Early sowing is important, however, where a
heavy yield is required in the early autumn.
Vegetable Growing on the General Farm. The extension
of the cultivation of the commoner vegetables to the general
farm has seriously affected the growers in the older market-
garden areas. The newcomer, adopting the labour-saving
devices associated with large holdings, large fields, and
mechanized cultivation, has brought about an enormous
increase in the supply of these vegetables. Some of the
ordinary farm land in East Anglia, growing vegetables for
the first time, will yield heavy crops of good quality Brussels
sprouts, savo)^, cabbage, etc., and there is little evidence to
suggest that, for this type of vegetable production, the soil
needs to be kept at the high level of fertility usually found
in old market-garden land — a level only maintained by lavish
expenditure on dung and fertilizers.
At present there seems no reason to anticipate any marked
deterioration in the cropping powers of much of this new
“ cheap ” land, and one cannot see any immediate prospect
of decreasing competition with market gardeners. As long
as such crops are only grown in place of part of the root
shift, there can be little danger of their too frequent appearance
on the same field; only tiie farmer who has gone over to
vegetable production on a larger proportion of his land is
likely to encounter trouble from this source.
78
Notes on Manuring
Many market gardeners have taken steps to meet the new
situation by increasing the size of their holdings, and the
increase in some instances has been effected by the absorption
of adjacent market-garden land, and in others by taking over
new land formerly devoted to agricultural crops either because
of its heavier soil or its relative inaccessibility.
Though the production of these commoner vegetables still
persists in the older intensive market-garden areas it seems
probable that the bulk of this production in the future will
be on less intensive lines, on the larger type of holding. The
manuring of these crops in an intensive market-garden area
is bound up with the problem of maintaining the land in a
high state of fertility, suitable for the production of subsequent
crops. The farmer who has introduced brassicas such as
brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower into his farm
rotation, simply as part of the root shift, will be well-advised
not to adopt too expensive manurial treatment. His main
object will have been achieved if he secures for his land the
benefits of a fallow crop without losing money in the process.
The term “ expensive ” manurial treatment is intended to
include not merely the quantity of plant nutrients supphed.
but also their source. Market gardeners often have a definite
preference for heavy dressings of organic fertilizers. To what
extent these are of direct benefit to the crop for which they
are applied is not certain, though they do maintain the soil
in a physical condition specially suitable for the growth of the
less easily grown intensive market-garden crops. This latter
factor, however, rarely concerns the farmer-grower, and if
he uses dung regularly there is no evidence to suggest that
he need go outside his usual range of fertilizers in order to
grow a vegetable crop.
The market gardener growing brassicas on “ new ” land
not previously market-gardened, will very often be more
lavish with his fertilizer applications, especially those supply-
ing nitrogen.
Brussels sprouts, summer and autumn cauliflower, and
summer cabbage all respond well to nitrogenous fertilizers,
and will usually pay for 3 to 4 cwt. per acre of quick-acting
nitrogenous fertilizer, in addition to farmyard manure. The
intensive grower frequently uses double this amount of
nitrogen, either in the foim of artificial fertilizers, soot or
organic manures such as shoddy, but the quantity suggested
above is a reasonable dressing for the farmer-grower.
79
Notes on Manuring
On some occasions potash and phosphate will also give
profitable increases in crop. Phosphate has proved most
successful on heavy soils and on fields that have formerly
been devoted to agricultural crops. The equivalent of 4 to
6 cwt. per acre of superphosphate is always desirable in such
circumstances. Potash, on the other hand, though less
generally effective in increasing yield, is said to improve the
quality, appearance and flavour of the produce.
Whilst too lavish dressings of fertilizers may fail to give
a corresponding improvement in yield or quality of produce,
it is certain that good quality produce caimot be grown under
conditions of semi-starvation. At the same 'time it is also
worth remembering that no amount of fertilizer or lime will
make waterlogged land produce good vegetables. Brussels
sprouts are particularly sensitive to wetness and show it both
by their stunted growth and poor colour, symptoms that were
obvious on parts of many fields in 1936.
Earliness is always an important feature in market-garden
crops. All fertilizers tend to produce their greatest effects on
5deld during the early part of the marketing season, but they
do not always actually increase earliness. There is some
experimental evidence, however, that, where phosphate and
potash give a response in yield, they also give earlier crops.
80
MANURING OF BRUSSELS SPROUTS
Most iiiark('t-garck‘ii land (ontairis a t^ood rt‘srrv(' ol
j)lK)sj)hatc‘ Iroin prcx’ious l(‘rtiliz(T dr(‘ssin/:^s, but th(‘ followiiif^
])h()t(){^raj)hs ol a ]2-])lol (“Xi)(‘rini('ul tarried out by Mr.
|. W. Dallas, in BcfllordshiK*, show that j^hosphatt* may bt* an
important n'ciiiinantait in tlu* maniirinf^ ol Bnisst'ls S])routs
on land not jm'XTously market {gardened, especially on heavy
soils.
The soil was lu'avy loam and m a low state ot t(*rtihty,
haviiifi^ grown rather })oor, extensive, agricultural crf>})s
it‘C(‘iving littU' iertilizer lor some years prt'viously.
1 st tind jnd sinks 1 (U, nu)s])lKili* onh
Rii^ht, No ni.inurr
Ik'twriMi Jiul ciiul jul sticks /eg. Nitrogen diul pliosjili.ilc
IMiosjihciti' and pot.ish
lo fn(t' i>o
-
f" ^
■ ■ ■" s*
.; ¥ 7 . vr:
*-irl
'¥■
if'i
Px twiH'U 1 si and
and siK ks
Ia It, Ndiot^i n and potasli.
I\'ii;hl, Potash onl\
I i( Iwcrii and and
pd stu.ks
Lt fl , Nn in.mui t*
/ik*,’///, Phosplaiti and pnUiNh
r'.;", .}'i : ' •;■ '.'
\ ■ ■•‘iv
HctwiMii jst and ind sIkUs
Ik-tAvccii and and jid sinks
t eft. No inanuri'
Kif^ht, Nitrognn and potash
lA-fl, Pliospliat(‘ and pot.isli
Potash only
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Description
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended March 10.
Bristol
HuU
L'pool
London
Cost
per
Unit If
i
s.
£
5.
£
5.
£
s.
5.
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N.i5j%) . . ^
7
1^C
7
12c
7
I2C
7
12c
9
xo
,, ,, Granulated (N. 16%)
7
12c
7
12 C
7
I 2 C
7
12c
9
6
Nitrate of Lime (N.13%)
7
oc
7
OC
7
OC
7
oc
xo
9
Nitro-chalk (N. i5i%)
J*
7
5c
7
7
5C
7
5C
9
4
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20*6%) . ,
7
50
7
50
7
5C
7
5 ^
7
0
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20*6%) j
7
4 d
7
4^/
7
/{d
7
0
Kainite (Pot. 14%)
2
18
2
15
2
15
2
15
3
II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5
0
4
17
4
15
4
17
3
3
,, ,, (Pot. 20%)
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8
3
8
I
7
17
8
I
3
3
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
9
15
9
13
9
9
9
13
4
0
Basic Slag (P.A. i5f%)
2
12b
2
5^
2
10b
3
2
„ .. (P.A. 14%)..
s
2
Sb
2
ob
2
ob
2
bb
3
3
Grd Rock Phosphate (P.A. 26 —
27i%)
2
12a
2
loa
2
loa
2
I
8
Superphosphate (S.P.A. i6%) . .
3
4
I
* • 1
3
3
of
3
9
(SP.A.i3i%)..
3
1
2
17
2
igc
2
ibf
4
X
Bone Meal (N.3f%, P.A.2oi%)
, ,
6
10
7
5 i
6
15
. .
Steamed Bone Flour (N. |%,
[
P.A. 27i-29i%) . . . .
5
5 h
5
ij
5
og
5
0
* •
Abbreviations : N. — Nitrogen ; P.A. = Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A. Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. = Potash.
• Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser's nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
S Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are c^culated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 55. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under 2 tons,
los. extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser's nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of 1 ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton, 155. extra, and for
lots of less than 10 cwt., but not less than 2 cwt., 205. extra.
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails 15. extra.
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o.r. Newport. Mon.
t These ate calculated by regarding a ton as comprising xoo “ units " (equal
parts 0/22*4 afertihzer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such ” units in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a unit " of that agent. Those
in the table cSove are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisoiy Leaflet No. 146, *' The Valuation of Artificial Manures,** obtainable from
the Mimstry, free of charge)
81
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
Fibre. The precise manner in which the “ fibre ” of food
contributes to its total nutritive effect has long been a subject
of controversy, and is still only very imperfectly understood.
This is due in part to the fact that the entity denoted as
" fibre ” is itself ill-defined and apt to vary considerably in
chemical nature in different classes of feeding stuffs. To the
layman " fibre ” is the hard and tough part of food, difficult
to masticate and presumed to be more difficult to digest than
the rest of the food. When the scheme of analysis that is
commonly used for feeding stuffs was first drawn up it was
thought desirable, therefore, to include in it an estimation of
the proportion of this class of material in the food, and for
this purpose the organic matter that remains undissolved after
treatment in a prescribed manner with dilute acid and alkali
was assumed to represent the “ fibre ” of the food. For some
time this item in the analysis was described as “ indigestible
fibre,” but digestion trials soon demonstrated that ” fibre ”
is to some extent digestible, its digestibility varying greatly,
however, with the class of food and its physical condition.
There can be no question, therefore, of the fibre figure of a
food representing even an approximate measure of the
general digestibilfy of the food, and to-day one prefers to
describe this item simply as ” fibre ” or ” crude fibre,”
without any implications as to indigestibility.
Digestion and Utilization of Fibre. In studying the
nutritive significance of ” fibre ” it must be clearly under-
stood that we are not dealing with a definite chemical
compound, nor even a definite group of compounds (as with
proteins and oils), but with a variable mixture (mainly of
carbohydrates) that is definable only in terms of the particular
method of chemical analysis by which its amount is
detennined. We regard this item, crude though it be, as
serving to give us a rough idea of the proportion of hard,
tough, difficultly soluble material present in the foodstuff.
Whatever its digestibility, the mastication and passage
83
Notes on Feeding
through the body of material of this character must involve
a considerable expenditure of energy that can only come from
the digested part of the food. In many instances this
expenditure may exceed the amount of energy provided by
the digested part of the fibre, which means that the presence
of fibre then tends to reduce rather than to increase the amount
of energy available to the animal.
The principal ingredients of “ fibre ” are cellulose, lignins,
and pentosans, but other ingredients are usually present,
such as cutins, tannins, pectins, and a small proportion of
nitrogenous substance. Of these various ingredients probably
cellulose alone has any direct nutrient value, except as a
source of heat to the body. That the make-up of the “ fibre ”
with regard to the above ingredients may vary greatly as
between different foodstuffs is shown by the examples quoted
below : —
PliRCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CRUDE FiBRE
Barley . .
Crude
Protein
%
0*6
Lignins Pentosans
0/ 0/
/O /O
10*4 15-5
Celluloses,
etc.
%
73-5
Oats
0-4
10-7 11-2
ll'l
Lucerne
1-8
45-8 13-3
39*1
Soya Beans
0-8
5-8 11-4
82*0
These wide
differences in
the make-up of the
“ fibre ’
complex have a considerable influence upon the extent to which
it can be digested and utilized by animals and man.
In contrast to the digestion of proteins, fats, starches, and
sugars, which is effected mainly by unorganized ferments
(enzymes) present in the digestive juices, the digestion
of fibre, in almost all instances where animals eat much
vegetable food, is effected mainly through the agency of
bacteria. In farm animals the bacterial digestion of fibre
in the food plays an important part, both directly through
the contribution made by the digested fibre, and indirectl}'
because the attack of the bacteria on the cell walls of the food
makes these walls more permeable to the digestive juices, and
thus makes more certain that the valuable nutritive contents
of the cells will be digested and fully utilized.
On the other hand, the bacterial digestion of fibre involves
a certain amount of waste in the form of gases that the animal
cannot utilize, but this is probably little more than the similar
loss that starch is subject to in the presence of bacteria. This
is confirmed by the classical experiments of Kellner in which
83
Notes on Feeding
digestible straw fibre fed in the form of soft pulp proved ^
effective as starch for the production of fattening increase in
cattle.
Since the digestion of fibre is mainly dependent upon
bacterial activity it is to be expected that Ae power of digest-
ing and utilizing fibre will be most highly developed in the
class of animal, namely the ruminant, in whose digestive
tract there is the greatest opportunity for bacterial action.
The ruminant is, in fact, the only class of animal that can deal
at all effectively with the whole range of fibrous foods, from
soft greenstuffs to hard straws. In this respect the ruminant
is followed at a considerable distance by the horse, but pigs
and poultry have little or no p)ower of digesting fibre; even
with soft green food their fibre-digesting powers are much
below those of the sheep.
The advantage possessed by the ruminant for the digestion
of fibre lies in the active bacterial fermentation that takes
place in the rumen (paunch). In other animals no appreciable
digestion of fibre takes place until the food reaches the caecum
and colon, almost at the end of its passage through the body.
The amount of fibre digestion effected at this stage is probably
small in comparison with that attainable in the rumen.
As regards the pig, the data available for the digestibility
of the fibre of individual feeding stuffs show great variation.
Thus, results vaiying from 2^ to 36 per cent, for the
digestibility of the fibre in rye meal have been found in
different experiments. In the best of these, however, the
result has usually been much nearer the lower than the higher
of these limits.
With the fowl, the experimental data available are fewer
and variable, but the more recent work, such as that of Hainan
reviewed in last month’s Notes, leaves little doubt that any
power possessed by the fowl for digesting the fibre of cereal
foods is so small as to be negligible in practice.
The observation has been frequently made in digestion trials
that the nature and total amount of the ration in which the
fibre is consumed appears to affect the amount of fibre
digested. This finds its explanation in the changes in the
intestinal flora and in the conditions for the activity of the
fibre-digesting bacteria that may accompany changes in the
diet. Thus the addition of carbohydrates to the diet of a
nuninant will so alter the fermentative balance as to reduce
somewhat the digestibility of the fibre.
84
Notes on Feeding
It might be expected that, especiaJly with the harder food-
stuffs, some improvement in digestion of the fibre might be
effected by a preliminary grinding of the food, despite the
existence of the natural provision for achieving this end by
chewing, rumination, etc. The experimental evidence on this
point is conflicting, and even where an improvement has been
recorded it has usually been small, and attributable in part
to imperfect mastication. The same probably applies to the
various other methods of preparation (cooking, etc.) designed
to soften the fibre.
When improved nutritive results are obtained by special
methods of preparation of food the explanation is likely,
therefore, to lie only partly in enhanced digestibility, and
partly in increased efficiency of utilization of the digested
ingredients. That the latter is considerably affected by grind-
ing where coarse fodders are involved was clearly demonstrated
by Kellner, and has been repeatedly confirmed elsewhere.
From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that average
figures for the digestibility of fibre can have little significance ;
and in rationing practice, unless digestion trials have been
made with the actual material used, one must be guided by
its physical nature as to whether one assumes its digestibility
to be high, or low, or medium. For this purpose the follow-
ing data may serve to indicate the range within which the
digestibility of the fibre usually falls : —
Greenstuffs
Hays
Straws, chaffs, etc.
Cereal, grains and legumes
Cakes and meals . .
, Indirect Effects of Fibre. Practical experience supplies
abundant evidence that the nutritive effects of a ration often
cannot be expressed entirely in terms of the amounts of
digestible proteins, oils, carbohydrates, fibre, minerals, and
vitamins supplied (see this Journal, Vol. XLIII, No. 7
pp. 682-684), but that certain other factors that are less easily
defined also come into play and determine whether the ration
will, or will not " suit ” the animal. The characteristics that
determine palatabUity furnish one example of such factors,
yhilst another to which the practical feeder attaches
importance is the density or " bulkiness ” of the feed. With
85
Ruminants
0/
/o
40-80
35-65
30-50
30-80
30-80
Horses
%
30-70
30-45
15-30
30-60
30-60
Pigs
or
/o
15-30
20-50
20-50
Notes on Feeding
the root crops the quality of bulkiness arises mainly from their
high water-content, but in all other foods it is closely
associated with the amount and nature of the fibre present
in the food. A high fibre-content usually connotes bifikiness
and a low fibre-content compactness.
We have seen that at best fibre does not rank high as a
source of digested nutriment, and yet an increase in the pro-
portion of fibrous food in a ration at the expense of more
digestible ingredients will frequently effect a substantial
improvement in nutritive results. In such instances it is clear
that the fibre has not acted through its direct contribution to
the total supply of digested nutrients, which is in fact reduced
by the change in the ration, but that in some way the increase
of the fibrous ingredient has made it possible for the animal
to use the digested nutrients with greater efficiency. It may
possibly be a matter of securing optimum conditions as to the
volume-loading of the digestive organs, or alternatively the
explanation may lie in a more powerful mechanical stimulus
to the muscles of the organs through the greater quantity of
indigestible “ ballast ” with which they have to deal in the
more fibrous ration. It seems possible also that with some
foods the effect is not entirely associated with the fibre, but
is in part specific to the food; this is strongly suspected to
be true of bran, but has not been clearly proved.
In so far as the effects are due to fibre they must obviously
depend upon the nature of the ration to which the fibrous
food is added. If it is too " compact ” the addition may be
expected to be beneficial, whereas if it is already sufficiently
bulky, or if anything too bulky, any further addition of fibrous
food must inevitably cause a falling-off in nutritive effect. It
is not surprising, therefore, that practical experience with
such foods should vary more than with the less fibrous feeding
stuffs.
86
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Manu-
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
per
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
per
100 lb.
unit
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
starch
starch
equiv.
ton
ton
equiv.
equiv.
i
s.
£
s.
£
s.
s.
d.
d.
%
Wheat, British . .
9
0
0
8
8
12
7 ^
2
5
1-29
9*6
Barley, British feeding •
8
10
0
8
8
2
71
2
3
1-20
6-2
„ Argentine
9
0
0
8
8
12
71
2
5
1*29
6'2
,, Persian
7
13*
0
8
7
5
71
2
I
1*12
6*2
,, Polish . .
8
10!)
0
8
8
2
71
2
3
1*20
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
8
13
0
9
8
4
60
2
9
1-47
7'6
,, „ black and
grey ..
8
13
0
0
8
4
60
2
9
1-47
7-6
,, Scotch, white
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
I -65
7-6
,, Canadian, mixed
feed . .
7
15
0
9
7
6
60
2
5
I '29
7‘6
Maize, Argentine
6
0
0
7
.5
13
78
I
5
0*76
7*6
,, Danubian Gal.Fox
,, South African,
6
8t
0
7
6
I
78
I
7
0-85
7-6
No. 3 White Flat
(,
i8t
0
7
()
1 1
78
I
8
0*89
7*6
Beans, English, Winter
b
0
17
5
18
66
I
9
0-94
19-7
lV.as, English Blue
II
5 §
0
14
10
11
69
3
I
1*65
i8' I
,, Japanese..
-25
L 3 t
0
14
^4
19
6q
7
3
3-88
18' I
Dan
Milling Offals
8
5 t
0
8
7
^7
74
2
1
I • 12
7'2
Bran, British
7
7
0
15
6
12
43
3
I
1*65
9*9
,, broad . .
7
12
0
1.5
6
17
; 43
3
2
1*70
10
WeatingsJ . ,
7
10
0
14
6
16
i
2
.5
'1-29
10*7
,, SuperfineJ •
8
0
0
13
7
7
' 69
2
2
I * 16
12*1
Pollards, imported . .
7
2
0
14
6
8
i 50
2
7
I -38
II
Meal, barley , . . .
9
12
0
8
9
4
' 71
2
7
1-38
6' 2
„ „ grade 11 . . j
8
17
0
8
8
9
! 71
2
.5
1-29
6'2
,, maize . . , .
6
12
0
7
6
5
' 78
I
7
0-85
7-6
„ ,, germ
b
15
0
11
4
1 84
' I
6
O ' 80
I0'3
,, locust bean
7
15
0
5
7
10
! 71
2
I
1 -12
36
,, bean
8
10
0
17
7
13
: 66
2
4
1-25
19*7
„ fish (white)
i 14
15
2
2
12
^3
! 59
4
3
2*28
53
Maize, cooked, flaked. .
! 7
4
0
7
6
17
1 84
I
8
0-89
9*2
,, gluten feed
Linseed cake —
7
0
0
13
6
7
76
1
I
8
0*89
I9‘2
English, 12% oil
10
2
' I
0
9
2
74
' 2
6
I '34
24*6
9 % .. ..
9
10
i I
0
8
10
74
2
4
1*25
24*6
8% „ ..
9
5
1 I
0
8
.5
74
2
3
I -20
24*6
Cottonseed cake.
1
i
English, Egyptian
seed, 4j% oil
' 5
17
j
i ^
18
4
19
4^
1
1
1
4
1-25
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
1
Egyptian 4i% oil . .
Cottonseed cake.
! 5
2
i ^
18
4
4
i 4 -i
1 2
0
1 -07
17*3
decorticated, 7% oil *
Cottonseed meal.
8
i 7 t
I
8
7
9
' 68
!
; 2
2
I' 16
34-7
decorticated, 7% oil •
8
I 7 t
I
8
7
9
1 70
2
2
I • 16
36-8
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
Ground-nut cake.
7
5
0
18
6
7
i 77
i
I
8
0*89
t6'4
decorticated. 6-7^/; oil
'i 7
i 7 t' I
8
6
9
i 73 „
I
9
0*94
_ 4^.*.3
87
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS (mtinueil
Manu-
Costol
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
per
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
equiv,
unit
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
per
100 lb.
starch
starch
equiv.
ton
ton
equiv.
equiv.
£
£
£ s.
5. d.
d.
%
Ground-nut cake, im-
ported decorticated,
6-7% oil ..
8 5
I 8
6 17
73
I 11
1-03
4 i ’3
Palm kernel meal.
1-2% oil . .
7 0
0 12
6 8
71
1 10
0-98
i6-5
Feeding treacle
Brewers’ grains, dried
5 0
0 8
4 12
51
I 10
0-98
2-7
ale
Brewers’ grains, dried
6 7
0 II
5 16
48
2 5
1*29
I2'5
porter
6 0
0 11
5 9
48
2 3
1*20
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp. .
From £$ js. 6 d. to £$ ijs. 6 d. i)er ton ex-factory
(according to factory.)
♦ At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
} In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in Ix)ndon, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price cx-mill or store. The prices were cunent
at the beginning of March, 1937, and are, as a rule, considerably lower than
the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage
and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the
relative values of the feeding stufis on offer at their local market by the
method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake is offered
locally at £11 per ton, then since its manurial value is /i per ton as shown
above, the cost of food value per ton is £10. Dividing this figure by 74, the
starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table, the cost per unit of
starch equivalent is 2i. Sd. Dividing this agam by 22-4, the number of
pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent
is I ’43^. Similar calculations will show the relative cost per lb. of starch
equivalent of other feeding stufis on the same local market. From the
results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff
gives him the best value at the prices quoted on his own markets. The
figures given in the table under the heading manurial value per ton are
calculated on the basis of the following unit prices N., 7s. 2d , ; P,Oj,
25. 3d. : KjO, 3s. 6d.
FARM VALUES OP FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow : —
Barley (imported) . .
Maize
Decorticated ground-nut cake
,, cotton-seed cake
(Add 105 . per ton, in
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
i
71
6*2
8 8
78
7-6
6 0
73
41*3
8 I
68
34*7
8 17
instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 1*97 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent i • 06 shillings. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The Table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816).
Farm Values.
Crop
t
1
! Starch
1 equivalent
:
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Wheat
1 Per cent.
.. i 72
Per cent.
9-6
i
7 12
Oats. .
. . ! 60
7-6
6 6
Barley
. ! 71
6-2
7 b
Potatoes
.. i i8
0*8
I 16
Swedes
' • 1 7
0-7
0 15
Mangolds
1 {
•• i 7 ;
0-4
! 0 14
Beans
.. j 66 1
19*7
•' 7 11
Good meadow hay
37 '
4.6
1 3 18
Good oat straw
.. 1 20 j
0-9
1 2 0
Good clover hay
: 38
70
1 4 2
Vetch and oat silage
13 1
1*6
I 7
Barley straw
23 !
0*7
2 6
Wheat straw
13
0*1
I 6
Bean straw . .
"i " i
1-7
1
2 7
* Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6<f., post free 7^,
89
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for February is 129 (base 1911-13 = 100), i point lower than
in the preceding month, but ii points above that of a year
ago. (If allowance be made for payments under the Wheat
Act, 1932, and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Act, 1934, the revised index is 133.) Compared with
January, higher prices were realized for oats, fat cattle and
sheep, eggs, poultry, cheese and wool, while wheat, porkers,
and potatoes made less money. Barley, baconers, butter,
and milk were unchanged in price.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agrtcultural Prodiue. {Corresponding
months of 1911-13 = 100.)
Month
193^
1933
1934 1
1935
1939
1937
January
122
107
I
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
112
115
1 18
129
March
113
102
108 1
112
1 16
—
April
117
105
III I
119
123
May
115
102
112 1
III
113
-
June . . . .
111
100
110 '
III
' 116
.
July
106 j
1 lOl
114
! ii;
—
August
105
J105
119 1
113
119
! —
September . .
104 j
1 107
119 i
120
127
,
October
100
107
II4 1
Ti 3
125
1 —
November , . . . j
101
109
1 1
113
i 25
i —
December . . . . j
! 1^3 !
110
113 i
114
126
1
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act (h).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
—
III
X19
124
125
133
February . .
—
no
117
122
123
^33
March
—
106
1 12
118
122
April
~
109
116
126
128
May
105
116
117
120
—
June
' '
104
114
117
I 2 I
1
July
104
117
120
121
1
August
108
108
122
120
124
September . .
108
III
125
128
133
—
October
X04
112
121
119
129
November . .
105
113
120
H 9
129
—
December , .
107
. IM
120
120
130
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932.
90
(h) Commenced September, 1934.
Miscellaneous Notes
Grain. At an average of gs. id. per cwt., wheat was 8d.
lower than in January, and as a consequence the index
declines from 133 to 122. (If the " deficiency pa5mient ”
under the Wheat Act, 1932, is taken into account the figure
becomes 133.) Barley at los. per cwt. showed no alteration
in price, but, owing to a slight rise in the base years, the index
falls by I point to 124. Oats averaged 8s. ^d. per cwt. against
8s. 2d. in January, but, as a more pronounced rise occurred
in the base period, the index is reduced from 120 to 116. A
year ago wheat averaged 6s. ^d., barley ys. iid.. and oats
6s. per cwt., the indices being 85, 98, and 85 respectively.
Live Stock. Fat cattle, at an average of 34s. '^d. per live
cwt. for second quality, again showed an advance, the average
for January being 33s. id., and the index rises by 2 points
to 99. (With the addition of the subsidy under the Cattle
Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934, the index
becomes 114.) At an average of iid. per lb. for second
quality the price of fat sheep appreciated by ^d . ; on account,
however, of a proportionately greater increase having
occurred during the corresponding months of 1911-13, the
index falls from 140 to 137. Baconers at 12s. 4^. per score
(20 lb.) maintained last month’s quotations, but porkers at
13s. ^d. were lower in price by 3<f. As a result of a rise during
the base period, the relative indices at 126 and 125 are lower
by 4 and 6 points.
Dairy cows were unaltered both in price and index. Store
cattle and sheep were dearer; the index for the former
appreciates by 2 points to loi, but that for sheep at 115 moves
downwards by 3 points. Store pigs were slightly cheaper
and the index is reduced from 152 to 139.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. During the month under
review the regional contract price of liquid milk was
unchanged, the index again standing at 171. Butter at
IS. 2d. per lb. showed no alteration in price, but the index
rose by 2 points to 97, owing to a slight fall in the base prices.
At an average of 13s. id. per 120, eggs showed a rise on the
month of lod., and the index moves upwards from 95 to 115.
Quotations for cheese also were higher, the average for
February at 80s. per cwt. being 2s. more than in January;
with a similar increase in the base period, the index remains
at 107. Higher prices were realized for all classes of poultry,
and tire combined index rises by 1 point to 121.
91
Miscellaneous Notes
Other Commodities. At £7 15s. per ton, potatoes were
lower by is. 6d., the index declining from 205 to 201. Both
descriptions of hay were a little firmer in price, but not
enough to alter the combined index of 98. Wool at is. 4f(i.
per lb. sold at ^d. above the January price, but the index
at 131 is the same owing to the influence of the base prices.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Individual Commodities. (Correspond-
ing months of 1911-13 = 100.)
Commodity
' 1935
1936
1937 1
Feb.
Feb.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Wheat
b 3
85
n j
118
T 33
122
Barley
101
<iS
115
115
1-^5
124
Oats. .
00
85
98
lOT
120
116
Fat cattle . .
91
96
03
01
97
99
„ sheep .
' 134
no
^30
128
140
137
Bacon pigs .
. 120
111
1 18
124
130
126
Pork ,,
: ^^5
114
126
i 3 i
131
125
Eggs
96
118
III
106
95
115
Poultry
124
j 122
1 16
^ 19
120
121
Milk
171
i
171
171
171
171
Butter
86
! 93
. 97
98
95
97
Cheese
94
’ 95
. 107
103
1 T07
107
Potatoes
116
' 200
209
220
1 205
201
Hay
102
83
102
08
1 98
98
Wool
«7 ;
9 fi I
J07
118
T31
131
Dairy cows
102 1
J03
109
III
III
III
Store cattle
84 ;
92
95
98
99
lOI
,, sheep.
109 1
104
117
n 3 i
118
pigs ..
, j 142 i
129 1
155
156 i
152
139
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and the
Cattle Industry [Emergency Provisions) Act.
Wheat
• ! 117
MSk
WM
134
134
.33
Fat cattle . .
• ! 105
105
112
I 14
General Index
■ 1 1
■a
m
i 130
1 1
1 133
* Superseding figure previously published.
Potato Synonyms
The following note has been communicated by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany: —
The report on the work of the Potato Synonym Conunittee
of the National Institute of Agricultural Botany during 1936
forms a striking contrast with those issued in the early years of
the Committee’s activities. Whereas in former years a
considerable proportion of varieties examined proved to be
92
Miscellaneous Notes
no more than established varieties under new names, in 1936
all but two were found to be distinct.
A great reduction is also recorded in the number of
synonyms which continue to be offered in seedsmen’s
catalogues. The improvement in this respect has been
continuous, and as a result of direct correspondence, with few
exceptions, seedsmen throughout the country now intend to
list varieties only under their established names. No satis-
factory replies, however, have been received in respect of
Cherub, Early Favourite, and Cleadon Park, and it should
be pointed out that these are identical with Duke of York,
Sharpe’s Express, and King Edward VIJ (red tyf>e)
respectively. Apart from these, Midlothian Early and Sir
John Llewellyn are still to be found in some catalogues. It
is to be hoped that seedsmen will make it clear that these are
identical with Duke of York and Eclipse, for the duplication
of names can only lead to confusion.
At one time the work of the Committee was not generally
appreciated, but we can say to-day that seed growers and
buyers alike recognize the value of the efforts made to protect
their interests by reducing the many names under which
potatoes have, in the past, been sold.
Copies of the report for 1936 may be obtained on application
to the Secretary, National Institute of Agricultural Botany,
Huntingdon Road, Cambridge.
Importation of Chrysanthemums
With the object of preventing the introduction, through the
medium of imported plants, of the Chrysanthemum Midge
{Diarthronomyia hypogcea F. Low), which has proved a
serious pest of greenhouse Chrysanthemums in North
America, the Minister has made an Order* under the
Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877 to 1927, prohibiting,
as from April 12, 1937. the landing in England or Wales from
any country other than Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Irish
Free State, the Isle of Man, or the Channel Islands of any
living Chrysanthemum plant and parts thereof (except seeds)
for planting, except under licence. The Order, which is
entitled The Importation of Plants (Amendment) Order of
• Copies of the Order (S.R. and O., 1937 No. 197) may be obtained
either directly, or through any bookseller, from H.M. Stationery Office.
Adastral House, Kingsway, W.C.2, price id, net, postage extra.
93
Miscellaneous Notes
1937, also prescribes that the Health Certificates required under
the Importation of Plants Order of 1933 to accompany
imported plants must include a statement that the consign-
ment does not contain any Chrysanthemum plant.
The Ministry will be prepared to entertain applications for
licences under the Order submitted by importers who are in
a position to comply with the conditions which will be
incorporated in the licences. These conditions will, inter alia,
require the imported plants to be kept isolated from other
Chrysanthemums in a separate greenhouse and to be
examined from time to time by one of the Ministry’s Inspectors
until all danger of the appearance of Chrysanthemum Midge
is past. Occasional spraying with a nicotine wash may also
be required.
An illustrated article on the Chrysanthemum Midge
appeared in the March, 1937, issue of this Journal (pp. 1158-
1161).
Sheep Scab Prosecution
On February 12, at the Sheriff Court, Duns, Berwickshire,
proceedings were taken against a farmer for offences against
the Sheep Scab Order of 1928 and the Movement of Animals
(Records) Order of 1925. An Inspector of the Ministry who
visited the farm on January 29, in connexion with the tracing
of animals moved from other infected premises, found eight
sheep out of a total stock of 40 sheep to be affected with sheep
scab, while the carcass of a sheep that was exhumed was
found to be almost denuded of wool and very badly affected
with scab. Sheep from these premises had been in contact
with neighbouring animals, one of which was found to be
affected. The farmer pleaded guilty and a fine of £100 was
imposed by the Sheriff who referred to the case as one of
gross carelessness. The steps taken by the Ministry in co-
operation with Local Authorities during recent years to
eradicate sheep scab have been attended with considerable
success, but further progress may be seriously hindered if
farmers in certain localities fail to co-operate by reporting
suspected cases promptly. It is hop>ed that the penalty
imposed in this instance may have a salutary effect and that
sheep owners will realize the necessity of observing the
requirements of the Sheep Scab Order so that the efforts now
being made to free the flocks in Great Britain from disease
may be effective.
94
Miscellaneous Notes
Advisory Leaflets
Since the date of the list published in the January, 1937,
issue of this Journal (p. 1005), the undermentioned Advisory
Leaflets have been issued by the Ministry : —
No. 84. — The Pear and Cherry Sawfly (Revised).
No. 90. -Essential Points in Poultry Feeding (Rewritten).
No. 15 1. — The Cultivation of Parsnips (Revised).
No. 187. — Woolly Aphis (Revised).
No. 277. — Reversion '' in Black Currants.
No. 279. — Skin Spot and Silver Scurf of Potatoes.
No. 280. — Ragwort.
Copies of any of the above-mentioned leaflets may be
purchased from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House,
Kingsway, London, W.C.2, or at the Sale Offices of that
Department at Edinburgh, Manchester, Cardiff, and Belfast,
price Td. each net (iW. post free), or gd. net per doz. (lod.
post free).
Single copies of not more than 20 leaflets may, however,
be obtained, free of charge, on application to the Ministry.
Further copies beyond this limit must be purchased from
H.M. Stationery Office, as above.
A list of the Ministry’s publications, including leaflets,
on agriculture and horticulture may be obtained free and
post free on application to the Ministry.
Post Graduate Agricultural Scholarships and Refresher
Course Grants
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for Scotland invite applications for (i)
agricultural scholarships from students who propose to follow
the career of agricultural organizer or instructor or lecturer
in agriculture (including horticulture, dairying, and poultry-
husbandry), and (2) for grants for refresher courses from
agricultural organizers, instructors, and lecturers already
employed on the staffs of county agricultural educational
authorities in England and Wales and from county organizers
and instructresses on the staffs of the Agricultural Colleges in
Scotland. The selection from candidates will be by interview,
and the allocation of the scholarships and grants between the
applicants from England, Wales and Scotland will be made
entirely on the basis of merit.
Agricultural Scholarships. The object of the scholar-
ships, of which not more than 4 will be awarded annually,
95
Miscellaneous Notes
is to broaden the agricultural knowledge and experience of
students and so to qualify them for the position of agricultural
organizer, instructor, or lecturer.
Candidates must be British born, and should be graduates
of a University, but exceptional candidates, otherwise
qualified, who have not had an opportunity of graduating,
will be regarded as eligible. Application may also be made
in respect of candidates who have sat for a Degree or Diploma
examination of which the result has not been announced.
In addition, candidates should have had some experience of
practical farming.
The value of the scholarships will not exceed £200 together
with an allowance for approved fees and travelling expenses.
The amount may be varied in accordance with the scholar’s
means and may cover the whole of the cost of training,
including maintenance, or a proportion only of such cost.
The period of the scholarships is normally one year and
commences on October i. It will be spent at such agricultural
educational or research institutions, advisory centres or farms
as the Ministry or the Department may direct.
Candidates must be nominated by a Professor, Principal
or Lecturer of a University or College on the prescribed form
and the nomination must be received not later than June 15.
Students in England and Wales should submit their nomina-
tions to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and students
in Scotland to the Department of Agriculture for Scotland.
Refresher Course Grants. The purpose of the refresher
course grants is to provide means and opportunity for those
already engaged in agricultural educational work to widen
their knowledge of particular branches of agriculture and to
become acquainted with recent advances on the scientific side
of the subject. Special courses will be arranged to suit the
particular circumstances of successful applicants. Applica-
tions for grants for this purpose must be made on the pre-
scribed form to the Ministry or the Department, and must be
approved by the Authority or the governing body of the
College by whom the applicant is employed and by whom
the salary, of the applicant would be payable during (the
period of the course.
The period of a course will normally be about 4 weeks,
and in any instance will not exceed 8 weeks, and will be spent
at such agricultural educational or research institutions,
advisory centres or farms as the Ministry or the Department
96
Miscellaneous Notes
may direct. Reasonable travelling and subsistence expenses
and any fees incurred by a successful applicant in taking a
course will be defrayed.
Forms of application for both the agricultural scholarships
and the refresher course grants and all other particulars may
be obtained, by English and Welsh students, from the
Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, lo,
Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i, and, by Scottish students,
from the Secretary, Department of Agriculture for Scotland,
29, St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh, 2. The latest date for
receiving applications is June 15, 1937.
Stud Goat Scheme, 1937-38
This scheme for the improvement of milch goats kept by
cottagers, smallholders and others is being continued during
the forthcoming breeding season, which extends from
September 1 to February 28 next. Under this scheme persons
in the above-named categories are enabled to procure the
services of first-class stud goats for breeding purposes at a
maximum fee of 4s. per service. The stud goats used must
have been entered, or be considered eligible for entry, in the
British Goat Society's Herd Book, and they must have been
bred from milk-producing stock. As in previous years, the
scheme will be administered by the Society, and owners
desirous of having their stud goats registered are requested
to make application to the Secretary, Roydon Road, Diss,
Norfolk, not later than April 15. No application will be
considered after May 20, and goats submitted for approval
must be available after that date for inspection at the premises
at which they arc intended to stand at stud. It is interesting
to note that Tamarisk*, a smallholder’s goat whose sire and
grandsire were registered under the scheme, won her star at
the New Forest Agricultural Show last summer with a one-day
yield of 17 lb.
Farm Workers* Minimum Rates of Wages. — A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London,
S.W.I, on Tuesday, March i6, 1937, Mr. W. B. Yates, C.B.E., J.P.,
presiding.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages and proceeded to
make the following orders : —
Devonshire, — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into operation on March 21, 1937 (i.e., the day following that on
which existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in force until
March 26, 1938, The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
97
Miscellaneous Notes
age and over are 34s. (instead of 32s. 6d. as at present) per week of
50 hours in winter, except in the weeks in which Good Friday, Easter
Monday, Christmas Day and December 27, i 937 i when the hours
are 41, and 52 hours in summer, except in the week in which Whit
Monday falls when the hours arc 43, with overtime unchanged through-
out the period at B\d. per hour on weekdays and lod. per hour on
Sundays and for overtime employment on the hay and corn harvests.
The minimum rates for female workers of 18 years of age and over are
unchanged at 6d. per hour for a week of 48 hours, except in the weeks
in which Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day
and December 27, 1937, fall when the hours are 40, with overtime at
7^^. per hour as at present.
Essex , — ^An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to come
into force on March 28, 1937 following that on which the
existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in operation until
April 2, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age
and over are 325. 6d. (instead of 31s. td. as at present) per week of 50
hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Easter Monday and
Whit Monday fall when the hours are 41^, and 48 hours in winter,
except (i) in the week in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall
together, when the hours are 31, and (ii) in the weeks in which Christmas
Day and Boxing Day fall, when those days fall in separate weeks, when
the hours are 39J, with overtime at g\d. per hour on weekdays
(including Easter Monday, Whit Monday and Boxing Day), and io\d.
per hour on Sundays and on Christmas Day (instead of g\d. and io|<f.
per hour respectively as at present). The minimum rate for female
workers of 21 years of age and over remains unchanged at 6\d. per
hour for all time worked.
Herefordshire . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on May i, 1937 following that on which
existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in operation until
April 30, 1938. The minimum rates are (i) in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over employed wholly or mainly as bailiffs,
waggoners, stockmen, or shepherds, 37s. (instead of 365. as at present)
per week (including Sunday) for all time necessarily spent on the
immediate care of animals (not exceeding 60 hours) with overtime
unchanged at 9^. per hour, except for employment on Christmas Day
and Good Friday where a worker has completed less than 60 hours in
the weeks in which those holidays fall, when the rate is 2d. per hour ;
(ii) for other male workers of 21 years of age and over, 32s. 6<f. (instead
of 3 IS. 6d. as at present) per week of 48 hours in winter, except in the
week in which Christmas Day falls when the hours are 39 J, and 54 hours
in summer, except in the week in which Good Friday falls when the
hours are 44 J, with overtime at gd. per hour on weekdays and lod.
per hour on Sundays (as at present) ; and (iii) for female workers of
18 years of age and over, 5<f. per hour (as at present), with overtime at
6d. per hour, except for employment on Christmas Day and Good
Friday where a whole-time worker has completed less than 46J hours
in the weeks in which those holidays fall, when the rate is i Jd. per hour.
Kent . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to come
into force on March 28, 1937 (i.e., the day following that on which
existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in operation until
April 2, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over employed wholly or mainly as horsemen, stockmen or
shepherds are 35s. (instead of 335. 6d. as at present) per week of 52 hours,
except (i) in the weeks in which Easter Monday and Coronation Day
fall when the hours are 42J, (ii) in the week in which Christmas Day
98
Miscellaneous Notes
and Boxing Day fall together when the hours are 33, and (iii) in the weeks
in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall when those days fall in
separate weeks, when the hours are 42 J. The minimum rates for other
male workers of 21 years of age and over are 345. (instead of 335. as
at present) per week of 52 hours in summer, except in the weeks in
which Easter Monday and Coronation Day fall when the hours are 42 J,
and 48 hours in winter, except (i) in the week in which Christmas Day
and Boxing Day fall together when the hours are 31 (instead of 30 hours
as formerly), and (ii) in the weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing
Day fall, when these days fall in separate weeks, when the hours are 39 1 .
The overtime rates are, in the case of ordinary male workers of 21 years
of age and over, gd. per hour on weekdays and'iorf. per hour on Sundays,
Easter Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day (as formerly) and lod.
per hour on Coronation Day, and in the case of horsemen, stockmen or
shepherds of similar age lod. per hour on Easter Monday, Coronation
Day, Christmas Day and Boxing Day and gd. per hour for all other
overtime employment (including Sundays). The minimum rate for
female workers of 18 years of age and over is unchanged at 6d. per
hour, with overtime at 6\d, per hour on weekdays and 7^. per hour on
Sundays, Easter Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day (as at present)
and 7</. per hour on Coronation Day.
Lincolnshire {Holland). — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and
overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor
to come into force on March 28, 1937. to continue in operation until
October 30, 1937- The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years
of age and over are 35s. (as at present) per week of 50 hours in summer
except in the weeks in which Coronation Day, Whit Monday and
August Bank Holiday fall when the hours are 41. In the case of horse-
men, cattlemen and shepherds of similar age additional w^eekly sums are
fixed to cover all time worked in excess of the number of hours mentioned
above, except employment which is to be treated as overtime employ-
ment. The overtime rates for male workers of 21 years of age and over
are is. i\d. per hour on Sundays (as at present), gd. per hour (instead
of %\d. as at present) on Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday, gd.
per hour on Coronation Day, io\d. per hour on Saturday or other
w^eekly .short day (as at present) and lojtf. per hour (instead of gd. as
at present) for all other overtime employment. The minimum rate for
female workers of 15 years of age and over is per hour, except in
Coronation Week when the minimum rate is ^d. per hour, with overtime
at 'jd. per hour for all employment in excess of 5J hours on Saturday or
other agreed weekly short day, on Sundays and in excess of 8 hours on
any day.
Northumberland. — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages
to come into force at noon on May 13, 1937 (i.e., when the existing rates
are due to expire), and to continue in force until noon on May 13, 1938.
The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and over em-
ployed as stewards, horsemen, cattlemen, stockmen, or shepherds and
hired by the week or longer period are 395. 6d. (instead of 38s. 6d. as at
present) in the case of workers who are householders, and 365. 6d. (instead
of 355, 6d. as at present) in the case of workers who are not householders,
per week of customary hours (not exceeding 62). For other male
workers of 21 years of age and over (except workers in casual employ-
ment) the minimum rate is 32s. 6d.. (instead of 31s. 6d. as at present)
per week of 48 hours in winter and 52 j hours in summer, overtime being
payable in the case of all regular male workers at not less than gd. per
hour on weekdays and iid. per hour on Sundays. The minimum rate
for casual male workers of 18 years of age and over is Sd. per hour
99
Miscellaneous Notes
(instead of *]d, per hour as at present) for all time worked. The minimum
rates for female workers of i8 years of age and over are 6d, per hour
(instead of 5^. per hour as at present) in the case of re^lar workers,
and 4d. per hour (instead of 3d. per hour as at present) in the case of
casual workers, with overtime at jd. per hour and 5d. per hour
respectively (instead of 6d. per hour and 4^. per hour as at present).
Somerset — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to come
into force on March 28, 1937 following that on which the
existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation until
March 26, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 34s. (instead of 32s. fid. as at present) per week of 52
hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Easter Monday
Coronation Day, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday fall when the
hours are 42^, and 50 hours in winter, except in the weeks in which
Christmas Day and December 27, 1937 when the hours are 41J,
with overtime unchanged at gd. per hour, except for overtime employ-
ment on the hay and com harvests when the rate is lod. per hour.
Provision is made for adjustment of the hours in respect of which the
minimum weekly wage is payable in the weeks in which Easter Monday,
Coronation Day, Whit Monday, August Bank Holiday, Christmas Day,
and December 27, 1937, meet cases where alternative holidays
are given within 14 days of such holidays. The minimum rate for female
workers of 21 years of age and over is unchanged at fid. per hour for all
time worked.
Sussex . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to come
into force on March 22, 1937 following that on which the
existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation until
July II, 1937. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21
years of age and over arc (i) for workers employed wholly or mainly as
horsemen, cowmen, stockmen, or shepherds, 37s. fid. (as at present) per
week of 58 hours except in the weeks in which Good Friday, Coronation
Day and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 50 ; and (ii) for other
workers, 32s. fid. (as at present) per week of 52 hours, except in the
weeks in which Good Friday, Coronation Day and Whit Monday fall
when the hours are 44. The overtime rates for all classes of adult male
workers are unchanged at gd. per hour on weekdays, and lod. per hour
on Sundays. The minimum rate for female workers of 18 years of age
and over is 5d. per hour, with overtime at 6Jd. per hour on weekdays
and 7id. per hour on Sundays (as at present).
Wiltshire . — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime rates
of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor, to come into
force on March 25, 1937, ^md to continue in operation until January i,
1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and
over are 325. fid. (instead of 31s. as at present) per week of 50 hours,
except in the weeks in which Good Friday, Easter Monday, Coronation
Day, Whit Monday, August Bank Holiday, Christmas Day, and
December 27, 1937» fall when the hours are 41. The overtime rates are
9jd. per hour on weekdays (instead of 9d. as at present) and lod. per
hour on Sundays, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Coronation Day, Whit
Monday and Christmas Day (as at present) and lod. per hour on August
Bank Holiday and December 27, 1937. J*ate for overtime employ-
ment on the hay and com harvests on weekdays is 9 Jd. per hour (instead
of gd. as at present). The minimum rate for female workers of 18 years
of age and over is sd. per hour for all time worked (as at present).
Radnor and Brecon . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages
to come into force on May i, 1937 (i.e., the day following that on which
the existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation until
100
Miscellaneous Notes
October 31, 1937. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 325. (instead of 31s. as at present) per week of 50 hours
in winter and 54 hours in summer, with overtime unchanged at gd,
per hour. For female workers of 18 years of age and over, the minimum
rate is unchanged at 5<f. per hour with overtime at per hour on
weekdays and yjif. per hour on Sundays (as at present).
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
March 13, 1937, legal proceedings were taken against fourteen employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural AVages Board. Particulars of the cases follow^ : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
!
i Arrears of
Wage.s
ordered
No. of
\\'orkers
involved
/
s.
d
: £
5.
d.
£
s.
d.
Berkshin' . .
Wantage
iJ
10
0
' 1
3
()
3
ti
0
r
Do.
Do.
»
—
0
0
I
Cheshire . .
Macclesfield
2
0
0
3
0
0
* 19
T5
0
2
Lancashire
Radcliffe
■ 12
0
0
4
h
8
! 60
13
4
2
Nottingham-
shire
Worksop
>
0
0
0
10
6
1 49
I
2
2
Do. . .
Do. . .
0
10
0
0
5
0
i 8
8
0
I
Shropshire
Baschurch
TO
0
0
0
10
0
' 47
10
0
4
Somerset . .
Axbridge. .
3
f>
0
0
I 2
6
34
1 6
IT
i
W'estmore-
land
Appleby . .
+
—
-
3
Yorkshire
(K.H ; ,
File>'
7
H)
0
2
12
(>
1 2
3
2
1
Do. . .
Bridlington
2
0
0
f )
3
0
15
7
0
1
Carmarthen
Llanfihangel
0
5
0
—
M
j I
4
1
Carnarvon
Pwllheli ..
1
0
0
—
0
L 5
0
1
Do. . .
Carnarvon
1
0
0
0
5
0
1 ^7
II
5
I
' 41
1
15
0
1
19
8
321
!
3
4
»
1
* Dismissed under Probation of Offenders ” Act.
t Dismissed.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease. — No outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
has been confirmed since February 5. At the time this issue of the
Journal went to press, no part of Great Britain w^as subject to any
restriction in connexion with this disease.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS; ENGLAND
Essex ; Miss D. O. Ashton, B.Sc., N.D.H., has been appointed Instruc-
tress in Rural Domestic Science, vice Miss E, W. Jameson, N.D.H.
Lincolnshire (Lindsey) : Mr. A. Mann, B.Sc., has been appointed
Agricultural Organizer, vice Mr. A. McVicar, B.Sc., N.D.A., N.D.D.,
who resigned on March 31 to take up a -similar appointment in Shrop-
shire.
Norfolk ; Mr. P. E. Cross, N.D.H. , has been appointed Assistant Director
of Horticultural Education, and will take up his duties on May i.
lOI
WIRELESS TALKS TO FARMERS, APRIL, 1937
Station and
Date
Time :
p,m
1
1 Speakers
j Subject
National :
AprUs, 12.
IQ, 26
Midland :
0*20
Mr J (i Stewart
1
j
April I
0-40
j Messrs. \V. B Thompson
1 Shire Horses
j and W Milner
1
- i
j
8-30
1 Our ( ountrv Correspon-
1 dent • Captain H. A
1 (lilberl
j Wild Fowl Inquiry
1
M 11
i Mr Kobin Whitworth
\'ale of Kvesbani Fruit-
'
grow'ing
.. 15 '
0*40
I 'or Midland Farm(‘r*>
West :
*
April \ '
<)• 50
! I'ortnighll}' Letter
I'or Western FarnuTs
” 1
(>•40
1 Messrs A \V Ling and
What is Going on in
! JL J . Fricker
(iloucestershiic
M 15 j
i I'ortnightly Letter
For Western Farmers
1 > 22 j
0-30
1 Messrs A \V Ling and
What IS (ioing on in Corn-
1 B J Fricker
wall
^<1 :
()• 50
‘ Fortnightly l.etter
For W'estern rarnier'*
North ;
April ()
*)• jO
! .Mes'^is J J Oreen, Ct M
J'^oiiltry harming in Lant a-
Kobcitson and ] 1..
' iMoorhouse ;
shire.
,, 22
<»• 20
j Prof J A Hanley and
T.and I tili^.ixion
' Mr F. Wylie LVnton
Welsh :
April 2
7 '
' Mr Moses C.rdtUh (in
h'or Welsh h'armers 'Die
1
Welsh)
1 ,
F.irming Situation in
Wales 'i'o-day.
,, (i '
7 *
Mr W 11 (ones (in
hor W'clsh 1 ariners In- -
j
i Welsh)
troductory to a new senes
ol talks
Scottish : ;
1
April i '
0* 40
1)1 J Knssell (ireig
For Scottish Farmeis
" 7 1
0*30
Dr. Allan Fraser :
I'or Scottish Fanners
()• 20
Principal W, (L R Pater- '
Bracken Fradication
i
j son
»» 22 1
0-20
As North Regional '
—
Northern i
i
[
Ireland: i
April ij 1
7-30
Mr. Peter Fitzpatrick
Farmers’ Work and Woiry.
102
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Land-Rcclamation in Italy : Rural Revival in the Building of a
Nation. By C'csare Longobarcli. Translated from the Italian by
O. i<. Agicsti. I’p. \ii 243, & 29 Figs. (London : P. S. King
A' Son, Ltd. i93f). 1 ^‘K‘e i26. Od.)
Tbi^ ICnglisli verhion of an Italian work published in 1934 makes far
from easy rcatling, but is a useful account of the machinery and aims of
land reclamation under the Fast ist regime. Stress is laid on the “ integral
cliaraeter ot the work, as part of a co-ordinated movement for "rural
re vival " a character which, it is claimed, the corporative system alone
<<inld h<ive imjiarted It is stated that on July t, 1934, pnblic reclama-
tion works had lu'cn fully or nearly completed on 1,760,000 hectares
(4,330,000 acre s j Of this area, 780,000 hectares had previously consisted
of unprodiictu e or " extensively ’ ciiltiv'ated lands, on which reclamation
woihs proj)(*r liavc' to be followed by agricultural conversion and settle-
nu’iit 'rhe < ost of Government and private works executed from 1870
to July I, 1031, IS given elsewhere a.s 8,000 million lire, of which works
costing 6.000 million lire were executed in the twelve years of the Fascist
era. Operations in the Pontine Marshes, including acquisition of lands,
road-making, building, stump-extracting, bieaking-iip and conditioning
the land, supple mg water, (dc , are stated to have cost 7,000 lire per
hectare lor the smaller larms and 2.300 lire ]>er hectare tor the larger
farms jii less fertile regions, or /31 and /ii per acre respectively. In
Littoria and Sabaudia loan charges tor drainage works and cost of
imiiutenance average 70 lire ])er hectare, or 6.s pt r acre "The plans
arc studied and selei tod so that the quota (»1 costs charged to each owner
may be cxpec ted to earn a normal rat(‘ of inten^st provided by the increa.scd
income derived from the land itsidl : and in the case of the Government
so that the <piota toi which it is Iiabh‘ tlic maximum Government grant
towards cliff ereni public w'orks varying from 60 per cent, to 100 per cent,
according to the nature of tlu' work, and even for works beneficial only to
one or more farms from 25 pcT cent to 75 per cent. — " is proportional
to the economic and social advantage secured for the country.” An
allocation of that p<irt of the cost met by landowners is provisional!}’ made
oil the basis of benefit, and is revised on the completion of the works.
Where the works rc»sult in a saving (>f expenditure to provinces and com-
munes, they may be Te(]uired to make--- apart from any quota to w’hich
they may lie liable as owners — a contribution not exceeding a quarter of
the Treasury contribution. Fhe execution and upkeep of the work is
usually entrusted to a consortiion of landowners, although either the land-
owners or the Government may have the final responsibility, according
to the nature of the work A large part, however, has been played by the
National Foundation for Ex-Service Men, which may require land subject
to reclamation obligations to be transferred to it.
An Introduction to the Principles of Plant Physiology. By W. Stiles,
M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S , F.R.S. Pp. viii -f- 613 and 60 Figs. (London :
Methuen & Co., Ltd. 1936. Wee 27s o^^.)
Botanists are only too familiar with the bewildering mass of original
publications concerning the physiology of plants that have appeared during
the last 20 years. In the absence of up-to-date text-books on this subject,
it has frequently been beyond the capabilities of students who are working
103
Notices of Books
through an honours degree course in a limited time, to assess the relative
value of apparently contradictory statements, or to extract information
from these papers, and synthesise a clear picture of the essential features
of the more important processes which make up the life of a plant. The
result is that many botanists have no clear physiolopcal background
against which their activities in other branches of the subject can be clearly
seen. For this reason Professor Stiles’s book will doubtless be welcomed
by many as a safe haven in which to anchor awhile, and take stock of the
situation. With further lapse of time, a change in direction of the physio-
logical wind may necessitate the erection of fresh breakwaters, or even
the reorganization of the harbour itself, but this can bo left for the future
to decide.
The book is divided into four main parts, entitled : (i) The ^ncral
Physiology and Development of the Plipt Cell, (ii) Metabolism, (iii) The
Physiology of Development, (iv) Irritability and Movement. There is
also a useful list of more than 900 original papers to w^hich reference is
made in the text. Some of the information in parts 1 and ii is already
available in Professor Stiles's own previous works, and in other books dealing
v-ith special aspects of plant physiology, but that in parts iii and iv will
probably be found particularly valuable. The book is well written, easy
to follow, and unnecessary or confusing detail has been omitted. All these
desirable features could have come only from the pen of one who has
thoroughly mastered the subject in hand.
The selection of material for inclusion in a bdok is always a difficult task,
and in this instance much care has evidently been expended. It is impor-
tant to realise, however, that only a small proportion of those taking an
honours course in botany will in after life be engaged in researches in
pure physiolog>^ For purposes of general education it therefore seems
desirable that special emphasis should be laid on the ways in w^hich the
principles of plant physiology can or might be applied to agricultural and
horticultural practice, just as in a text-book of chemistry it is customary
to show how general principles have been employed in industry. The
book under review is essentially one that deals with principles rather
than their applications, although these have not always been omitted.
For instance on p. 393, the commercial possibilities which arise out of the
work of Garner and Allard on the effect of length of day in controlling the
flowering of plants, or how work on vernalization might be applied to
facilitate the production of cereals (pp. 389-90) are indicated. On the
other hand, no attention is drawn to the fact that the knowledge concerning
growth-promoting substances, which has accumulated during the past 10
years, might be of use in attempting to propagate refractory plants by vege-
tative means. Since fields, gardens and greenhouses are the domains in which
so many students have in later life to apply scientific knowledge to earn their
daily bread, it seems probable that a closer relationship between laboratory
work and commercial practice would of great value to all concerned.
Professor Stiles’s book is undoubtedly a very valuable addition to
botanical literature, and is strongly to be recommended to all who are
interested in plant physiology.
Printed under the authority of His Maiesty’s Stationery Office,
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duke Street, SUmford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 2 May, 1937
The World Feeding-Stuffs Position
A good deal of attention has been aroused in recent months
by the world rise in prices of animal feeding-stuffs, and a brief
statistical review of the world position of the more important
feeding-stuffs, barley, oats, maize and linseed, may be of
interest.
Recent statistics published by the International Institute of
Agriculture, Rome, arc summarized in the following table of
world production : —
i
j Number
1 of
' Countries
: compnsed
1 in the
j total (a)
Percentage
of world
pro<luction
(a)
I^oduction in
193O-37
Increase (+) or
Decrease { — ) com-
pared with
1 Average of
i sea.sons
m 5 - 3 <> 1 ending
' 1934-35
Barley .
1
%
0/
/(}
0/
,0
• ' 4 ^
8 j
485 million |
cwt. 1
— 12
— 10
Oats
. 1 30
98
802 million 1
cwt. 1
— lO
- 13
Maize .
• -3
84
1,443 million
cwt.
- 17
^ 17
Linseed .
IM
j
99
2,780 thousand
tons
-1- ir
— 2
(a) Kusmr and China excluded.
The harvests of barley and oats in Europe in 1936-37,
although about 7 per cent, under average, were little different
from those of the previous season, while the maize crop
increased by about 27 per cent, on the year and 16 per cent,
above average. Since 1932, linseed production in Europe
has progressively expanded, and a further large increase was
recorded in 193^37.
The harvests of barley, oats and maize in North America
were about one-third smaller than in 1935-36 and the
production of linseed declined by more than one-half.
A
105
Notes for the Month
Good crops of barley and oats were taken in Argentina, and
a first estimate of the maize harvest, although 5 per cent, less
than last season’s crop, is 10 per cent, above average.
Linseed production in Argentina, although very slightly under
average, was 32 per cent, more than in I935“36-
Total shipments of feeding-stuffs, together with United
Kingdom imports, during the first eight months of the present
season, compared with the corresponding period in 1935-36,
are given in the following table : —
i World Shipments,
1 August to March
i
United Kingdom
Imports, August
to March
i 1936-37
1935-36
1936-37
1935-36
Barley, million cwt.
. 1 22*9
27-8
13*9
i 5'7
Oats ,, ,,
. i 7*3
6-7
1*4
1-7
Maize
. i 159-1
131-1
54*7
48-3
Linseed, thousand tons
1560-6
1257*5
i
195*7
189-2
The bulk of the oats, maize and linseed shipments were
supplied by Argentina, while Russia and the Danubian
countries shipped the largest proportion of the world barley
exports. Larger quantities than usual of animal feeding stuffs
have been imported into the United States to supplement the
poor crops taken in that country, and arrivals of maize in the
United Kingdom were considerably above average.
The trend of prices in this country is shown in the following
table of monthly average prices : —
Imported
Feeding
Barley
per cwt.
Imported
Oats
per cwt.
Argentine
Maize
per cwt.
Linseed
Cake
per ton.
August, 1936
s. d.
7 I
.. d.
1 4
s. d.
6 3
L s- i-
8 18 0
September ,,
6 6
7 3
5 10
906
October ,,
6 II
1 7 9
5 8
i 8 16 6
November ,,
6 II
: 7 9 ,
5 3
8 14 0
December
8 0
; 8 10
5 9
930
January, 1937
8 II
9 4
5 11
990
February
8 6
! 8 II
1 5 11
990
March „ . .
8 5
1 9 * 1
1 3
966
March, 1936 . . . . i
1
5 4
i 6 3
<
1
4 3
106
Notes for the Month
The new maize and linseed crops in Argentina are good and
should be available on the market in the near future. It is too
early, however, for any indication of prospects for this
season's crops in the northern hemisphere.
Dried Poultry Manure Experiments
A series of field experiments on dried poultry manure was
carried out in 1936 by the Rothamsted staff in conjunction with
Advisory Chemists, County Organizers, Farm Institutes and
others along lines developed since 1933. Several of the
experiments begun in 1934 and 1935 were planned to run a
term of years and many of them were continued in 1936.
Others on a similar plan were started. After the preliminary
year it was decided to concentrate attention on the organic
matter and nitrogen in poultry manure and to omit any further
attempt to assess the value of the phosphoric acid iri dried
poultry manure by giving all plots in each experiment the same
total amoimts of P2O5 and KgO, allowing for those in the
poultry manure. It was agreed that the value of an organic
manure such as poultry manure might not be properly esti-
mated by considering only the immediate effects in the year
of application. Attempts to measure either cumulative or
residual effects necessarily complicate the form of the experi-
ments. It is believed that the general pattern adopted in most
of the recent experiments meets the requirements as satisfac-
torily as is possible with a moderate number of plots to be
employed for a short term of years.
The experiments as a whole gave larger responses than in
previous years, and thus gave a better opportunity for
comparing poultry manure and sulphate of ammonia. The
1936 results are in good agreement with those of the earlier
years, though both manures gave better results in the wet year
1936 than in the average of the three preceding drier ones The
variation between centres makes it unsafe to conclude from the
information at present available that the cumulative effects of
poultry manure are greater than those of sulphate of ammonia,
but there are at least indications that this is so.
The results of the main series of trials indicate that the rela-
tive effects of poultry manure and sulphate of ammonia differed
from crop to crop in 1936, but it must be remembered that the
number of experiments in each group was small. It appears,
however, that for the crops known to respond abundantly to
inorganic nitrogen, the poultry manure is definitely inferior to
A 2 107
Notes for the Month
sulphate of ammonia. There is, however, some suggestion
that for special crops and for cumulative effects poultry manure
may have advantages over sulphate of ammonia. The precise
conditions must, however, be worked out more thoroughly
before a definite statement can be made. For immediate
effects on crops responding to inorganic nitrogen, poultry
manure is definitely inferior to an equivalent amount of
inorganic fertilizers. The average residual effect of poultry
manure, judging from first-year residues in these experiments,
was small relative to that of sulphate of ammonia, which in
the 1936 experiment may well be assumed to have been zero.
While it is thought desirable to place the interim results of
these experiments on record, it must be said that the results
are tentative and that it is proposed to carry on the experiments
for three more seasons. At the conclusion of the experiments
it is hoped that there will be available definite data that will
provide sound criteria for evaluating the material.
Interesting Birds: (3) The Kestrel
The Kestrel is still fairly common in Great Britain, and is
perhaps the most familiar of our birds of prey. The character-
istic hovering flight, which in some districts has caused the
Kestrel to be known as the “ Windhover," makes its identifica-
tion when in flight an easy matter. Like all birds of prey it is
veiy keen sighted, and it may often be seen hovering at a
considerable height, stationary and almost motionless except
for the balancing action of the wings and tail, watching some
creature on the ground beneath.
In general colour the male Kestrel is a light chestnut, spotted
and streaked with black. The breast is buff, and the head and
lower part of the back and tail are slate grey. The female
differs in that the head, neck and tail are chestnut, barred or
streaked with black.
The Kestrel makes no nest, being content to occupy the
disused nest of a crow or some other large bird, or to lay its
eggs in a cleft in a rock, in a hollow tree, or even on a ledge in
some building. The eggs, which may number 4-6, are very
handsome, and vary considerable in colour and marking.
The most common form is one having a creamy or yellowish-
white ground, so densely marked with rich red-brown that the
ground colour is almost or entirely obscured.
The Kestrel’s food consists almost wholly of mice, voles,
young rats, and large insects. Sometimes, however, it takes
108
Phoiofiriitifi Cut>yriiihi hy Eric J. Husking.
Kestrel, witli Field Vole
To face puge loS.
Notes for the Month
a small bird of one kind or another. Individual Kestrels may
fall into bad habits and take to stealing young chickens and
pheasants, but these occasional lapses should not be allowed to
prejudice the species in the eyes of landowners or farmers.
The Kestrel is, in fact, one of the most useful birds that we
have, and is a good friend to agriculturists generally. In the
destruction of rodent pests it has no superior, with the possible
exception of the Barn Owl. Nowadays, happily, it escapes
much of the persecution to which it was at one time subjected,
and all occupiers of land should make it their business to
protect and encourage so useful an ally.
Potato Synonyms
The following note has been communicated by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany : ~
It was reported to the Council of the National Institute of
Agricultural Botany, which met on April 15, that the work of
the Potato Sj'nonym Committee had resulted in the practical
elimination of synonymous names from the catalogues of the
largest seedsmen. Of these firms, only two refused to with-
draw their synonyms, namely Chenib, Clcadon Park and
Early Favourite.
Communications had recently been sent to a very large
number of the remaining firms throughout the country
suggesting where necessaiy' that synonymous or alternative
names be withdrawn from their catalogues. A gratifying
response had been received, for out of 125 firms offering such
names in their 1937 04 already agreed to fall in with
the suggestions of the Committee, while only 4 firms had
definitely refused. In these instances the varieties were being
grown at Ormskirk, and publicity would be given to the
Committee’s findings in due course.
Whey
In the Report of the Advisory Committee on Nutrition
recently is.sued, attention is drawn to the nutritive value of
whey. The Report says :
“ The belief that whey is of no significant nutritional value is
erroneous. Undoubtedly it is inferior to skimmed milk, cheese, or butter,
but it is nevertheless sufficiently nutritious to warrant its use in human
diets wherever it is available. Whey contains much of the sugar and
minerals and some of the proteins and \’itamins of the milk from whicli
it was derived, and, as an ingredient of foods made from cereals, it
would go some way towards correcting the deficiencies in such foods.’'
109
Notes for the Month
The manufacturing industry is, in general, already well
aware of the value of this by-product of cheese-making, and
it is used to some extent already in the manufacture of certain
patent milk foods. As to its constitution, it has 93 per cent,
water, 5 percent, milk-sugar and lactic acid, i per cent, soluble
protein, and traces of mineral ash and butter fat. As a food
substance it is, of course, highly diluted and subject to rapid
deterioration. Where cheese is made on a small scale, whey
is generally fed to pigs and should thus be well utilized on the
farms. In large-scale cheese-making, whey is obviously a
difficult by-product to deal with, as it must either be returned
to farms for stock-feeding or concentrated sufficiently to permit
of its transport to a central factory for the further processing
and extraction of the milk-sugar. A large quantity of whey
is at present sent from cheese-making factories in the West
Midlands to the finishing depot at Haslington, near Crewe,
where an excellent grade of lactose is produced for inclusion
in certain patent foods. From this process there is a further
by-product containing some minerals and proteins suitable for
stock-feeding. It may well be that in large-scale cheese-
making in the future, provision will always be made for the
concentration of the valuable ingredients in whey, with a view
to their utilization in various forms of milk and other foods.
Wild White Clover Certification Scheme
The IQ36 harvest of wild white clover seed was one of the
smallest that has been known for many years. The supply
of certified seed from fields that have been recorded under this
scheme has been insufficient to meet the demand. The price
of the seed is higher than it has been for several seasons, and
stocks of wild white clover seed must now be very low.
There is a steady demand from the U.S.A. for English
certified seed, and although this demand is not for a very great
volume of seed at present, there is every indication that an
increase is likely as soon as the satisfactory results from the
inclusion of this plant in the seeds mixtures, particularly in
the Eastern States, become more widely known.
About 9,000 acres of seed have been recorded under the
scheme, of which approximately 7,700 acres are Grade A (old
pasture that has been in grass not less than 10 years) and 1,300
Grade B (less than 10 years old and sown down with seed from
a pasture which was not less than 10 years old). Over 3,600
acres that were submitted for inspection have not been
no
Notes for the Month
recorded; of these, about 2,900 were either rejected on
inspection or otherwise found to be ineligible, while the
remaining acres were withdrawn from the scheme.
Farmers who intend sowing down fields to grass with a
seeds mixture including wild white clover are advised that
it is desirable to use certified Grade A seed, so that if they
subsequently decide to harvest wild white clover seed, the
fields will be eligible for recording under the scheme.
Seed offered for sale is sometimes described by the seller
as being from an inspected pasture, but it should be under-
stood that, where no reference is given to the certificate
number, the buyer has no guarantee that inspection of the
pasture was followed by its acceptance and recording under
the scheme. It is therefore advisable to quote the certificate
number in all sales of certified seed.
This scheme for the recording of fields and the certification
of seed is a voluntary and self-supporting one that is being
operated jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture and the
National Farmers’ Union. Full particulars can be obtained
on application to any County Secretary of the National
Farmers’ Union or direct from the Secretary of the Central
Wild White Clover Committee of the National Farmers’
Union, 45, Bedford Square, London, W.C.i. The scheme
is not limited to members of the National Farmers’ Union.
Application for inspection of pastures this year must be in
the hands of the National Farmers’ Union by May 15.
Scientific Principles of Poultry Feeding
For the 4th edition of the Ministry’s Bulletin No. 7,* which
the Ministry has recently issued, the author, Mr. E. T
Hainan, has incorporated the new knowledge that has been
acquired since the appearance of the 3rd edition. As a result,
several sections of the work have been rewritten, and much
new material has been added. In the new sections dealing
with poultry dietetics, the relation of feeding to the quality
of eggs and flesh, the relation of nutrition to the moult, the
relation of minerals to growth and egg production, and the
factors affecting palatability, have been given special
attention.
Methods of feeding poultry were once more or less of a
rough-and-ready kind, and were based almost entirely on
• Obtainable from His Maje.sty’s Stationery Office or through a
bookseller. Price is. (by post is. zd.).
Ill
Notes for the Month
empiricism. Such methods may have been excusable so long
as poultry were regarded merely as scavengers or as a means
of using up inferior grain produced on the farm, or while the
average egg yield was small and production was almost
confined to the spring and summer months. In view,
however, of the greatly increased demands that are now made
upon the egg-laying capacity of fowls, especially in the
autumn and winter, and of the present desire for quicker
growth and earlier maturity, it is clear that it is vitally
important to base feeding methods upon both scientific and
economic factors. Further, the close relation between
nutrition and disease is now generally appreciated.
Evidence continues to accumulate to indicate that a ration
that is deficient in certain constituents may be directly
responsible for the appearance of certain diseases. There is,
in fact, reason to suppose that, in some instances the progress
of disease in infected birds may be checked by an appropriate
ration. Apart from this question of the more direct
preventive or curative influence of diet on disease, it is of
great importance that the nutritive requirements of the fowl,
whether for the production of normal growth, eggs, or flesh,
should be satisfied. Research into the problems of poultry
nutrition has lagged behind similar work in connexion with
larger farm animals. With the establishment of the National
Poultry Institute a few years ago, the position in this respect
has been largely remedied, and recent investigations throw
considerable new light on the subject.
The Bulletin is divided into several main sections — ^Thc
Essential Constituents and Functions of Food; The Anatomy
of the Digestive System of the Fowl and its relation to Diet;
Digestibility from a Practical Standpoint; The Anatomy of
the Egg-Producing Apparatus of the Fowl and its Relation to
Egg Production; Poultry Dietetics; Feeding Standards in
Relation to Poultry Production ; and The Quantitative
Requirements. In addition, there is described a system of
table poultry production suitable for farmers, and some short
notes on feeding stuffs for poultry are given.
ElectrO'Culture Committee Report
The Electro-Culture Committee, which was set up i8 years
ago by the Ministry, under the chairmanship of Sir John
Snell, G.B.E., M.Inst.C.E., has now issued its i8th and Final
Report.
II2
Notes for the Month
'The main object of the Committee was to determine the
effect of overhead electrical discharge upon growing crops;
and experiments on a field scale and on pot cultures were
carried out under the supervision of Professor V. H. Blackman,
Sc.D., F.R.S., mainly at the Rothamsted Experimental
Station by courtesy of the Director, Sir John Russell, F.R.S.
The difficulties in connexion with the field experiments
were found to be so considerable that these experiments were
discontinued after 1922 and the work confined to pot cultures.
The results of the pot culture work, briefly set out in the
Report, show that such increases in yield as have shown
themselves have been of the order of 20 ])er cent, only, and
have been very erratic in their occurrence.
The report states that : —
‘‘In spite of the failures of recent years, the field results obtained
some years ago and the earlier pot culture results would seem to have
established the fact that the electro-culture eifect is a real one. It
\vouId seem, however, to be of little advantage to continue the work
either on economic or on scientific grounds. Increases of 20 per cent,
can hardly be considered economic even if obtained in most years ;
experiments, however, demonstrate that the regular occurrence of the
effect cannot be expected. On the scientific side the erratic occurrence
of the phenomena to be investigated — a \'agary possibly related to
weather conditions — renders their full study im])ossible.
“ Although the economic results of the work of the Committee have
been nil, this prolonged investigation has not been without value.
Electro-culture appliecl to cnips by an overlicad di.schargc has excited
con.siderable intere.st both in this country and abroad, and very high
claims have been made for it. The elaborate .studies which the
Committee have undertaken during a period of 18 years do not support
these claims The study earned out over so many years has in fact
brought to light the diflicultics a.s.sociated with the .scientiiic study of
electro-culture by reason of the other variables involved.
“ The Committee regret that after so exhaustu c a study of this
matter the practical results should be so disappointing."
The Plum Sawfly
At a conference of plum growers arranged by the Worcester-
shire County Education Authorities a few weeks ago. Dr.
H. G. H. Kearns, of the Long Ashton Fruit Station of the
University of Bristol, gave some interesting infonnation and
advice concerning Plum Sawfly. It appears that the fly was
noted in Worcestershire as long ago as 40 or 50 years, but,
strangely enough, did not do any appreciable damage to plum
crops until recent times. During the past five years, it has
been on the increase, and last year, had it not been for the
exceptional plum harvest, the fly attack would have been badly
T13
Notes for the Month
felt. As it was, the pest thinned many orchards most
obligingly. Dr. Kearns thinks that the pest is to some extent
being encouraged by the modern tendency to plant coloured
plums instead of the “ Yellow Egg ” plum, the Sawfly
showing marked preference for the coloured varieties. Also,
the modem system of intensive planting may have something
to do with it. As regards its preference for coloured vareties,
” Czar,” “ Victoria ” and damsons appear to suffer most,
particularly ‘‘ Czar.” A great deal, however, depends upon
the state of the blossoming when the fly emerges. The flowers
offer the greatest attraction just after they are in full blossom.
If ” Czar ” happens to blossom early, and the fly emerges
late, then it is quite possible to find in that year an attack on
” Yellow Egg,” while ” Czar ” goes free. Another point
of interest is that whilst in some years the pest concentrates
locally, in others, it spreads all over a district.
Briefly, the life history of the Sawfly is that it emerges and
lays its eggs about mid-April to mid-May, according to
climatic conditions, which, of course, also rule the time of
plum blossoming. The eggs are laid in the " cot ” of the
blossom, but there is no conspicuous puncture as with the Apple
Sawfly in apples, and this makes attack difficult to detect.
Each female lays about 30 eggs, and 14 to 18 days are required
for incubation.
As the plum fruitlet swells there is pressure exerted on the
‘‘ cot,” and this, which is now dry and partially shrivelled,
splits at the stalk end. When the majority of these dried
” cots ” are' split for two-thirds of their length but are still
sticking to the fruitlets, the eggs hatch and the larvae consume
a piece of skin from off the fruitlet which they immediately
enter. A week elapses between the hatching of the eggs and
the entry of the larvae into the second fruitlet. The careful
noting of the above condition of the dried " cots ” is one of
the most important guides to the right time for spraying,
which should take place just prior to the hatching of the eggs
and before the larvae enter the fruitlet. If undeterred, the
larvae will remain in the fruitlet for several days, then emerge,
and enter other plums up to perhaps seven in number. At
four to five weeks old, the larvae fall or wander to the ground,
enter the soil and pupate, spinning the usual Sawfly cocoon.
It is difficult to find eggs or the evidence of egg-laying
without recourse to some such method as the following.
Between full blossom and petal-fall, take a beating tray of
114
Notes for the Month
black cloth or an inverted umbrella and hold this under the
branches, giving the latter a sharp tap with a stick. The flics
will then fall into the tray and remain a few seconds before
flying away. This method of observation carried out on
several consecutive warm evenings on the same trees provides
an approximate idea of the chances of infestation. A consis-
tent absence of sawflies on days favourable for their flight
may be taken as a fairly safe indication that the infestation
will be negligible. As to control, two applications of a wash
are recommended, the first at the time when the “ cots ” have
split longitudinally for two-thirds of their length, and the
second a week later. The washes recommended are either
Derris or Barbasco ground root with a wetting preparation,
e.g., 2| lb. Derris (1-5 per cent, crystalline rotenone) and J lb.
Agral II, or Lethclate Wetting Preparation, or Sulphonated
Lorol; or the same quantity of Derris or Barbasco with i gal.
of White Oil Emulsion (67 per cent, oil) ; either preparation
to be diluted to 100 gal. with water. The amount of Derris or
Barbasco ground root or their extracts per 100 gal. wash
depends on their content of crystalline rotenone. The concen-
tration of crystalline rotenone in the wash should be not less
than 0 004 per cent. Of the two sprays, the latter is the more
effective. The second application of the wash ensures a high
control of both Sawfly and Red Spider.
SOME DEFICIENCY DISEASES OF CROP PLANTS
Winifred E. Brenchley, D.Sc.,
Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.
The necessity for feeding the soil in order to improve the
yield and quality of crops has been recognized from time
immemorial, the materials generally used being those most
readily available, particularly animal excreta with or without
litter, seaweed, etc. With the progress of agricultural science
it became clear that these complex manures supplied a variety
of plant foods, the most obviously important being nitrogen,
phosphate and potash, in addition to organic matter or humus.
During the last century the practice has arisen of supple-
menting these organic manures with chemical or “ artificial ”
fertilizers supplying one or more of the essential plant foods,
and since the available quantity of organic manures has been
much lessened by the increasing use of mechanical, instead
of horse, traction the artificial fertilizers are steadily increasing
in importance.
During recent years it has gradually become apparent that
the requirements of many plants are not entirely satisfied
by the supply of the principal plant foods that were previously
recognized, but that very small amounts of other elements
are also necessary. Various obscure diseases or conditions of
general unhealthiness are controlled or prevented by the
presence of traces of such elements as boron, manganese,
copper, and zinc, to mention only those about which most is
known. The probable importance of some of these accessory
or minor elements was indicated by scientific workers long
ago, but the practical application of the facts is of compara-
tively recent date, and has sometimes resulted from an
accidental observation that led to more extended inquiry.
During the last few years, interest in the matter has become
world-wide, and practical men and research workers in many
countries are carrying out experiments and field trials and
publishing their results for the benefit of others.
The difficulties in the way of establishing the facts are
many. With the ordinary fertilizers it is comparatively easy
to find out what is required by any soil, and, within reasonable
limits, it is unlikely that sufficient will be given to damage the
crops. The minor elements, however, are required in such
ii6
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
small quantities that soils usually contain sufficient of most
of them, and it is extremely difficult to determine if any are
deficient. Also, most of these elements and their compounds
are poisonous to plants in very low dressings and great care
is needed in their use.
Boron. From the practical point of view, active interest
in these minor elements is naturally not roused until it becomes
apparent that their deficiency in certain soils is the cause of
trouble in crops. Although Warington'®* proved conclusively
in 1923 that the development and flowering of broad beans was
absolutely dependent on the presence of a trace of boron,
the active ingredient of borax, the discovery at the time
seemed of little practical value. Enterprising scientific
workers in various parts of the world followed the matter up,
however, and the value of dressings of a few pounds of borax
jx;r acre in certain instances soon became apparent. “ Top
sickness ” of tobacco in Sumatra is now controlled by the
addition of borax to the fertilizers as a matter of routine. In
Canada and elsewhere the losses of turnips and swedes due to
Brown Heart have been very greatly reduced by the same
means, and in New Zealand there arc indications that the
disease of apple fruits known as Internal Cork is due to an
insufficient supply of boron. The most striking and universal
results, however, have been made in connexion with Heart
Rot or Crown Rot of sugar-beet. This disease causes heavy
losses in yield of roots and sugar, and also adversely affects
the production of seed where crops are replanted for this
purpose. The first visible symptom is a shrivelling of the
central rosette of leaves or, in the second-year growth, injury
to the growing stem, which begins to die from the top down-
wards, with a characteristic blackening due to the breaking
down and decay of the stem tissues. This is succeeded by the
production of a number of side shoots around the crown,
which, in their turn, may show symptoms later if the disease
is not controlled. The bunchy side shoots give a curious
“ parsley top ” appearance to the plant, arousing suspicion
when seen. The root injuiy shows itself in a breaking-down
and blackening of the central part, often associated with a
type of dry rot that spreads inwards from the outside, and
may be aggravated by attacks of fungi that find a suitable
home on the decayed tissue. Before the cause of the disease
♦ For references sec p. 122 .
117
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
was found to be boron deficiency it was frequently attributed
to fungal attack, but it is now established that the fungi are
secondary invaders. Heart Rot is usually most in evidence
in hot, diy summers, and with the advent of cool, wet
weather the severity of the disease is mitigated and some
recovery may take place.
The characteristic symptoms of boron deficiency appeared
in 1935 in a field of sugar-beet at Rothamsted, and the
opportunity was taken to determine how far the second year’s
growth of flowering stems could be influenced by the use of
boron. A number of affected and of apparent healthy roots
were transplanted into pots filled with sand supplied with
fertilizer, small doses of boric acid being given to some pots
and not to others. In the latter, the characteristic symptoms
of deficiency appeared even on plants that were healthy when
lifted, the shoots and young flower buds turning black and
dying. In the plants that received boric acid the tops
remained green and healthy, the flowers developed normally
and fruit would doubtless have ripened if it had not been
necessary to stop the experiment. This happened even on
plants that showed deficiency in the field, thus indicating that
when seed production is the object, late treatment with borax
might prove successful even when the deficiency had not been
remedied at an earlier date.
In the Irish Free State^ extensive field trials were carried
out for several years at numerous centres where Heart Rot
was prevalent. Effective control was secured with 28 lb.
of borax per acre, but as this is getting near the border line
of danger, the low'er treatment of 21 lb. per acre is probably
more economic, as very few plants showed disease at this
rate. Application with the seed was the most satisfactory,
though good results were obtained by top dressing when the
disease first appeared. Norfolk experiments® confirm the
rate of application, and emphasize the need for very careful
distribution of the borax, to prevent some areas from getting
insufficient to control the disease, while others receive enough
to harm the crop. It is obviously impossible to distribute
evenly so small a dressing as 21 lb. per acre, and admixture
with sand or fertilizer is recommended. In the latter event
it is essential to mix the borax with superphosphate or potash
manures before the addition of sulphate of ammonia, as direct
admixture with the sulphate depreciates the value of the
fertilizer.
118
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
Brown Heart (” Raan ”) of swedes affects the central
portion of the bulb, which becomes mottled with brown areas
of diseased tissue, thus diminishing the feeding value and
spoiling the cooking properties. The symptoms appear to be
confined to the root portion of the bulb, and do not extend
into the upper part (which botanically is stem tissue) or
into the leaves. Consequently it is impossible to detect Brown
Heart in the growing crops without special search. The
results of experiments in Scotland®- •' and Walcs“ have con-
firmed that the trouble is due to boron deficiency, and
dressings of 15-20 lb. of borax per acre are recommended
where required. The trouble does not usually show itself in
the early stages of development, and the suggestion is made
that when rapid growth occurs on well-manured land the
plant uses up any available boron from the soil to which it
has access by its root system, and then suffers from
deficiency. White- and yellow-fleshed turnips were at first
thought to be immune from Brown Heart, but it is now known
that the yellow-fleshed varieties, at least, are somewhat
susceptible, and further evidence from other parts of the
country would be very valuable.
Both Brown Heart of swedes and Heart Rot of sugar-beet
are more prevalent on alkaline soils, and it is thought that
the lime present locks up the boron in some way, thus rendering
it useless to the plant, and inducing deficiency. This
prevalence on soils rich in lime has also been observed abroad,
as in Hungary and Denmark, but the trouble also occurs
occasionally on neutral or slightly acid soils.
There is some evidence that potatoes may suffer from
lack of boron, though their needs are apparently not as great
as those of beet and swedes. In Scotland, O’Brien and
Dennis^ have obtained results which suggest that a non-
parasitic disorder, simulating Leaf Roll and often conspicuous
in dry seasons, may be prevented in some varieties by the use
of 10 to 20 lb. of borax per acre before planting, the treatment
also increasing the yield.
Manganese. Boron is the subsidiary plant nutrient that has
perhaps attracted most attention in this country on account
of its proved economic value. Many other elements are
widely distributed in soils in very small quantities, and it is
not easy to find out which are really needed by plants, and
whether certain instances of defective crop growth are due
119
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
to a deficiency of one or other of them. It is generally
acknowledged that manganese is required by plants, but
true instances of manganese deficiency are often difficult
to recognize. The most definite information is in connexion
with the Grey Leaf disease of oats which was proved to be
due to manganese deficiency b}' Samuel and Piper in
Australia in 1928.® The disease is more prevalent on well
limed soils than on those that tend to be acid, and is
characterized by stunted growth associated with yellowing of
the leaves and death of the growing points. Applications of
manganese sulphate up to i cwt. per acre have often been
found effective in controlling the trouble both in this country*
and abroad. In Scotland, Brown Heart of swedes was at
first suspected to be a possible manganese deficiency disease,®
but though manganese is essential for the development of the
plants, it is useless against Brown Heart, which is prevented
only by the application of boron.
In some districts peas are subject to Marsh Spot disease,
which affects the seeds and depreciates their market value.
There is a certain amount of evidence that this may also be
due to deficiency of manganese in the soil, as some ameliora-
tion has been obtained by treatment with manganese sulphate
solution,® but further confirmation is needed from tests
carried out in different seasons. Care is needed in the use of
manganese fertilizer just as much as with borax, as large
amounts are definitely poisonous, and cause yellowing or
“ chlorosis ” of the leaves, and this trouble must not be
contused with a somewhat similar discoloration caused by
deficiency of the element.
Copper. Apart from boron and manganese no other
subsidiary element has yet come within economic range in the
British Isles, but the possibility exists that others may even-
tually prove to be important in certain places or for particular
crops. Abroad, the value of copper is recognized as a
preventive of the “ reclamation disease ” that affects crops
on land that is reclaimed for cultivation after the removal
of surface peat, and in Holland about 30 lb. of copper sulphate
per acre are added as a mattef of routine when such land is
first broken up. In Florida, also, extraordinary results have
been obtained by applying a similar amount of copper
sulphate to the very infertile saw-grass peat land, better
crops of tomatoes, lettuce, beet, rape, etc., being obtained
Z20
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
in this way than by the use of liberal dressings of organic
fertilizers.
Zinc. Zinc also has been found valuable as a specific against
certain diseases of fruit trees that are characterized by
mottling or deformation of the leaves, zinc sulphate causing
considerable improvement when added to the soil at the rate
of from J to 15 lb. per tree, according to sjjecies and size.
It is not, however, proved that ('ither copper or zinc is required
for growth, though they may be needed in certain instances,
but boron and manganese are definitely essential for most,
if not all plants, and their presence in the soil in sufficient
amount is of definite economic importance.
General. The growing interest in the deficiency diseases
of crops is largely due to the increase of our knowledge as to
their cause and remedies, but it is also probable that they
are actually more prevalent than they used to be. Organic
fertilizers, such as farmyard manure, contain a considerable
variety of elements, and their continued use helps to maintain
the requisite supply of the nutrients that are needed only in
small quantities. This source of supply has become less with
the decreasing use of organic manure and the increase in
artificial fertilizers, particularly with the continued improve-
ment in the purity of the latter. It is quite possible that,
owing to this, on some soils the available amount of such
subsidiary plant foods as boron and manganese is falling
below the limits required by certain crops, with the result that
deficiency diseases appear or become more widespread than
formerly. It is of great importance that this fact should be
realized and careful watch kept for signs of trouble, as
unnecessaty loss may otherwise be incurred. In those
instances where the cause of deficiency is already known the
remedy is cheap, readily available and easy of application.
In others, where deficiency is suspected, but not traced to its
source, it may be anticipated that further information will
become available if the active co-operation between practical
agriculturists and scientific workers is maintained and
fostered.
At this stage a word of warning may not be out of place.
The majority, if not all, plant nutrients become jwisonous or
at least somewhat harmful if they are supplied in too great
quantities. Large amounts of nitrogen, potash or phosphate
are necessary before any damage occurs, but quite small
121
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
amounts of borax, copper, zinc, etc., are actively poisonous
and will severely damage or even kill the plants. For
instance, considerable losses of potatoes and other crops
occurred in America during the War owing to the use of
fertilizers containing borax ranging up to 23 per cent.,
especially when it was applied in the furrows,^ and the
harmful effect of excess manganese has already been
mentioned. As the symptoms of deficiency and poisoning may
resemble one another, care is needed to avoid confusion, and
the possible supply of toxic amounts of certain elements in
artificial fertilizers needs to be guarded against. In' one
instance, for example, it was found that the failure of basic
slag to produce results proportional to expectations was
apparently due to the presence of small quantities of
vanadium, whose poisonous properties acted in opposition
to the beneficial effect of the phosphorus in the slag.
For the reasons given, it is advisable that applications of
such substances as borax and manganese sulphate should be
made only where they are known to be needed, and the
general consensus of opinion is against their inclusion in
compound fertilizers for general use. Some crops need so
much less of these subsidiary nutrients than others that there
is danger of accumulation of pjoisonous quantities in the soil
if dressings are applied without discrimination.
REFERENCES
1. Brown, B. E. : (1922) Effect of Borax in Fertilizers on the Growth and
Yield of Potatoes, U,S. Dept. Agric. Bull., 998, i~8,
2. Davies, D. W., and Jones, E. T. : (1931) Grey Speck Disease of Oats,
Welsh Jour. Agrtc., Vol. VII, 349-358.
3. Hanley, F., and Mann, J. C. : (1936) The Control of Heart Rot in
Sugar Beet, Jour. Min. Agric., XLIII, 15-23.
4. Irish Free State : (i 935 - 3 ^) Cro\vn Rot in Sugar Beet, Jour. Dept.
Agric., Dublin, Vol. XXXIII, 207-210, XXXIV, 131-132.
5. O'Brien, D. G., and Dennis, R. W. G. : (1935) Raan or Boron Deficiency
in Swedes, Scot. Jour. Agric., Vol. XVIII, 326-334.
6. O'Brien, D. G., and Dennis, R. W. G. : (1936) Further Information
relating to Control of Raan in Swedes, Scot. Jour. Agric., Vol. XIX,
40-6. '
7. O'Brien, D. G., and Dennis, R. W. G. : {1936) The Place of Boron in
Potato Cultivation, Scot. Farmer, March 14, pp. 364-365.
8. Pethybridge, G. H. : (1936) Marsh Spot in Pea Seeds : Is it a deficiency
disease ? Jour. Min. Agric., Vol. XLIII, 55-58.
9. Samuel, G., and Piper, C. S. : (1929) Manganese as an Essential Element
for Plant Growth, Ann. Appl. Biol., Vol. XVI, 495-524.
10. Warington, K. (1923) The Effect of Boric Acid and Borax on the Broad
Bean and certain other Plants, Ann. Bot., Vol. XXXVII, 629-672
11, Whitehead, T. : (1935) A Note on ‘‘ Brown Heart," a New Disease of
Swedes, and its Control, Welsh Jour. Agric., XI, 233-236.
122
COUNTY COUNCIL SMALL-HOLDINGS IN DORSET
AND HAMPSHIRE:
II. DAIRYING SMALL-HOLDINGS
Edgar Thomas, B.Litt., B.Sc.,
Agricultural Economics Department, Reading University.
The Sample. The information in this section is based on
data from 85 small-holdings, 59 in Dorset and 26 in Hampshire.
The majority of the Dorset holdings were situated north of the
chalk belt in the Blackmore Vale region, the others being more
or less concentrated in the south of the county in the Bridport
area. Most of the Hampshire holdings were situated in the
district around Mattingley to the north-east of Basingstoke.
The total area of the holdings was 4,633 acres, 46 being over
50 acres and 39 under 50 acres in area. As regards 19 holdings
part only of the total acreage farmed by the holders was county
council land, the remainder being either rented from private
owners, or, in a few instances, owned by the smallholder
himself.
Type of Farming. All 85 holdings were primarily dairjung
holdings concerned mainly with the production of milk for
liquid sale. Nevertheless, most of the holdings had some other
supplementary enterprises, usually pigs or poultry or both.
The most popular combinations were : dairying, poultry and
pigs (28); dairying and poultry (18); dairying only (13):
dairying and pigs (7); other combinations (19).
The holdings were predominantly grassland holdings, only
9 5 per cent, of the total acreage being under the plough. The
management of the grass land conformed to local practice.
Approximately 46 per cent, of the total 4,126 acres of grass was
cut for hay. Generally the same fields were kept for hay each
year, though in several instances there was some attempt at
rotation of fields. Many of the smallholders considered that
the fields were too large for the proper management of small
farms. Practically all the farmyard manure produced on the
holdings found its way to the hayfields. About one-fifth of the
smallholders also applied artificial manures to some portion of
the land every year.
The total area under the plough was only 441 acres. One-
half of the holdings had no arable land at all, and only 24
123
County Council Small-Holdings
holdings had over lo per cent, arable. Moreover, in most
instances the arable land was used for producing food for
consumption on the fann. Only ig holdings sold any arable
produce.
The relative importance of the various classes of livestock is
well illustrated by the following figures of the total number of
each class of livestock on the holdings when visited :
Cattle - - - 1,734 Pigs - - -507
Horses - - - 153 Poultry - 10,407
Of the total cattle population 1,364 were cows and heifers in
milk or in calf, 222 yearling or 2-year-old heifers, 94 calves
and 54 bulls. Grouping the holdings according to the size of
the dairy herd, 15 kept under 10 cows, 31 had from 10 to 15
cows, and 39 had over 15 cows. On 75 holdings the cows were
cither Shorthorns or Shorthorn crosses. No holding had a
pedigree herd, though one herd was in process of being graded
up for registration. Only 47 holdings kept a bull, so that 44
per cent, of the smallholders had to hire bull service. Pedigree
bulls were kept on three holdings only. On 31 holdings all the
herd was home-reared, 22 holdings reared some and bought
some and 32 holdings sold all their calves. Several of the
smallholders at present rearing all or some of their cows were
contemplating a change of policy, partly because they were
cramped for rearing space and partly because they thought the
process too expensive. Those who bought in all their replace-
ments were generally satisfied that it was the more economic
policy, since the holdings were too small to admit of a rearing
system without reducing the number of productive cows. In
general, the calves were sold at from one to six weeks old, but
on 14 holdings it was the practice to fatten all calves before
selling. Contagious abortion and Johnes’ disease had been
serious on 12 holdings, four smallholders attributing the trouble
to defective water supply.
No horses were kept on 7 holdings, 23 holdings had one
horse each, 43 had two horses and 12 had three or more horses.
There was some co-operation in horse labour on the smaller
holdings, while holdings having three or four horses used them
for outside work such as haulage.
While 44 holdings numbered pigs among their enterprises,
at the time of visiting only 39 holdings had pigs. The total
number kept was 507, of which 75 were breeding sows.
All the holdings except 9 kept some poultry, 30 had less
124
CoiTNTY Council Small-Holdings
than loo birds and 46 had over too birds per holding. On
practically all of them production of eggs was the main object,
very little attention being given to table birds.
Capital Invested. From here onwards the information
given is for 60 smallholders only, as only 60 were able to supply
full data about their financial results. The figures given cover
roughly the farming year ending September, 1935.
The average capital invested pt;r acre and per cent, in live-
stock, implements and machinery for all 60 smallholdings is
shown in Table I.
TABL1-: I
Average Capital Invested per acre and per ckst. on
60 Dairy SMALL-HOLDiNtiS
Dairy herd
Per acre
£
7 0 f)
Per cent.
Horses
oil 6
5 ’3
P>gs
027
j • 2
Poultry
077
3*3
Implements and Machinerv
2 810
/lo 17 0
100*0
The above figures emphasize the preponderating importance
of dairying on thes<* holdings, 67-5 per cent, of the average
investment of ;^io 17s. od. per acre being on account of this
enterprise. The heavy investment of £2 Ss. lod. per acre for
implements and machinery and ii.s. (ul. jier acre for horses
illustrates one of the most serious difficulties of the small farm.
Expenses. The average exjienses per acre and per cent, are
set out in Table II.
TABI.E II
Average Expenses per acre and per cent.
Dairy Sm \ei -holdings
/Vr acre
i *’• <£
ON (x)
Per cent.
Rent and rates
^3
(>
21 -3
Family labour
28
0
-i 3*3
Hired labour . .
0 18
4
8-9
Feeding stuffs
212
6
^ 3*7
Dairy livestock
013
(>
6*6
Other livestock
..08
0
3*9
Miscellaneous
10
8
10*1
Total expenses
•• ;£lo 4
6
100*0
125
County Council Smaix-Holdings
The average total expenditure of ;^io 4s. 6 d. per acre shown
in the table does not represent an actual outgoing of this amount,
for it includes an estimated wage for the family labour
employed. This family labour has been assessed at the county
rate of wages appropriate to the various classes of family
workers. It amounted to the equivalent of 8 s. od. per acre.
The actual cash expenditure of these 60 smallholders was,
therefore, equal to an average of £y i 6 s. 6 d. per acre.
When an estimated charge for family labour is added to the
wages bill it is clear that labour was the biggest item of cost,
accounting for 32 4 per cent, of the total. Hired labour was
not a relatively big item, although amounting to i8s. 4 d. per
acre, or 8 9 per cent, of total expenditure.
The second biggest item of expenditure was that on
purchased feeding stuffs, amounting to roughly one-quarter of
the total. The bulk of this expenditure of £2 12s. 6 d. per acre
was incurred in buying food for the dairy cows, though on
some holdings the food bill for pigs and poultry was also
impiortant.
Rent (and rates) figures as the third biggest item of cost,
accounting for 21-3 per cent, of the total and amounting to
£2 3s. 6^i. per acre.
The miscellaneous costs (;£i os. 8 d. per acre) in order of
importance were as follows: purchase and repair of imple-
ments, blacksmith, veterinary and medicines, manures, seeds,
thatching, carriage charges and hire of machinery.
Receipts. The average receipts per acre and per cent, are
shown in Table HI, and provide a good indication of the type
of farming, emphasizing still further the dependence of these
smallholders on their milk cheques : —
TABLE III
Average Receipts per acre and per cent, on 60
Dairy Small-holdings
Per acre
Per cent.
£
d.
Milk
83
4
71 *0
Dairy livestock
0 14
8
6*4
Eggs and poultry
13
3
10*1
Pigs
12
0
9-6
Crops . .
. . 04
6
I *9
Sundries
0 2
3
I‘0
Total receipts
. •
M
0
0
100 ‘O
126
County Council Small-Holdings
The average figure of £ii los. od. per acre for receipts is
inclusive of the estimated value of the produce of the holdings
consumed by the smallholders’ families. Assessed at average
farm prices the value of the produce consumed by the families
was equal to £15 2.?. od. per family per annum. All 60
families were self-sufficing as far as milk was concerned, the
average consumption being approximately equal to 140
gallons per family per annum. Fifty-five holdings produced
their own eggs, the average consumption per family being
roughly 78 dozen eggs per annum; in addition these families
consumed about 25 fowls per family per annum. Fifty-three
families stated that they produced their own supplies of
potatoes, and four families produced their own bacon supplies.
On seven holdings rabbits were said to be important both for
family consumption and for sale.
Nearly four-fifths of the total income of these holdings was
derived from the dairy herd, 71 per cent, coming from milk
sales and 6-4 per cent, from sales of dairy livestock. Of the
total milk available for sale 92 p>er cent, was sold wholesale,
6 g per cent, sold retail and i i per cent, consumed by the
families. The 60 smallholders comprised 6 producer-retailers,
34 who sold all their milk wholesale and 20 who sold the bulk
of it wholesale with some retail sales also. Of the total
receipts of 14s. 8d. per acre for dairy livestock 47 per cent,
was for calves and 45 per cent, for cast cows.
The other items of receipts in order of importance were : eggs
and poultr}% pigs, crop products and sundries mostly derived
from work done outside the holdings — such as haulage and
ploughing.
Profits and Losses. The average profit (i.e., excess of
receipts and closing valuation over payments and opening
valuation) for the 60 holdings was equal to £62 is. xod. per
holding or £1 os. yi. per acre. This average figure is,
however, inadequate for it gives no indication that 23 of the
60 holdings actually worked at a loss. Moreover, the various
sizes Of holdings show considerable variations in the degree of
success obtained. A better picture of the position is supplied
by Table IV where the 60 holdings are arranged in three
groups according to the size of the dairy herds, and the
frequency distribution of profits and losses within each group
is shown.
127
County Council Small-Holdings
Table I\'
Profits and Losses on 6o Dairy Small-holdings
!
Group I
,(13 holdings
! with less
than 10
cows)
Group II
(26 holdings
w ith from
10 to 15
COW'S
Group III
(21 holdings
with over
15 cows)
All
holdings
No.
No.
No.
No.
Profit per holding :
Over £100
2
6
9
^ 7 )
From £f^o to ;^ioo
3
5
4
"1 61-7%
From £2^ to ^50
2
4
0
Less than £$o . .
0
I
1
' I
2
Loss per holding :
1
1
Less than £2^ . ,
4
4
3
” 1
From £2^ to /50 |
! I 1
1 !
1
4 38-3 ?o
Over £so ‘
1
I !
5 1
1
> ‘
8)
The profit and loss figures in Table IV show the amounts
available to the smallholders after all expenses other than
interest on capital and remuneration of management had been
met. In addition to the profits shown the smallholders had the
use of the farmhouse free of rent and rates, and had also been
credited with wages for all manual work performed by them
and their families.
In view of the great significance of family labour and the
possible objections to its assessment at the prevailing wages for
hired labour, it is necessary to show the final results in the form
of the amount available as “ family income ", i.e., omitting
the charge for family labour. When this is done the holdings,
with one exception, showed a surplus income. The position
is illustrated in Table V.
TABLE V
Average " Income " per Family and per Person on
6o Dairy Small-holdings
^erage family
income
L
133
167
220
178 124
Average income
per person f
£
lOT
II7
143
Group I
Group 11
Group III
All Groups , .
t All members of the family working on the holding have been converted
to the common denominator of man-equivalent/'
128
County Council Small-Holdings
It may be that the results us shown in this table
provide a better indication of the standard of living of the
smallholders concerned. They certainly explain why it is
possible for these smallholders to carry on even though it can
be demonstrated that according to more rigid financial
standards many of them are running “ unprofitable ”
businesses.
The results as given in Table IV show that each of the three
groups had its quota of “ successful ” and “ unsuccessful ”
holdings. This indicates that the holding after all only
provides the chance for the occupier to show his intelligence,
and that it is the capability of the man himself that is the most
important factor. Nevertheless, the dispersion of profits and
losses in Table IV indicates also that the man with the larger
holding has a better chance of succeeding. A comparison of
the 12 holdings making the biggest profits with the 12
holdings making the biggest losses brought out the following
relative characteristics of the profitable dozen : larger acreages
and larger herds; higher milk output per cow and per acre;
higher expenditure on feeding stuffs; more economical use of
labour as shown by a higher return per labour cost; slightly
lower rentals; relatively more diversity of enterprises with the
milk cheque accounting for a comparatively lower percentage
of total income.
{To be continued.)
129
STEM EELWORM DISEASE OF FIELD BEANS
L. R. Johnson, M.Sc., and H. W. Thompson, M.Sc.,
Department of Agriculture, The University, Leeds.
The Stem Eel worm {Anguillulina dipsaci) is one of the most
injurious and widespread of the plant-parasitic eelworms. A
voluminous literature has arisen with reference to the occur-
rence of the various strains of this eelworm on a variety of
cultivated crops. There has, however, been little information
recorded concerning Stem Eelworm disease of field beans
{Vida faba) in this country since the writings of Ormerod® and
Bos® towards the end of the last century. Since that time
attacks have been recorded by Theobald^ in Kent and Pether-
bridge® in the Eastern Counties.
The present writers have encountered a number of cases of
severe injury to the bean crop during recent years, especiaUy
during the past season, and the following account summarizes
their observations.
The Nature of Stem Eelworm Disease Beans.
Ormerod has described the condition of a number of diseased
plants received from a correspondent, and Bos, to whom the
material was submitted, identified the Stem Eelworm as the
cause of the trouble and also described the symptoms exhibited
by the plants. Neither of these workers had the opportunity
of observing the disease in the field and it is felt, therefore, that
the following observations may be of interest.
The first obvious signs of injury in the bean crop, which,
it should be added, is autumn-sown in Yorkshire, are notice-
able during late February or early March. Patches occur in
which a number of plants are retarded in growth. Many of
these plants die off, or if they survive remain stunted, so that
by the time the pods are formed they may have reached a
height of not more than 12 in. Fig. i shows a badly diseased
plant of this type taken in early July from a crop sown the
previous October. The poor development of such plants and
the rapid death of many of them, quickly produce bare or
almost bare patches in the field. As the infestation progresses,
plants that have not been severely stunted show characteristic
* For references, see p. 136.
130
Fig. t. — Fean Plant 'stunted and di'^tortcd by stem Helworm Fig 2 Ba^e ot Stern ot attacked mature Bean Plant, sho\Mng
attack di->Lolonred Pith and bending of the Stem
(PhotOliTaphs Cnf^yyish: Lcx^ds L'n'l’t-TN tv >
Stem Eelworm Disease
symptoms of distortion. Affected plants are often swollen at
the base of the stem, which frequently becomes markedly
flattened. The stem, which is severely twisted, may be bent
in several places and often falls to the ground as the pods
develop. Such plants easily break off at ground level,
especially if struck by the foot or by implements. Gradually
the thin or bare patches increase in size. Fig 3 illustrates a
portion of a badly infested crop and the conditions prevailing
during early summer. The lower leaves tend to fall early and
the pods may be distorted and small, with consequent reduction
in the harvest of beans.
If the stems of such plants arc split longitudinally it will be
seen that the interior of the hollow stem is brown, and as the
plant matures this brown pith becomes dry and powdery owing
to the loosening of the cells of the pith. The discoloration ol
the pith, which begins at the base ot the stem, may extend up
the stem, in some instances almost to the tip of the plant.
Microscopic examination of the brown tissue reveals the
presence of large numbers of eelworms. It is worthy of
emphasis that, as Bos stated, the mature bean straw carries
enormous numbers of the parasites in the infective form in the
pith. It is well known also that the infective form of the Stem
Eelworm can remain quiescent for a number of years in dried
plant material and be revived when moistened with water.
Fig. 2 shows a portion of the base of the stem of a plant split
longitudinally to show the browning of the pith; incidentally,
the photograph also illustrates the severe bending of a badly
affected plant.
The writers have not had the opportunity of observing in
the field the earliest stages ol eelworm invasion of individual
plants, but observations have been made on experimental
plants sown in early summer in soil containing infected
material. From such observations it can be briefly stated that
the eelworm enters the plant at the base of the stem just below
ground level and invades the cortical tissue immediately
beneath the epidermis. It would appear that the eelworms
congregate in the pith as the outer tissues become woody
and the whole plant matures. The lower leaves undergo
infestation by way of the petioles, and eelworms have been
recovered by dissection from the stipules, the petioles and from
the leaflets, especially from tfie veins. The main veins of
infected leaflets are swollen and frequently slight distortion
of the leaflets takes place. It should also be noted that the
131
Stem Eet.worm Disease
parasite may enter the stalks of the pods. The writers have
recovered eelwonns from the bases of dried pods collected
from the stack.
Factors predisposing to Eelworm Attack. Severe attacks
of Stem Eelworm disease in the bean crop are spasmodic, but
it would seem not unlikely that slight attacks would be over-
looked in the crop. During the past year an unusual number
of cases of the disease occurred in the bean growing districts
of East Yorkshire, and it is possible that climatic conditions
may have favoured the increase of eelworm at the expense of
the bean crop. Some of the more important factors that may
determine the persistence of eelworm infection on the farm arc
dealt with below.
Rotation. The question of crop rotation is always a matter
of prime importance in relation to the incidence of plant pests,
and especially is this tme of parasitic eelworms, which are
notoriously difficult to combat by direct remedial measures. It
is a common practice in Yorkshire to allow a period of four
years to elapse betw’een successive bean crops on the same field.
The writers have encountered only one instance where severe
eelworm injury occurred in w'idely separated bean crops on
the same field, and in this case four alternative crops had been
taken between the affected bean crops, which suffered in 1930
and again in 1935. The cropping of this field during this period
was Beans, Barley, Seeds, Oats, Wheat, Beans.
Two instances observed in 1936 may be quoted. The first
occurred in East Yorkshire on a farm on which according to
the farmer no trouble had ever been experienced in the past.
The cropping of the field had been Beans, Fallow, Wheat,
Seeds, Oats, Beans. The bean plants first began to go off in
late February, and the trouble spread so rapidly that the whole
crop was ploughed in in June. The preceding oats were
described as a full crop, so that it was difficult from the
information available to describe this sudden failure of the
beans as a legacy from an infested oat crop. In this connexion
it should be mentioned that seed saved from this oat crop was
sown on another portion of the farm, and careful inspection
revealed no sign of eelworm injury. It should also be added
that tick beans that were sown in the spring of 1936 in an
attempt to fill in the thin patches succumbed to eelworm
attack.
132
Stem Eel worm Disease
The second case is of interest in relation to the observations
recorded by Ormerod and by Bos. The field of beans began
to show the usual field symptoms in early March and one-half
of the crop, which followed oats, was so badly affected that
by late spring it was ploughed in. The rest of the field followed
barley and was allowed to stand, although badly affected, and
by late June carried extensive patches where complete failure
occurred. The cropping history of the field was Oats, Beans,
Roots, Wheat, Oats or Barley, Beans. Again the grower
asserted that the previous bean crop taken in 1932 was healthy.
Ormerod and Bos refer to a case of Stem Eelworm disease in
beans following oats that had suffered badly from the eelworm,
whereas in the same field, beans following barley, which is not
susceptible, were intact. In the instance described by the
present writers it seems obvious that very considerable infection
was present in that portion ot the field that had carried barley
before the bean crop, and in fact the resultant harvest amounted
to less than half the normal return. The theory that infested
oats may play an important role in producing an outbreak of
Stem Eelworm disease in the subsequent bean crop is perhaps
strengthened by the writers’ obserx'ations that an oat crop
adjoining the affected beans, although from a distance appear-
ing to be a good crop, revealed on closei inspection obvious
signs of eelworm trouble, and this was confirmed by laboratory
examination. The oat crop at harvest was considered to be
a good one by the grower. It is certain, therefore, that slight
eelworm attack in the oats in such farms may be easily over-
looked by the grower, and that unknown to him an eelworm
infestation may be maintained in this way and so provide the
right conditions for a sudden outbreak of serious disease.
Preliminary infection experiments have shown that under
experimental conditions the oat strain of the Stem Eelworm
is capable of infesting field beans, thus bearing out the
inferences drawn from field observations.
Weed Hosts. Many weeds are listed by Goodey as hosts
of the Stem Eelworm and the same writer^ has more recently
referred with emphasis to the possibility that weed hosts may
serve to mai ntain in the soil infection of strains of the eelworm
capable of attacking cultivated crops. Certain workers,
notably Hodson^’ » in this country, have shown that this fact
is true of certain weeds and certain specified cultivated plants.
One of the present writers® has recently published a note on the
133
Stem Eel worm Disease
occurrence of the Stem Eelworm on certain weeds growing
in fields of infested oats and beans. These observations
showed that infested specimens of the weed Cleavers, Galium
aparine, occur commonly in association with the infested crops
mentioned. It was also pointed out that this comparatively
widespread occurrence of infested Cleavers plants among
eelworm-infested beans and oats was highly suggestive that the
weed and the cultivated crop were serving as hosts for the same
strain of the eelworm.
Preliminary infection experiments have revealed that the
Cleavers strain of the eelworm is capable of infesting the field
bean just as the oat strain under similar experimental
conditions is capable of transference to beans. These find-
ings are of great practical significance and will be referred
to later in the discussion on control measures. It should be
noted that as an infested crop becomes depleted so the weeds
have a better chance of survival in abundant numbers with the
greater possibility of large numbers of susceptible weeds, like
Cleavers, becoming infested by the eelworm.
Infested Debris and Ground-keepers. The presence of large
numbers of eelworms in the bean straw has already been
mentioned, and the usual practice of ploughing in a badly-
infested crop only serves therefore to return to the soil an
increased eelworm population whose chance of survival
depends on the growth on the land of suitable wild or cultivated
hosts. The growth of adventitious bean plants which spring
up in the ensuing crop as a result of germination of seeds shed
before and during harvest is a common phenomenon. Such
plants are clearly potential reservoirs of infection and would
tend to offset the value of a reasonable period of rest between
successive bean crops.
Control. It has already been suggested that climatic
conditions may play an important part in conjunction with
the factors already discussed, in providing suitable conditions
for the onset of a sudden widespread attack in the crop,
provided that there is some degree of eelworm infection of the
soil. In no instance of the disease in the writers' experience
was there any cause to criticize the cultural practices involved
in the growing of the crops, all of which made apparently
normal growth during the early growing period immediately
after sowing. It is only necessary to discuss briefly from the
134
Stem Eel worm Disease
point of view of prevention of eelworm infestation certain
practical points that emerge from the foregoing account.
Rotation. A reasonable period of rest between successive
bean crops is essential, and as far as Yorkshire conditions are
concerned it would be considered under normal circumstances
that the rotations are not seriously at fault in this respect, since
a four-year rest is usually adopted. In spite of such a
practice, however, severe attacks occur, and it is advised,
therefore, that after a bad attack a longer period should elapse
before the infested field carries another bean crop; one instance
has already been quoted in which two bean crops were badly
injured in spite of a four-year interval of alternative cropping.
It is impossible from the information available to state with
any degree of certainty the minimum period of time that
should elapse after a bad attack in order to ensure freedom
from infection in the next bean crop. Robertson^® has
reported that Stem Eelworm disease of oats may occur with
regularity in spite of a rest of three years from cropping with
oats. The theory which seems to be established, that the oat
strain of the eelworm is capable of infesting beans, adds greater
difficulty to the problem of preventing trouble in the latter
crop, and it should be remembered that oats usually fall
immediately before beans in the rotation. If it is impossible
to omit the cereal crop from the rotation, then it would be
advisable after a bean crop has failed with the disease to omit
oats from the cropping of the field for a full course of
the rotation. Further, the question of the great chance of
a slight attack on oats or beans being overlooked should always
be borne in mind and any suspicion of such a contingency
should be verified by expert examination.
Destruction of Weeds. The field observations and
preliminary experiments already described have shown that
Cleavers acts as a host for the bean strain of the Stem Eelworm.
It is essential, therefore, that this weed should be exterminated
as far as possible in hedgerows as well as in arable land, on
which, in Yorkshire, Cleavers is becoming a very common weed
especially in cereal and bean fields. The past season has
favoured the increase of such weeds especially, since cereal
crops have been seriously depleted by insect and other pests.
It is of interest to consider the bearing of the rotation upon
the question of weeds in relation to their capacity to maintain
an eelworm infestation in the field. In the first case of Stem
135
Stem Eel worm Disease
Eel worm disease quoted (see p. 132) the cropping during the
four years between the two infested bean crops was Barley,
Seeds, Oats, Wheat. Such a preponderance of cereal crops
without a cleaning crop would undoubtedly tend to foster the
growth of weeds that may have been infested. In the two
further instances described the bean crop is followed by a
fallow crop and bare fallow respectively. Bare fallowing,
which is an essential cultural practice on many lands, may tend
to assist the celworm to tide over the interval between suscep-
tible cultivated crops by fostering the growth of susceptible
weeds. One of the writers has already recorded the occurrence
of infested Cleavers seedlings growing in the fallow shortly
after the ploughing in of a badly-infested bean crop. This
fact again emphasizes the real need for the extermination of
Cleavers.
Destruction of Infested Material. Enough has been said
to indicate the necessity of removing as completely as possible
all infested plant material from the field. The practice of
ploughing in a severely infested crop is obviously unwise, and
it would be preferable to collect and burn on the spot all such
sources of infection. Similarly, the bean straw harvested from
an infested crop that carries enormous numbers of the eelworm
should also be burnt.
Adventitious bean plants have also been referred to, and the
destruction of these potential carriers of infection would help
to minimize subsequent eelworm attack.
Acknowledgements. The writers desire to express their
thanks to Mr. J. Manby for the photograph shown in Fig. 3.
REFERENCKS
1. Goouey, T.
2. Ormerod, E. a.
3. Bos, J. Ritzema
4. Theobald, F. V.
5. Petherbridge, F. R. . .
6. Goodey, T
“ Plant Parasitic Neinatoclcs,” London,
1933 -
“ Report of Observations on Injurious
Insects for the Year 1890.’’ 1891.
“ L’Anguillule de la Tige {Tylenchus ie-
vastalrix Kiihn) ct les Maladies des
plantes dues h ce Nematode,” Arch.
Mus. Teyler, S^r. II (3).
Min. Agric. Plant I’ath. Laby. Monthly
Summaries, 1928.
Ibid., 1935.
“ Some applied Biological Aspects of Pro-
blems Relating to Plant-parasitic Nema-
tode.s,” Ann. App. Biol., Vol. 23, No. 2.
136
Stem Eelworm Disease
7. Hodson, W. E. H.
8 .
9, Johnson, L. R.
10. Robertson, D.
“ The Occurrence of Tylenchus dipsaci
Kiihn on Wild Host Plants in South-
West England/' Jour. Helm., Vol. 7,
No. 4, 1929.
“ Eelworms : i. The Stem and Bulb
Eelworm, Anguillulina dipsaci,** The
Estate Magazine, Vol. 33, No. 3.
“ A Note on the Occurrence of Anguil-
lulina dipsaci (Kiihn 1858) on Certain
Weeds, including a New Host Record,*'
Jour. Helm., Vol. 14, No. 4, 1936.
Observations on the Disease of Oats
Caused by the Stem Eelworm, Anguil-
lulina dipsaci (Kiihn 1857)," Ann. App.
Biol., Vol. 15, No. 3.
B
137
THE APPLE PITH MOTH
Mary Miles, M.Sc.,
Vicioria University of Manchester
For the last few years the Apple Pith Moth {Chrysoclista aira
Haw.) has caused a good deal of damage locally in apple
plantations in the south and east of England, and in the spring
of 1936 its attacks were more serious and widely distributed
in south Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Kent and Hertford-
shire.* The insect is a well known pest in Germany, Poland,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and France,! and
though the injury that it causes is usually only slight, there are
records of severe attacks that have almost completely defoliated
the apple trees. In Britain the insect was first recorded as a
pest in 1855 by Staihton,! whose correspondent noted that it
was " a most destructive little wretch in apple grounds ”.
Since that time numerous observations on the habits of the
insect and the nature and extent of its attacks have been
collected by Ormcrod, Theobald and Carpenter.
Injury. Injury by Apple Pith Moth can be easily
recognized and identified. The caterpillars feed on the
“ pith ” of shoots and fruit spurs, and in time completely
destroy the interior woody tissue. The leaves of infested
shoots wilt and later shrivel and turn brown, and the blossoms
of attacked fruit spurs die before opening or the cluster of
fruitlets perishes just after the fruit has set. Attack by Apple
Pith Moth is in progress from late summer onwards, but the
final destruction of infested shoots does not take place until
May or June of the following year, when healthy leaves and
shoots are making rapid growth and the trees are in blossom.
The dead shoots and spurs are very conspicuous at this time of
the year and the extent of the damage is easily seen. Besides
the direct loss of crop caused by the reduction of the number of
healthy spurs, the injury to the bark permits the access of fungi
and bacteria to the plant tissue.
* Monthly Summary of Plant Pests, Min. Agric., June and July, 1936.
t Rev. Appl. Ent., 1916 and onwards.
J Entomologists' Annual, 1855.
138
Apple Pith Moth
Certain fungus and bacterial diseases may destroy the young
shoots of apples in the spring, but it is not difficult to distin-
guish between injury by these organisms and that caused by
the feeding of Apple Pith Moth caterpillars. Shoots killed by
the caterpillars have the interior tissue eaten away and the
cavity filled with dark brown powdery frass, and frass may
also be found exuding from cracks or holes in the stem and the
caterpillar or pupa may be present.
Most varieties of apples seem to be susceptible to attack by
the moth. In Lancashire and Cheshire infested varieties
include " Golden Spire”, “ Grosvenor ”, ” Irish Peach ”,
" Ecklinville Seedling ”, ” Gladstone ”, ” Worcester Pear-
main ”, " Allington ”, “Bismarck”, and “Grenadier”.
In a plantation in Hertfordshire “ Worcester Pearmain ” was
highly susceptible to attack and “ Newton Wonder ” was
practically immune, but in another part of the same plantation
a sport of “ Newton Wonder ” was badly attacked.
“ Bismarck ” and “ Newton Wonder ” were found to be
attacked in Gloucestershire, and “ Lane’s Prince Albert ” in
Sussex. From Kent it has been recorded that “ Worcester
Pearmain ” was severely infested while alternate rows of
“ Lord Derby ” were not attacked, and that shoots and fruit
spurs of “ Cox’s Orange Pippin ” were destroyed.
Description and Life History. For some time the identity
of the Apple Pith Moth was confused with that of a closely
allied moth that feeds in hawthorn fruits, but in 1933 Fletcher
and Stringer* made a careful comparison of type specimens
with moths bred by the writer from both apple twigs and haw-
thorn fruits, and came to the conclusion that the pith moth of the
apple is Chrysoclista atra Haw. The moth measures about
half-an-inch across the expanded wings, and is blackish with a
white head and faint light markings and prominent black scale
tufts on the wings. When the moth is in a resting position the
wings are folded over the back, and the light markings appear
as three pairs of whitish areas : one pair in front of the first
pair of scale tufts, the second pair at the base of the second
pair of scale tufts, and a third pair near the tips of the wmgs.
Extending along the middle of the wings from base to tip is
a faint irregular band containing white and rusty yellowish
B 2
• Entomological Record, Vol. xlv, pp. 86-90.
139
Apple Pith Moth
scales mingled with the black scales; this band varies in
intensity in different individuals.
Observations in the north of England* showed that the
moths emerged during July and were on the wing in fruit
plantations during July and early August. It is possible that
emergence is earlier in some seasons and in more southerly
districts, since it has been recorded from Francef that the
moths emerge from June 6 to 23.
During the day the moths are inactive, but in the evening
they may be found on the wing and are attracted to light.
The eggs arc usually laid singly in the leaf axils or near the
thickened base of the leaf stalk, and are present in northern
fruit plantations from mid-Jul}'. to mid-August. They are
broadly oval, rounded at one end and somewhat truncate at
the other, and with a thin, delicate shell sculptured by broken
longitudinal ridges. When first laid the eggs are pearly white,
but during incubation they become yellowish and later rather
brownish. The incubation period as obser\a‘d in northern
England was two weeks, but in Francef it was found that the
eggs hatched in about a week.
When the caterjjillars leave the eggs they are transparent
greyish green, with large dark shining heads and long bristles.
They wander about the twig for a short time and then tunnel
into the bark, usually near the base ot a leaf stalk. Within
twenty-four hours after hatching they are generally completely
out of sight in the plant tissue, and tiny entrance holes with
fragments of rusty frass adhering near them may be found
about the twigs. The caterpillars remain under the bark
throughout the winter, and eat away the tissue, frequently
killing buds in the vicinity of the feeding sites. In the spring,
during May and early June in north England, the caterpillars
become fully fed. They are then about one-third of an inch
in length, dark brownish-pink in colour, and sparsely covered
with long bristles. The head is dark brown and partly with-
drawn into the thorax, which is covered by a dark brown
thoracic plate, and there arc three dark brown caudal plates
at the tip of the body.
When ready to pupate the caterpillar makes its way towards
the surface of the twig, usually near the terminal bud or just at
the base of the blossom truss, and eats out a small circular hole
through which the adult can escape. Pupation takes place
* Miles, M., Ann. Appl. Biol., Vol. xvii, 1930.
f Balachtnvsky, Rev. App. Ent., Vol. xxiii, 1935.
J40
Apple Pith Moth
beneath the bark near the exit hole, but the pupa may some-
times be found projecting from the bark or among the flower
stalks of the dead blossoms, or the breaking of an infested twig
by the wind may leave the pupa exposed.
The pupa is rather less than a quarter of an inch long, and
is golden brown with the head dark. The wings are long and
narrow and the feelers extend beyond the tips of the wings.
Near the tip of the abdomen is a pair of rather flattened tubular
projections that bear a number of strong hooked bristles. The
pupal stage lasts about a month.
There is only one generation in the year.
Control Measures. Since the caterpillars feed within the
stems of the apple it is difiicult to control them effectively by
artificial means. The use of a lead arsenate spray during the
summer when the caterpillars arc hatching has been recom-
mended, but the practical difficulties of covering the entire
surface of the twigs at this season and the possibility of a
deposit remaining on the fruit, render this method of control
unsuitable. It has also been suggested that the creeping
character of the tar oil and other winter washes should enable
them to penetrate into the tunnels and destroy the caterpillars.
In practice, however, it has been found that outbreaks may be
very severe in plantations that have received routine applica-
tions of winter spray for many years; and observations of
infested twigs have shown that it is only when the trees are
making rapid growth, after the time for winter spraying is past,
that the bark over the injured areas tends to crack and expose
the feeding sites of the caterpillars.
The trapping of the moths during July and August in light
traps has been recommended, and Theobald lists the Apple
Pith Moth among insects captured at light traps in July in Kent.
The use of light traps for pest control has not been tried exten-
sively in this country, but where outbreaks arc serious locally
they might be used with advantage to reduce the number of
moths.
Hand picking of the infested shoots is practicable in small
plantations or in intensive apple plantations where all parts of
the trees are easily accessible. The shoots should be
destroyed immediately or kept in boxes closely covered with
gauze that would permit the escape of parasites while retaining
the host insects. Many of the parasites are small and would
be able to escape through meshes one-tenth of an inch in
141
Apple Pith Moth
diameter, and larger parasites can be easily separated since
they are active in sunlight while the moths are at rest among
the twigs.
The Apple Pith Moth is highly susceptible to the attacks of
parasites. The large ichneumon flies, Pimpla inquisitor Scop,
and Ephialtes albispiculus Morley, have been bred from grubs
found feeding externally on the caterpillars. The most
effective parasite, however, appears to be a small chalcid wasp,
Copidosoma woroniekae Now., which lays its eggs in the eggs
of the moth. The writer has reared as many as 17 parasites
from a single Apple Pith Moth caterpillar. This parasite is
probably widely distributed, since it has been recorded from
France and Poland, and in England from Kent, Lincolnshire
and Hertfordshire. It is probable that the Apple Pith Moth is
usually controlled naturally by its numerous parasites, and
that its increase in the south and east of England in recent years
is the result of some check on parasitism. Weather conditions
or some other factor may have adversely affected the develop-
ment of parasites and allowed the moths to increase beyond
their normal numbers; or the parasites may have been auto-
matically checked through lack of hosts after a period of
increasingly effective parasitism, and may, in a short time,
again become abundant and control the pest.
In infested fruit plantations the prunings frequently contain
caterpillars of the Apple Pith Moth, and these may regain the
trees unless the prunings arc collected and burnt.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT — C ertain of the illustrations accompanying
this article have already appeared in the Annals of Applied Biology ,
the author is grateful to the Association of Applied Biologists for per-
mission to reproduce them here.
142
CATTLE INDUSTRY (EMERGENCY PROVISIONS)
ACTS, 1934 TO 1936 :
NUMBERS, WEIGHT AND PRICES OF CATTLE
CERTIFIED FOR PAYMENTS
In previous issues of this Journal, information was given
regarding the cattle and carcasses of cattle certified for
payments under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts, 1934 to 1936, during the first two years of the Scheme.
Similar information is now available for the six months
September, 1936, to February, 1937, and in this article the
particulars for these months are set out on similar lines to those
previously published and are compared with the data for the
corresponding period a year earlier.
The classes of cattle in respect of which payments are made
are steers, heifers and cow-heifers (a cow-heifer is defined as
an animal which has calved and which has grown not more
than six permanent incisor teeth). The standard of eligibility
for subsidy is that the animal shall have an estimated killing-
out percentage of not less than 54 per cent.
Table I shows the numbers of each class of cattle certified
in the six months ended February 28, 1937, as compared with
the numbers in the corresponding months a year earlier : —
TABLE I
Steers
Heifers
_
Cow-Heifers , Total |
1936-7 1935-0
1936-7 j 1935 -(>
1936-7 ! 1935-6 1 1936-7
1935-6
September
October . .
November
72,527. 74,581
7^753 77.O52
68,970 ' 66,745
66,912
70.455
70,295
63,248
65,826
60,529
5.490
5.400
5.272
4,521 ii 44,929
4,558 1148,608
4,702 '144.537
142.350
148,036
131.976
Total :
Sept, to
November
i
214,250 218,978
207,662
189,603
16,162
13-781
438,074
422,362
December
January . .
February
72,635' 74,896
78.735 1 83,831
81,508 1 85,380
65.050
57.696
50,248
58,539
54,066
47,629
4,659
5,872
5,638
4,410
5.663
5.423
142.344
142.303
137.394
137.845
143,560
138.43*
Total :
Dec. to
February
232,878
244.107
172.994
160,234
i
16,169
15,496
422,041
419,837
Total :
(6 months)
447 A 28
463,085
380,656
349,837
1
3 ^». 33 i
29.277 1
860,1x5
842,199
T43
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
As has been pointed out in previous articles, the rate of
marketing of fat cattle from month to month cannot be judged
accurately from these figures, owing to the fact that the great
majority of fat stock markets are held on the early days of
the week; but useful comparisons are possible for three-
monthly periods.
The number of cattle certified in the six months under
review was 17,916 (or 21 per cent.) more than in the
corresponding months of 1935-36, but the increase was mainly
in the first three months of the period, the numbers certified
in September to November showing an increase of 15,712, as
compared with an increase of only 2,204 the period
December to February.
In the following statement the numbers of cattle certified
each month have been adjusted in order to allow, as far as
possible, for the fact that a large number of fat cattle markets
are held on Mondays and that the number of markets held
decreases day by day as the week proceeds. From these
figures it would appear that the rate of marketing of eligible
cattle in September, 1936, was higher than in September, 1935,
by 0 9 per cent. ; in October by 71 per cent. ; in November
by 3’5 per cent.; in December by 6-6 per cent.; in January
by 3 5 per cent. ; and in February by 0 2 per cent.
TABLE 11
September . .
i93<’-37
No.
142,287
No.
141.030
October
152,841
November . .
I43.2I3
138,418
December . .
I 37>238
128,763
January
149,218
144.232
February . .
148,440
148.139
Although the total number of animals certified showed an
increase, the number of steers decreased by 2 per cent, in the
tiiree months September to November compared with the
(Corresponding three months of 1935, and by nearly 5 per cent,
in the three months December to February compared with
the corresponding period of 1935-36. Heifers increased by
9 and 8 per cent, in the two periods respectively, and cow-heifers
by 17 and 4 per cent, respectively.
In each month of the period under review the relative
proportion of steers certified showed a decline of from 2-4 to
3 4 per cent, as compared wi& die same month a year earlier.
The proportion of heifers and cow-heifers showed a corres-
144
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
ponding increase, but cow-heifers accounted for only about
3J to 4 per cent, of the total number of animals certified.
The following is a comparative statement of percentages
of the different classes of animals : —
TABLE III
Steers
Heifers '
Cow-Heifers
! 1936-37
i 035 - 3 ^>
1936-37
! i 935 - 3 ^> ,
i 93^>“37
1935-36
%
%
%
i %
0/
%
September . .
. . 50*0
5 - 5*4
46*2
44*4
3 ”«
3*2
October
490
52*4
47*4
44*5
3*9
3*1
November . .
47-7
50*6
4«-6
45*9
3*7
3*5
December . .
510
54-3
45*7
425
3*3
3*2
J anuary
55-3
5^-4
40*0
, 37*7
4*1
3*9
February . .
59-3
oi * 7
36 -(>
1 34*4
4 *^
3*9
Live-weight Certifications. Animals certified at Live-
weight Certification Centres accounted for 828,851 of the total
of 860,115 animals certified at Live-weight and Dead-weight
Centres in the six months September, 1936, to February, 1937.
Details of the numbers of each class of animal certified at Live-
weight Centres in each of the agricultural divisions into which
the country is divided are given in Table IX (p. 150).
Table IV shows the numbers of animals certified at Live-
weight Certification Centres in England, Wales, Scotland,
Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom respectively in
September, 1936, to February, 1937, compared with the
corresponding period in 1935-36: —
TABLE IV
September-
—November
—
j December-
-February
1936-37
1935-36
j 1936-37
1935-36
Number
Per
cent.
Number
[ I’er
i cent.
i Number
1
IVr
cent
Number
Per
cent.
England ..
282,922
67*1
268,783
65*6
; 260,806
64*0
254,663
62*3
Wales
28,632
6-8
26,765
6-5
i 26,034
6*4
26,913
6*6
Scotland . .
Northern
78,225
i8-6
78,008
191
i 86,567
21*3
88,111
21*6
Ireland . .
3 X .825
7*5
8*8
33,840
8-3
39,026
9*5
United
*1 1
1
j
i
Kingdom
421,604
100*0
409,621
100*0
j 407.247 1
100*0
408,713
100*0
145
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
The total number of animals certified at Live-weight Centres
in the United Kingdom in the period September to November,
1936, exceeded the number certified in the corresponding
period in 1935 by 2 9 per cent., but in the period December,
1936, to February, 1937, the number certified declined by 04
per cent, as compared with the corresponding period a year
earlier. In England the numbers certified increased by 5-3 per
cent, in the period September to November, and by 2-4
per cent, in December to February, while in Wales an increase
of 7 0 per cent, in the first quarter was followed by a decline
of 33 per cent, in the second quarter. In Scotland the
numbers certified increased slightly in the period September
to November, but fell by i-8 per cent, in the period December
to February. In Northern Ireland certifications declined by
11-8 percent, and 133 per cent, in the two periods respectively.
In England, a comparison between the number of animals
certified in the different agricultural divisions shows that in
the three months September to November, 1936, the largest
percentage increases were in the East Midland Division with
183 per cent., the North-Eastern Division with ii-8 per cent.,
and the West Midland Division with 7 2 per cent. Slight
increases were also shown by the South-Western and Northern
Divisions, but in the Eastern, South-Eastern, and North-
Western Divisions there were small reductions.
In the three months December, 1936, to February, 1937,
the East Midland Division showed an increase of 12 3 per
cent. There were reductions of 47 per cent, in the Eastern
Division and 6-5 per cent, in the South-Eastern Division, but
small increases were shown in the remaining Divisions.
In Wales, in the period September to November, 1936,
increases of 6-5 per cent, and 74 per cent, were shown in the
Northern and Southern Divisions respectively. In the three
months December, 1936, to February, 1937, the number
certified in the Northern Division declined by 70 per cent.,
while there was practically no change in the Southern Division.
In Scotland, in the period September to November, 1936,
certifications increased by 2 3 per cent, in the South-Eastern
Division, and by 13 per cent, in the North-Eastern, and the
Northern and North-Western Divisions compared with 1935,
but small reductions were registered in the East Central and
the Western and South-Western Divisions. In the period
December, 1936, to February, 1937, reductions were shown
in every Division, ranging from i i per cent, in the East
146
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
Central to 4-3 per cent, in the Northern and North-Western
Divisions.
Dead-weight Certifications. The total number of animals
certified at Dead-weight Certification Centres in the six
months September, 1936, to February, 1937, was 31,264,
compared with 23,865 in the corresponding period of 1935-36,
an increase of 31 per cent. Comparative particulars for each
country are given in Table V, which shows that the increase
was relatively larger in Scotland, with a rise of 69 per cent.,
than in England and Wales with a rise of 21 7 per cent.
TABLE V
England and
Wiiles
Scotland
Cireat Britain
i 93 (i -37 ' i 035 - 3 <i
1936-37
1935-36
1036 -37
1935-36
September . .
October
November . .
3.570
4.475
3.833
3.343
3.336
3.419
1.381
1.557
l.<>54
063
9()8
1,012
4.951
0,032
5,487
4,006
4.304
4.431
Total : September
to November
11,878
10,098
4.502
2.643
10,470
12.741
December
January
February
3.354
4.368
3.747
2,297
' 3.553
3.233
1,180
1.053
1 1,092
525
827
689
4.534
5.421
4.839
2,822
4,380
3,922
Total : December
to February
11,469
1 9,083
j
j 3,325
2,041
14.704
11,124
Total for six months
23.347
19.181
1
i 7.017
1
4,684
' 31,204
1
23.865
Average Weight of Fat Cattle. The average live-weight
(after a deduction of 28 lb. had been made for subsidy payment
purposes) at which fat cattle were marketed in the United
Kingdom as a whole in the six months September, 1936, to
February, 1937, was 9 cwt. 1 qr. 25 lb., which was 3 lb.
lighter than in the corresponding period of 1935-36. The
average live-weight for each of the six months was : September,
1936, 9 cwt. o qr. 25 lb.; October, 9 cwt. i qr. 4 lb.;
November, 9 cwt. i qr. 16 lb. ; December, 9 cwt. 2 qr. 26 lb. :
January, 1937, 9 cwt. 2 qr. 14 lb. ; and February, 9 cwt. 2 qr.
8 lb. The weights for September and October were
respectively 21 lb. and 9 lb. less than the weight in the
corresponding months a year earlier, but the weights for each
of the re maining months were slightly heavier. From Table
VI it will be seen that the cattle certified in the autumn and
147
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
winter of 1936-37 were lighter than in 1935-36 by i lb. in
England and Wales, 17 lb. in Scotland, and 3 lb. in Northern
Ireland.
TABLE \T
1 Average weight over
, 3 months, September
1 to November
1
; Average weight over
i 3 months. December
to February
i 93^>--37 j 1935 3 ^>
Average weight over
0 months, September
to l^'ebruary
193b 37 ^ 935 - 3 b
England and
1 cwt
qr lb. 1 cwt qr. lb.
1
1
cwt. qr lb |c\\t qr lb.
1 '
cwt qr. lb cwt qr. lb.
Wales
•i 0
Til! 0 116
9 i 24 .
9 2 20
9 2 3
924
Scotland
Northern
•;
1
3 ' 0 3 7
1
9 3 ’
<) 311
9 2 20
9 3 9
Ireland
United
8
1 o' 8 1 J(J
j
S I 27 ,
8 J 22
8 1 18
8 1 21
Kingdom .
•1 9
1
I 4 ; 0 T 15
9 2 16 i
i
9 2 12
9 I 25
920
The dressed carcass weights of the animals certified at
Dead-weight Certification Centres averaged 614 lb. in the six
months September, 1936, to February, 1937, as compared
with 604 lb. in the corresponding period of 1935-36. There
was little change in Scotland, but in England and Wales the
average carcass weight was 9 lb. heavier in 1936-37, as will
be seen from the figures in Table VII.
TABl.K VJI
Average weight over
Average weight over
Average w'eight over
3 months, September
3 months, December
0 months, September
to November
to February
to February
193b
1935
>935 3 <>
i 93(>-37
l 935 - 3 <>
!
England and !
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Wales . . 1
59b
5 ‘J.i
bl 7
()02
606
597
Scotland . . ^
029
628
943
640
b 35
b 34
Great Britain ,
60O
600
02 3
609
014
1
604
Average Prices of Fat Cattle. The average price per live
cwt. of fat cattle certified in the United Kingdom in the six
months September, 1936, to February, 1937, was 35.S. 6d., as
compared with 34s. 3d. a year earlier. It will be seen from
Table VIII that in each month of the period under review
prices showed some improvement on the previous year, the
greatest increases being recorded in September and October.
148
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
TABLE VIII
1
England & Wales
Scotland
Northern Ireland
United Kingdom
193(1-
37 i
I 935 “ 3 h ’ 193b -37
1935 36
i 93 b -37
193.5- 3 ^>
i 93 <i -37
1935-3^
5.
d, i
A', d '
. 9 . d
s
d.
s.
d. '
s. d
5 .
d.
s. d.
Srpt . .
35
i
33 4 i
39 0
3 b
4
32
4
29 4
3b
0
33 8
Oct ..
31
i
3 ^ «
3 « 3
35
7
30
JO
' 2 S 2
34
7
32 II
Nov. . .
33
^ 1
3 ^ 5
3 « 4
3 b
0
29
10
27 7
33
11
32 9
3 months
Sept to
Nov. . .
1
3 ;
3 - JO
3 ^^ 7
3 b
1
3 f
0
28 3
34
10
33 I
Dec . .
35
35 0
39 5
2
31
5
28 10
35
10
35 3
Jan. ..
35
0
35 “ 1
<1
0
: 33
1
30 9
3b
I
35 5
l*cb . .
3 ^>
5 :
35 ^
3 « J
37
5
! 33
3
31 II
3b
6
i 35 5
^ months
1
i
Det to
I Vb . .
35
9 ;
35 ^
pS s
^7
10
32
9
30 It)
3 b
2
35 5
1 0 months'
1
Sept, to
Tcb . .
35
0
34 0
3 ^
37
0
' 3^
10
20 7
35
0
1 34 3
The average prices of dressed carcasses moved on similar
lines, the average for the 6 months September, 1936, to
February, 1937, being 62s. Gd. per cwt., as compared with
59s. 10^. in 1935-36. Details of average prices per cwt.
dressed carcass weight where certification took place on a
dead- weight basis arc as follows : —
193<i
-37
i
1935 - 3 '> ;
T934-35
s.
d.
A.
d i
s.
d.
September
b5
7
()0
6 ‘
07
3
Oetober
b3
2
5 S
1 1 1
b5
0
November
bo
3
57
1 1 ;
62
9
Three months, September to
1
t
November . .
02
11
59
2 '
64
8
December
01
3
.5«
1
0
61
7
January
02
3
(>o
0 1
O 2
II
February
02
7
02
1
1
61
8
Three months, December tt>
1
FeViruary . .
()2
1
bo
8
62
I
Six months, Sept<*inber to
1
1
Februarj' . .
02
6
59
10 1
!
63
4
149
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
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150
TABLK IX { coniittued ). — Number of Cattle Certified for Payment under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts at Live-weight Certification Centres in Each Month from September, 1936, to February, 1937.*
Cattle Industry Acts, 1934-1936
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of
producer-retailers’ contributions for March, I937» given
below, with comparative figures for February, 1937. and
March, 1936. The monthly wholesale liquid milk price was
IS. 5 ^. per gal. in each of these months.
Pool Prices Producer-Retailers
Contributions
Region
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
1937
1937
I 93 h
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
14
122
3 f
North-Western . .
i 3 i
14
122-
3 i
Eastern
14
Hi
I 3 i
2*
3 i
East Midland
14
i 4 i
13
2 *
3 'Ar
West Midland
i 3 i
13!
I2i
3 *
2 «
3 tt
North Wales
i 3 i
i 3 i
lij
3 iV
2 «
3 i
South Wales
i 3 i'
H
I2|
3i
Southern . .
T 4 i
Hi
Hi
2i
2 t
3 -h
Mid-Western
i 3 i
Hi
12 i
3 *
2 «
3 «
Far- Western
i 3 i
i 3 i
3 A
2 «
3 «
South-Eastern
Hi
Hi
Hi
2f(r
2*
3 *
Unweighted Average
13*82
14*07
32*89
2*82
2-57
3-65
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited
producers’ premium of id. per gal.
The number of producers who qualified for the accredited
premium was 19,383 and the sum required for the payment of
the premium was equivalent to a levy of -351^. per gal. on pool
sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at i\d. per
gal., compared with 2^d. per gal. in March, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
March 1937 March 1936.
{estimated)
Gal. Gal.
Liquid 49,166,814 47.538,5<>3
Manufacturing . . . . 20,281,962 26,511,974
69,448,776 74,050,537
Percentage liquid sales .. 70*80 64*20
Percentage manulacturing sales 29 * 20 35 • 80
152
Marketing Notes
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
March was 5-82^. per gal. compared with per gal. for
March, 1936. The quantity of milk manufachired into cheese
on farms was 547,080 gal., compared with 342,674 gal. in the
previous month and 629,414 gal. in March, 1936.
Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936: Manufacturing Milk. Advances
made by the Ministry up to April 15, 1937, in respect of milk
manufactured during the financial years 1934-35, 1935*36 and
1936-37 are as follows : —
Section
of Act
^ (Quantity
Advances
Milk Marketiug Board for
England and Wal
es
In respect of milk :
Manufactured at factories othe.r than the Board
’s :
Gallons
1
; 1934-35
I 5 ^. 7 ii.. 5 m
996.053
1 1935-36 • •
206,976,659
977.546
! 1936-37
151.5*^5.133 («)
2 1 2,984
Manufactured b\ the Hoard :
1 1934-35
846,293
5.9-24
1 193.5-.36
1,7.27.369 (b)
6,926
! 1936-37
(No claims re
ceived.)
3
Made into cheese on lanns :
1 1934-35 i
18,425,918
1 13,081
i 1935-36
14,524,551
66,946
1936-37
10,707,678 (r)
13.051
Total for England and Wale.s
557.505,145
<2.392,51
1
Government of Nor them Ireland
In respect of milk :
6
Manufactured into cream and
butter at registe
red
creameries :
1934-35
18,281,963
164,110
1935-36
23,940,711
132,853
1936-37
24.297.565 («)
92,119
Total . .
6^4,025,384
2,781,593
Gallonage to end of (a) Feb., 1937 , (6) Sept., 1935 ; [c) Dec., 193b.
Milk in Schools Scheme. The following figures show the
gallonage of milk consumed in the first four months of the
third year of the Scheme compared with the corresponding
period in the first and second years. The figures for the third
period will be slightly increased when further returns are
received.
153
Marketing Notes
October, 1934, ^0 Januarj^ 1935 . .
February to September, 1935
Gallons
8,367.873
14.485.307
Exchequer
Contribution
Total for ist year . .
October, 1935, to January, 1936 . .
February to September, 1936
22,852,180
7,689,042
14,209,194
;t40i,86i
Total for 2nd year . .
October, 193O, to January^ 1937 - .
21,898,236
7.502,151
1^397.184
;^I 71.925
Total
52,252,567
£970.970
Cheese-Milk Price. For the purpose of payments under the
Milk Acts (whether by the Exchequer to Milk Marketing
Boards or by Boards to tlic Exchequer) in respect of milk
used for manufacture, the cheese-milk price has been certified
by the Minister and the Secretary of State for Scotland to be
5 36 pence per lb. for the month of April, 1937. No advances
are, therefore, payable in respect of milk mcinufactured in
Great Britain during April.
Wheat Act, 1932 : Sales of Home-Grown Wheat, Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with the Wheat
Commission by registered growei-s during the period August i,
1936, to April 9, 1937, cover sales of 17,723,865 cwt. of
millable wheat as compared with 27,726,795 cwt. in the
corresponding period (to April 9,) in the last cereal year.
Suspension of Quota Payments. The Minister of Agriculture
and Fisheries on the recommendation of the Wheat Com-
mission, has made an Order, the Wheat (Quota Payments)
No. 2 Order, 1937, (S. R. & O. 1937, No. 310) suspending
the liability of millers and importers of flour to make quota
payments under the Wheat Act. The Order came into
operation on April 18, 1937, and remains in force until such
time as a further Order is made by the Minister.
The making of this Order does not imply that no more
deficiency payments are to be made to registered growers in
respect of sales of home-grown millable wheat. Deficiency
payments would only cease to be payable in respect of home-
grown millable wheat sold in any cereal year ended July 31
if the ascertained average price of home-grown millable wheat
for the year rose to approximately los. a cwt. The average
price to date for the current cereal year is appreciably below
that figure, and in accordance with previous announcements,
the Wheat Commission made on April 17 an advance payment
154
Marketing Notes
to registered growers on account of deficiency payments for
the current cereal year at the rate of per cwt. (equal to 3s,
per qr. of 504 lb.) in respect of proper applications on valid
wheat certificates delivered to the Commission up to March 18,
1937. The present Order of the Minister is based on a
calculation that the surplus in the Wheat Fund as shown by
the accounts for the cereal year ended July 31, 1936, together
with the quota payments which have accrued since, will be
sufficient to provide for deficiency payments in respect of the
current cereal year and the other expenditure of the Wheat
Commission attributable to that year.
The following table shows how the rate of quota payment
has varied since the Wheat Act came into operation in 1932,
and in particular how the rate has been reduced in recent
months concurrently with the rise in the price of wheat.
JJalc on which new ulr
Rate of Quota Payment
of Quota Payment came
Per cwt.
Per sack of
into operation
280 lb.
d.
s d.
June 19, 1932
10-8
^ 3
October 30, 1932
2 i)
August 2, 1933 .
i6-8
3
November 5, 1933
21-0
4
August 12, 1934 • •
19-2
4
March 17 , 1935 • •
21*6
4 6
September 29, 1935
19 *2
4
November 3, 1935
ifvS
3 ^
February 23, 1936
\
3 «
August 9, 1936 . .
9 -(>
2 0
November i, 1936
i 0
January 27, 1937
2-4
0 6
April 18, 1937
. . (}uota I’ayments suspended
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Sugar
Refining Agreement (Approval) Order, 1937. The
Minister, after consultation with the Sugar Commission, and
with the consent of the Treasury, has made the Sugar Refining
Agreement (Approval) Order, 1937, dated March 22, 1937
(S, R. & O. 1937, No. 221), approving an agreement, which
the British Sugar Corporation, Ltd., have entered into with
otlier refiners of sugar making provision for the matters set
out in the Third Schedule of the Act.
Cattlo Fund. The following table gives particulars of
payments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency
155
Marketing Notes
Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936, and shows the number of
animals marked on importation into Great Britain : —
April J, 1936
April 1, 1935
♦Sept. 1, 1931
to
to
to
March 31, 1937
March 31, 1936
March 31, 1037
Paymont.s
Animals in rc.spect of
which payments
0.98^7^8
.0.884,049
;£ 9 , 88 o,o 84
were made
Average jiayment per
1,690,800 1
1.036,7^2 j
4.167.858
animal
Imported animals
marked at Ports
L'- 1 ^ :
.0 7 5 l j
-O 7 5
(Great Britain only)
570, (>05 ;
477,883 j
i, 3 i 3 . 757 t
* ConmiLMicenient subsidy payments f As from August 6, 1034.
International Beef Conference. On April 8 the Board of
Trade issued to the Press the following Notice regarding the
appointment of the Chairman of the International Beef
Conference : —
The Jioard of Trade aiinoiuice that the JYinie Minister has appointed
Sir Henry Fountain, K.C.M.CT, C.B., to be Chairman of the International
]^eef Confenmee, TIve object of this conference, which, it is hoped,
will shortly be set up by agreement with the countries ctincerued, is to
arrange for the regulation of supplies of beef to the United Kingdom
from o\'erseas.
Sir Henry Fountain was Second Secretary to the Board of
Trade at the time of his retirement from the Civil Service in
1935 -
Fat Stock: Carcass Sale by Grade and Dead Weight.
During the three months ended March 31, 1937, 3,676 cattle,
5,465 sheep and 2,490 pigs were dealt with under the Grade
and Dead-weight Scheme, as compared with 2,792 cattle,
7,000 sheep and 2,509 pigs during the first three months of
1936.
In the period under review, prices for fat cattle and sheep
rose substantially.
National Mark Beef. During the three months ended
March 31, 1937, 100,417 sides (73,842 home-killed and 26,575
Scotch-killed) were graded and marked with the National
Mark. The number of sides marked was 3,057 in excess of
that for the corresponding period of 1936.
156
Marketing Notes
National Mark Cider Scheme. Evidoncc of the satisfac-
tory progress of this scheme is afforded by the returns of the
output of National Mark Cider during the year ended
September 30, IQ36. These show an output for that year of
over 2,400,000 gal., which compares favourably with the total
figures of 2,216,000 gal. and i ,781 ,000 gal. for the years 1934-35
and 1933-34 re.spectively. The output of cider under the
National Mark for each of the three preceding years was less
than 1,000,000 gal.
The National Mark when applied to cider is not only an
assurance to the consumer that the cider satisfies specific
requirements as to quality, but it enables him to identify a
beverage that is produced solely Irom fruit grown in England
or Wales.
National Mark Cheese Schemes. The year 1936 was one
of expansion with respect to National Mark schemes for
cheese. At the opening of the year schemes for Cheshire,
Stilton, Caerphilly, Cheddar and Cream cheese were in
operation, although the three last-mentioned schemes had been
but lately introduced. During the year, in addition to the
efforts directed to secure the development of the older schemes
and the firm establishment of the newer schemes, further
schemes were introduced for Lancashire, Leicester, and
Wensleydale chee.se, while preliminary steps were taken to
set up a scheme (since brought into operation) for Derby
cheese.
Changes of some importance were made in the arrangements
for grading under the Cheshire cheese and Caerphilly cheese
schemes. As regards the former the grading arrangements
under the original scheme were undertaken solely by the
Cheshire Cheese Federation. In March, 1936, however, the
newly-formed Association of National Mark Cheese
Manufacturers took over this responsibility with respect to
creamery- made Cheshire cheese, while the Federation
retained their responsibility with respect to the grading of
farmhouse Cheshire cheese.
As to the Caerphilly cheese scheme, the grading of the
cheese was carried out originally by each packer with respect
to his own output. At the instance of the packers themselves,
however, a Grading Committee was set up to control the
grading and appoint official graders to carry out the duties.
157
Marketing Notes
Particulars of the total output of cheese under each of the
schemes for the year 1936 are as follows :
Number and. Weight of
Cheese Graded
Type of Cheese
Number
Weight
cwt.
Caerphilly . .
37 L 30 I
—
Cheddar
Cheshire —
9,510
4 , 52 ^il
(a) Farm made
108,645
32,970
\h) Creamery made . .
102,633
38,681
Cream
19,362*
18J
Lancashire
35.893*
12,740*
Leicester . .
vStilton —
68 i*
217*
(a) Blue
11,105
i, 377 l
(Z)) White
18,538
^, 824 i
Wensleydale
9,157*
592'
* Scheme in operation for part of year only.
At the end of 1936, 329 farmhouse and creamery makers
of cheese were enrolled in the National Mark cheese schemes
as follows : Caerphilly 18, Cheddar 17, Cheshire 251, Cream
2, Lancashire 19, Leicester 4, Stilton 13 and Wensleydale 5.
The general position appeared to justify the conclusion that
a steady increase of the total number of packers might be
anticipated.
Marketing Demonstrations at Agricultural Shows. The
Ministry will stage exhibits at the following agricultural
shows this summer : —
Oxford County — Banbuiy — ^May 18-19.
Devon County — Paignton — May 19-21.
Bath and West — Trowbridge — ^May 26-29.
Royal Counties — Reading — ^June 2-5.
Suffolk County — ^Beccles — ^June 3-4.
Three Counties — ^Hereford — June 8-10.
Essex County — ^Maldon — ^June 9-10.
Lincoln County — ^Spalding — ^June 16-18.
Northampton County — ^Kettering — ^June 23-24. '
Aldershot — ^Aldershot — July 1-3.
Royal — Wolverhampton — ^July 6-10.
Great Yorkshire — ^Knavesmire, York — ^July 13-15.
Kent County — Canterbury — ^July 14-16.
Royal Welsh — ^Monmouth — ^July 21-23.
Royal Lancashire — Withington, Manchester — July 29-
Aug. 2.
Marketing Notes
Sandy and District — Sandy — ^Aug. 26.
Sou&port Flower — ^Southport — ^Aug. 25-27.
The Ministry’s exhibits this year will be designed to appeal
particularly to the producer. Working demonstrations of the
testing and grading of eggs, fruit or other products will be
staged, and at the Suffolk, Lincoln, Royal, Great Yorkshire and
Royal Lancashire shows live cattle, sheep and pigs will be
exhibited to illustrate the various types of animal expected to
yield carcasses of the grades defined under the Ministry’s
Scheme for the sale of livestock by Dead Weight and Grade.
Livestock Industry Bill. Service Schemes. The April,
1937, issue of this Journal contained statements made by the
Minister in explanation of Part IV of the Livestock Industry
Bill, dealing with livestock markets, and Part V, relating to
slaughtering. The following extracts from statements made
by the Minister in the House of Commons and in Standing
Committee give a general indication of the intention and
scope of Part VI of the Bill, relating to Service Schemes.
This part of the Bill was amended in Standing Committee
in order (as indicated by the Minister in his statement) to give
greater precision to the purposes for which Service Schemes
could be used.
In the Second Reading on January 20, the Minister said :
“ On Part VI of the Bill, which relates to service schemes,
I need not say a great deal. The purpose we have in view
is to provide some means by which all sections of the industry
can co-operate, either jointly or severally or nationally or
locally, in order to carry out schemes of service to the industry.
I have given the example of advertising. I would emphasize
that' this part of the Bill is purely enabling legislation; it
enables those who desire any sort of service to co-operate
effectively for the purpose. How far it is made use of will
depend, of course, upon the initiative, the ingenuity and the
needs of those who might be helped by the proposals.”
The Minister, in Standing Committee on April 8, moved the
following sub-clause : —
(i) On the request of any body or bodies appearing to the Commission
to be substantially representative of the interests of any class or classes
of persons engaged in one or more of the following activities, that is
to say, the production, marketing and slaughtering of livestock and
the preparation for sale, and the marketing, treatment, and use, of
products of the slaughtering of livestock, the Commission, if they
consider, after consulting the Livestock Advisory Committee and any.
159
Marketing Notes
other bodies appearing to the Commission to represent the interests
of the said class or classes of persons, that it is expedient so to do with
a view : —
(a) to the promotion of efficiency or economy in the production,
marketing or slaughtering of livestock or in the preparation for sale,
or the marketing, treatment or use, of such products as aforesaid,
or to increasing the aeniand for livestock or such products as aforesaid,
and
(h) to the encouragement and promotion of co-operation between
such persons as aforesaid,
may make and submit to the appropriate Minister a scheme for the
performance of services for one or more of the following purposes, that
is to say ; —
(i) the encouragement, promotion or conduct of research and
education in matters affecting any of the said activities ;
(ii) the collections and dissemination of statistics and other in-
formation relating to the marketing of livestock or products of the
slaughtering of livestock ;
(iii) the insurance of livestock ;
(iv) the advertisement of livestock rir products of the slaughtering
of livestock ;
(v) the grading or marking of livestock or carcasses ;
(vi) the compensation of persons for any loss or damage which
they may suffer by reason of the operation of this Act or any instru-
ment having effect by virtue of this Act, the indemnification of persons
in respect of their liability to contribute under any livestock markets
order, or the making of contributions to the Commission for the
purpose of defraying expenses incurred by them m respect of such
compensation as aforesaid ; *
(vii) any purpose similar to any of the ])urposcs mentioned in
paragraphs (i) to (vi) of this sub-section.
Any such scheme as aforesaid is hereafter in this Act referred to as
" a service scheme.”
He said : I would like the Committee to know, and I like
to know myself, precisely what I am enacting. For that
reason I have used the more precise language which appears
in the new draft which I am now submitting.''
In the first place, some hon. Members might like a service
scheme to come into operation to carry out some of the
regulatory functions which are commonly associated with the
operation of the Agricultural Marketing Acts. Some hon.
Members might think it desirable that a service scheme should
be put into operation in an area covered by a livestock markets
order, so as to regulate the supply of cattle to the various
markets within that area. There is no doubt that that activity
IS excluded from the content of service schemes, by the wording
which I am now proposing. The reason why, after a great
deal of deliberation and anxious thought, I have come to the
conclusion that it is wise to exclude those activities from
.service schemes is that they are properly the subject of the
i6o
Marketing Notes
procedure of the Agricultural Marketing Acts. The Bill as
drafted, both before this Amendment is approved and with
it, allows ample scope for the operation of a producers’ board
under the Agricultural Marketing Acts to dovetail into the
structure which this Bill sets up.”
” I can quite conceive of some hon. Members thinking it
desirable that we should take this short cut of the service
scheme in order to put into operation some of the regulatory
functions of the Agricultural Marketing Acts, without the
cumbersome machinery necessarily associated with the
operation of those Acts, but I will tell the Committee the
reason which weighed my opinion down against such a course.
I say this with no closed mind but with a desire to hear what
hon. Members think of it. The reason which influenced me
to exclude what I might call Agricultural Marketing Act
activities from service schemes was that in those Acts where
the power is given to a producers’ board to carry out certain
functions, Parliament, in its wisdom, very properly attached
to those powers a system of control in the public interest : that
is to say, committees of investigation and also, of course, the
democratic constitution of the marketing scheme which enables
those concerned in production to express their own vote on
the desirability or not of the clement of coercion which is
implied, and necessarily so, in a marketing regulatory
scheme.”
” There is a second form of activity which hon. Members
might also wish to see possible under the service schemes, and
that is the trading activity. I tell the Committee, so that they
may know exactly what they are deciding, that under the
new draft of Clause 31 which I am proposing this activity
is also excluded. I can conceive of hon. Members thinking
that those concerned with the operation of this Bill and those
affected by its provisions might desire to use this part of it —
the operation of service schemes — in order to set up some
subsidiary trading activity under a service scheme which
would be ancillary to the operation of the Measure and would
perhaps be of benefit. That is another matter which the
Committee have to decide. I have given the suggestion
careful consideration, and I have been influenced against it,
in the main, by this consideration : The position is that under
the law of the land any group of persons can always combine
and incorporate themselves as a joint stock company, or under
the Industrial and Provident Societies Acts, for trading
161
Marketing Notes
activities of this character. I feel that if one were to have
a trading activity under a service scheme, it would be more
of the nature of a commercial venture than a service scheme.”
" Again, there is this difficulty about promoting trading
activities under a service scheme : If a group of persons come
together, cither under the joint stock procedure of the
Companies Acts or under the Industrial and Provident
Societies Acts for the purposes of trading, the rights of the
contributors to the trading venture are jealously guarded by
the Acts in question. If we were to extend the operation of
service schemes to introduce an element of compulsion into
some trading activity there would be the danger that the same
jealous supervision over the individual rights of contributors to
the commercial venture might not be exercised. It is for that
reason that I have sought to define the purpose of the Clause
in this way. The object is to remove uncertainty. The
questions which I have discussed, namely, the desirability or
otherwise of promoting regulatory or trading functions to be
exercised under this Part of the Measure are questions of policy
on which I shall be glad to have the advice of hon. Members.
As I say, my mind is not closed on the subject, though, for
the reasons 1 have given, I believe that the exclusion of these
activities from service schemes would leave the character of
the service schemes clearer from confusion and would, on
the whole, be desirable ”
“ I should not like the Committee, however, to part with
this matter under the misapprehension that the Amendment
effects that radical change in initiative and in emphasis which
some hon. Members appear to suppose. The matter has been
discussed by some speakers as if it were a matter of principle
and as if this were an inquiry into which method of organization
was the better — the Agricultural Marketing Acts method or the
Commission method Apart from the doubt as to whether
those activities would be legally possible under a service
scheme, there is no power of coercion involved here at all. If
you proposed to use this Part of the Bill in order to get a
regulatory marketing scheme, you would have to add to it
the pains and penalties which are in the Agricultural Marketing
Acts for those who transgress' the provisions of schemes under
those Measures ”
” There is no power for one interest to coerce another, but
what is anticipated is that two classes of persons may have
some interest in common, such as better display or more
162
Marketing Notes
accurate descriptions, and may choose to come together and
submit a joint scheme, and it is considered that provisions
should be made accordingly ”
“ No one can accuse the agricultural population of any
unreadiness to co-operate and to use to the full the opportunities
given them by the Agricultural Marketing Acts. I think the
same will be true of this Part of the Bill. I believe it to be
a delusion that those who live on the land and gain their living
by agriculture are behindhand in intelligence and enterprise as
compared with the people in the towns. In some ways they
are closer to nature, and the great changes that have taken
place in the agricultural industry in recent years show the
readiness of the people concerned in it to adopt new methods,
even though they may seem revolutionary to them at the time.
I believe that by giving them power under this Part of the Bill
to combine for these purposes, they will make use of it and
work this Part of the Bill to the advantage of themselves and
of the industry in which they are engaged.”
Conclusion of Committee Stage. The Standing Committee
of the House of Commons, which has been considering this
measure, concluded their deliberations on April 13, when they
agreed that the Bill, as amended should be reported to the
House. The Committee sat on 18 days.
163
MAY ON THE FARM
K. W. Whhldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College, Neivcastle-upon-Tyne .
The present month sees the end of the winter season as
far as live stock are concerned, horses, cattle, and sheep on
by far the majority ot farms having left their winter quarters
and finding all, or the greater part of their food, from
pasturage. On mixed farms any labour freed from the work
of attending to stock will be most welcome for assisting in
getting in arable crops. The continuance of wet conditions
right into April has delayed cultural operations and the getting
in of spring sown croj^s is now a matter of great urgency on
many farms.
As the season advances soils dry out more rapidly during
dry spells, and there is need for special care in the management
of cultivations: this is particularly so on strong clay land,
and a season like the present affords ample scope for the
practice of the “ art of cultivation ”. To do the right thing
just at the right time is often essential to obtain the necessary
conditions for a good seed bed. To obtain tilth and retain
moisture may be no easy matter when it is necessary to prepare
strong land during dry weather after it has been waterlogged.
If dry weather intervenes during May, how welcome " May
showers ” may be, and how much labour can be saved if they
come at the right time.
Pasture Land. The cold weather in early April checked
the normal growth of pastures, but a few days of favourable
weather can soon make great changes in the availability of
grass kept for stock. It is important, especially with high-
yielding cows, to ensure that they get enough food, and if
there is a shortage of pasture adequate compensation should
be given in the way of concentrates.
On large areas of grass land the pleasing sight of rich, green
and luscious grass that we usually find at the end of April and
the early days of May, soon begins to be marred by the
appearance of the common Creeping Thistle. This weed is
164
May on the Farm
very widespread in most districts and has definitely increased
in recent years. It has been shown in the north of England
that, if the thistles are cut when from four to six inches high,
and again, when necessary, six weeks later, for two or three
successive years, they can be practically eradicated even on
badly infested areas. Where the thistles arc left until the
middle of August and the stems have become well matured,
the same results arc not obtained, the thistles continuing to
appear in following years, when they will be both numerous
and vigorous. The i^rinciple to bear in mind is that it is
necessary to prevent the plant from utilizing its leaf-system
for any length of time for the elaboration of food that it can
store up under ground for the following season. When the
thistles are cut in the early stages of growth the roots of the
plants are prevented from storing up more food and are
reduced in vigour, and in time succumb. Good hand cutting
has proved most effective, but it is more expensive than
machine cutting. It is unfortunate that on most farms
pressure of other work frequently makes it difficult to tackle
this problem in the vigorous manner that is needed if success
is to bo obtained, but on many grass farms the question
could receive more attention. It is satisfactoiy to note that
many farmers are now tackling this pest in a more effective
manner.
Meadow Land. Yellow lattle or hen-penny {Rhinanthu^
crista-galli) is responsible for a great deal of loss in weight of
hay on much of our permanent meadow land. The plant
itself is practically worthless as a food, and is semi-parasitic
on the roots of grasses, resulting in reduced growth and a light
hay crop. The plant begins to show itself towards the end of
April and beginning of May : it pei'sists, because it is an annual
and seeds before the normal period for cutting the hay crop.
Various ways of reducing the loss from this troublesome weed
are recommended; at Cockle Park in 1916 on land badly
infested, the crop was cut earlier than usual, just before the
seeds of the weed had become ripe; a reduced hay crop was
obtained in that year but in the following year very few
yellow rattle plants were seen on the earlier mown portion
of the field, while they continued in large numbers on the area
cut at the normal period. A hay crop of at least 5 cwt. or
more was harvested from the early-cut portion in 1917. The
grazing of a meadow for two or three years will give the
165
May on the Farm
same result, as the weed’ does not do well on land that is grazed
and trodden by stock. On farms where liberal quantities of
farmyard manure are available, liberal dressings of farmyard
manure applied early and light grazing in spring allow the
grasses to compete successfully with the young yellow rattle
plants, and in this way have the effect of preventing them
becoming established and producing seed. Early mowing
of meadow hay fields often has the advantage of reducing
other weeds and thus giving a larger proportion of grass and
clover.
Sheep. The anxiety of the lambing season is practically
over except on some of the late hill farms. Amongst lowland
flocks the percentage of lambs born appears to have been
satisfactory, but on the average it would seem that losses have
been heavier than usual, particularly on higher lying exposed
farms. During April many complaints were heard of lambs
not doing well. Young grass has been in short supply and
it is very difficult to make adequate compensation for this
valuable foodstuff in the diet of a milking ewe.
It will not be long before the flockmaster is concerned with
maggots and similar troubles. Care in keeping ewes and
hoggs properly trimmed may do much to mitigate the evil
as well as reduce losses from wool ball in lambs. In a season
like the present, with a wet, late spring followed by rapid
growth of succulent pasturage, there is a greater liability to
scouring. The feeding of a low protein food like maize or
a binding food like undecorticated cotton cake may check
this tendency.
In recent years there has been a tendency on many farms
to overstock with sheep. There are several reasons for this,
the more important being the relatively better returns from
sheep feeding than from fattening cattle, and the improvement
of much of the poorer pasturage by manurial treatment,
especially with phosphates, involving increased stocking.
The truth of the old saying “ a sheep’s worst enemy is
another sheep ” has been amply demonstrated. Change of
pasturage and as wide a distribution as is practicable are
desirable. On sheep pasturage where there is a tendency for
the herbage to become strong and send out flowering stems
at a comparatively early stage, it is most desirable to graze
a fair proportion of cattle. Cattle stock have not the
powers of discrimination in grazing, and make possible a
166
May on the Farm
much more even grazing of the sward. Where pasture plants
are allowed to run to seed, the deterioration is rapid, both in
quality and digestibihty.
Poultry. Unlike certain other farm stock poultry are
dependent upon direct feeding of concentrates, so that with
the advent of the grass period the poultry keeper gets little
relief from the expense of purchased concentrated foods. It
is particularly important, with the present high prices of food-
stuffs, that there should be efficient management, and the
poultry keeper should only retain birds that are likely to give
a return for food consumed.
During May there is still some demand for boiling fowls,
and any birds of this type: that are saleable should be disposed
of before large numbers of cockerels appear on the market.
The hatching of heavy breeds will be finished and chicks
should be making good growth. The rate of growth for a
batch of young chicks at this time of year is rapid, and it is
important that they should receive a sufficient allowance of
suitable food, supplying sufficient protein and minerals, as
the foundation of the future laying hen is being laid down at
this time.
A continuous watch should be kept on tlie flock for any
signs of disease, as, especially with ix)ultry, disease may spread
so rapidly. On many farms Coccidiosis takes a very heavy
toll of chicks. It should be borne in mind that this disease
is controllable, and if the poultry keeper is not conversant
with the symptoms or methods of control it is most advisable
that, at the first signs of trouble amongst the young birds,
the advice of an expert should be obtained — County Poultry
Instructors can give much useful information and advice that
may be most valuable in preventing serious loss.
Horses. The last two or three years have seen a revival
of interest in horse-breeding. During the last two years
prices have been higher, and at present they are very
satisfactory. The present month sees the height of the
breeding season. Losses amongst foals from joint-ill are
more numerous than necessary on many farms. Inoculation
does much to reduce this loss; and on farms where the
trouble is known to occur it is wise to consult a veterinary
surgeon a few weeks before the mare is due to foal.
Breeding results with horses are less satisfactory than with
167
May on the Farm
other classes of other farm livestock. How often we find
the foaling return as low as 55 per cent, and how seldom
over 70 per cent. This means considerable loss, as service
fees arc high and veiy often valuable breeding mares produce
too few offspring. The risk of the marc not producing a foal,
often makes breeders obtain the services of cheaper sires.
This is usually false economy, as the saving of one or two
pounds in service fee is not much compared with the sum
total of breeding expenses, while the resultant progeny may
be of much less value. The system of travelling horses on
a weekly round, and it is not easy to avoid this, is no doubt
a factor that contributes greatly to the poor foaling returns,
as mares are not always mated at the most favourable time —
which is towards the end of the heat period.
Cereal Crops. Sjjring com frequently shows signs of
trouble from grub attacks during this month. Wireworms,
and on oats after temporary or long leys, leather jackets,
may attack the roots, destroying many plants or checking
growth of others. Frit fly, the grub of which attacks the
centre growing shoot in the stem, often cause considerable
loss to oats especially those sown late. Remedial measures
are not easy; but generally speaking anything that helps
the plant to make rapid growth is an advantage. Top-
dressing with quick-acting nitrogenous fertilizers, such as
nitrate of soda, nitrate of lime or nitro-chalk, may do much
to reduce loss from such pests. Rolling on light soils or
newly-ploughed-out grass land also helps in producing firm
conditions for the root system.
Charlock is responsible for a great deal of loss in some areas.
Various methods of getting rid of the weed are recommended.
Dry and wet sprays give satisfactory results when weather
conditions are favourable. Finely-powdered Kainit does well,
and on light soil short of potash, may be a useful manure in
addition to destroying the weed. On soils where nitrogen
can be applied without risk of lodging, dusting with calcium
cyanamide may be recommended. Sulphuric acid and copper
sulphate solution may be used as a wet spray. Farmers are
advised to consult their County Agricultural Organizer as to
form and method of application for their particular conditions.
One often hears that on certain fields or farms barley seldom
does well. Further inquiiy usually reveals the fact that these
fields are deficient in lime. Barley is tiie least tolerant of all
168
May on the Farm
cereals to acidity. It is satisfactory to note that more attention
has been given to the question of liming during recent years.
There is still room, however, for greater attention to this
question. The good results from the applications of suitable
dressings of lime on acid soils, where finger-and-toe occurs
in swedes, cabbage, kale, etc., and also in helping clovers,
barley, etc., are well recognized, but during recent years
experiments have shown that for crops regarded as tolerant
to acidity, such as potatoes and oats, applications of lime have
given good results.
Wherever crops are found to be showing signs of unsatisfac-
tory growth an effort should be made to determine the reason.
The Agricultural Organizer for the county is always willing
to give assistance, and, if necessary, will take samples of soil
for analysis.
169
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
Trends in Fertilizer Consumption. A comparison of
annual fertilizer consumption in terms of the actual plant
nutrients contained in the fertilizers discloses some interesting
changes. Total consumption of fertilizer, and the selection
of the form in which any particular plant nutrient shall be
purchased, are obviously influenced by such factors as world
trade, financial conditions in the agricultural industry, and
the relative price of different fertilizers.
Changes in the ratio of the different plant nutrients con-
sumed, however, cannot be so readily explained. Doubtless
such changes are influenced to some extent by the spread of
knowledge based on the accumulated results of research and
experimentation. Otlier factors, however, obviously exert a
very considerable influence on fertilizer consumption in any
particular country, especially in times such as the present,
and in countries that produce one type of fertilizer but have
to rely almost entirely on imports for supplies of some other
plant nutrient.
TABLE 1
Kstimated Fertilizer Consumption in Great Britain and Ireland —
Ratio of Plant Nutrients Consumed
Year
Nitrogen
{N)
Phosphoric Acid
(P2O5)
Potash
(K,0)
1913-14
I
4*3
1*2
1922
1
4*5
0*5
1926
I
3*7
1*1
1927
1
3*9
1*3
1928
I
3*9
1*2
1929
I
4*3
I ‘2
1930
I
3-9
1*0
1931
1
3*4
I*I
1932
I
2*4
0-7
1933
I
2*4
1934
. . . . . . I 2*7
* Data not available.
I -I
Table I shows the relative estimated amounts of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash consumed annually in Great
Britain and Ireland for a number of seasons during the period
1913-1934. The figures are based largely on data published
170
Notes on Manuring
by A. N. Gray in the Empire Journal of Experimental
Agriculture (1934, II, 64), in Superphosphate (1936, No. 6,
and 1937. No. 2), and in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society (Vols. 93 - 95 )-
The figures in Table I indicate that a considerable reduction
has taken place in the proportion of phosphoric acid used
during the 20 years 1913 to 1933 — ^the change being
particularly rapid during the years 1930 to 1933 inclusive.
Whether such reduction could go still further without causing
losses in crop yields is not easy to decide, since there is really
little experimental evidence available as to the cumulative
effects of using different proix)rtions of the various plant
nutrients. On the other hand, it is possible that by 1933 the
reduction had already gone too far and the small increase
shown in 1934 may be the first indication of the appreciation
of this fact by the farmer. It will be interesting to see whether
the figures for 1935 confirm this reversal of the downward
trend in the relative consumption of phosphoric acid.
It should be noted that the reduction in the ratio of phosphoric
acid to nitrogen used was not simply due to the total con-
sumption of phosphoric acid remaining constant whilst that
of nitrogen increased. Omitting the War years, there has
been a fairly steady increase in the total consumption of
nitrogen (except for the year 1931), but the total consumption
of phosphoric acid has actually fallen considerably over the
same period, though the year 1929 saw a temporary “ peak ”
consumption which was reflected in a temporary increase in
the ratio of phosphoric acid to nitrogen, despite the fact that
nitrogen consumption also showed a large increase in that
year. In 1934, however, the total consumption of phosphoric
acid showed an increase over the previous year, and it may
be that the pendulum is beginning to swing in the opposite
direction and both total and relative consumption of phosphoric
acid may now be rising again.
During the period 1913-33 world fertilizer consumption
showed a similar trend towards a lower phosphoric acid ratio.
In France and Germany the proportion of phosphoric acid to
nitrogen has for long been below that in this coimtiy. The
continued use of such a low proportion of phosphoric acid,
however, has been criticized in recent years by German
investigators, who point to the low cereal yields in Germany
du ring the Great War and the years immediately following
the War, when phosphoric acid supplies were very low. They
171
c 2
Notes on Manuring
suggest that it may also be responsible for the increase in
a variety of cropping troubles in their country in more recent
years.
Earlier notes in this series have drawn attention to the
serious effects of definite phosphate deficiency on crop yields
in this country, and there is evidence that in some districts
this condition has made itself felt in recent years. The slight
rise in the ratio of phosphoric acid to nitrogen used in 1934,
which was accompanied by a rise in total consumption of
phosphoric acid, may therefore be a very desirable trend,
though it would be unfortunate if it developed too strongly
and caused the pendulum to swing too far in the direction
of an unnecessarily high PgOs : N ratio. On most farms too
much money spent on one t5rpc of fertilizer usually means
there is not enough left to purchase adequate supplies of other
plant nutrients.
The potash : nitrogen ratio reached a peak value in 1927
and then declined steadily until the low value of 07 : i was
reached in 1932. There was a definite rise, however, by 1934
when the ratio was not far short of that for the peak period
1927-29.
Unfortunately it does not seem possible as yet to state what
is the most desirable ratio of plant nutrients, and so it is
impossible to forecast the ultimate effect of any particular
trend. Further experimental work on the cumulative effect
of standard schemes of manuring seems the most likely way
of obtaining this information. A change for only one year is
not likely to be of any great significance or to have any far-
reaching effect. Such a change is often due to a temporary
rise or fall in the price of some plant nutrient and may be
automatically adjusted within a short time.
The same trend extending over several years, however, must
obyiously affect the balance of the reserves of plant food in
the soil, and may reduce the ability of that soil to withstand
an enforced reduction in supplies in a time of emergency.
Maintenance of Soil Productivity. Renewed interest has
been aroused in this question in recent months, for the
desirability of keeping as much land as possible in a high
state of fertility has been put forward as an important
addition to any defence measures. When the agricultural
industry is enjoying reasonable prosperity the main objective
of the *' good " farmer is the maintenance of the cropping
17*
Notes on Manuring
capacity of his land. This may be partly a matter of personal
pride, but it has also the practical advantage that such stored-up
fertility will often help crops to withstand temporary adverse
conditions and will enable the farmer himself to tide over
short periods of depression. For some years past the
difficulties of the arable farmer have led him to direct attention
more to the immediate problem of cutting down costs to meet
the lower prices received for crops, rather than the wider
problem of maintaining the cropping power of the land.
The maintenance of the productivity of a soil under arable
cultivation is a complex problem- of which manuring is only
part.
Attempts are frequently made to meet a new crisis in the
farming industry by departure from some of the more
restrictive and expensive traditional practices, and it is worth
while considering how far such alterations may affect the
general productivity of the land when continued as a long-term
policy. Experimental evidence on these matters is badly
needed, for though the Rothamsted and Woburn experimente
provide data on some aspects of the problem, the evidence
on many points is by no means conclusive. Indeed, the latest
account of the Woburn experiments* serves to emphasize both
the complexity of the problem and the need for further
investigation of many of the points involved.
The Woburn experiments showed that, given suitable
manuring, cereal crops can be grown for many years in
succession provided pests, diseases and weeds are controlled.
Sooner or later, however, yields begin to fall even though no
pest or disease has appeared. This deterioration cannot always
be arrested even by the application of the requisite amounts
of the common plant nutrients, either in the form of artificial
fertilizers or as farmyard manure. At Woburn, annual
dressings of farmyard manure kept up the yields better than
any other method of fertilizing, and though, for wheat, a
complete dressing of artificials was almost as good as farmyard
manure, it was less effective for barley.
The Woburn results provide no satisfactory answer as to why
a crop supplied with dung or with complete fertilizer should
show this falling off in yield; but they are not alone in this
respect, for the long-term experiments at Rothamsted, on an
entirely different soil type, show a similar deterioration.
Fifty Years of Field Experiments at the Woburn Experimental
Station ” : Sir E. J. Russell and J. A. Voelcker.
173
Notes on Manuring
That the 5aeld reductions are not entirely due to some factor
associated with the continuous growth of one crop is shown
by the fact that similar effects may be seen on the rotation
plots at Woburn and Rothamsted. At Woburn the rotation
roots — barley — seeds — ^wheat, receiving only small and
irregular supplies of organic matter, failed to maintain yields
at their original level.
Again, plots at Woburn on which a mustard or tares crop
was ploughed in annually, deteriorated as rapidly as
unmanured plots.
The deterioration was completely overcome for a time by
bare fallowing, but, though the first crop after the bare fallow
was as good as the crop before the onset of deterioration,
subsequent crops fell off very rapidly and in a short time
yields were back at the previous low levels.
To summarize the position, departure in certain directions
from the established practices of good husbandly may result
in a gradual deterioration in crop 5deld, the cause of which
is not clear. Continuous growth of one crop, year after year,
may result in a deterioration that can only be checked by
larger dressings of farmyard manure than would normally be
available in general farm practice. The deterioration is
likely to occur even when complete artificial manures are
given, but is more pronounced with incomplete manuring.
Ploughing-in mustard or tares does not prevent the
deterioration. The yield reductions are temporarily cured by
bare fallowing, but the effect of the fallow is quickly exhausted
and yields are soon back at their old levels. A similar
deterioration has been observed where a rotation of crops is
grown in conjunction with unusually small dressings of farm-
yard manure.
It is well to remember that the trouble apparently becomes
really noticeable only after the lap>se of several years, for
there was little deterioration on plots receiving complete
artificial fertilizers during the first 15 years of the Woburn
experiments. Deterioration seems to be associated in some
way with exhaustion of the organic matter in the soil, and it
is suggested that possibly the straw in farmyard manure is
the source of some unknown factor not supplied either by
artificials or green manuring, and the importance of the
humus-forming properties of straw are emphasized. What-
ever the explanation of the problem, the moral would seem
to be that though ample supplies of farmyard manure will
174
.Notes on Manuring
cover a multitude of sins against the old established practices
of good husbandry, in the absence of dung the maintenance
of the productivity of the soil is a much more difficult problem.
It is of course possible to cite farms that appear to have cropped
normally for many years without farmyard manure, but no
satisfactory explanation has yet been forthcoming for the
success of some and failure of others.
A combination of the various factors, such as crop rotation,
fallowing, reasonable manuring, etc., will keep the land in
good condition, as, of course, happens in ordinary good
farming. The problem is, however, both interesting and
important in view of the development of new systems of
farming and on account of the diminishing supplies of dung.
In the long run the fertility of the soil is a reflection of the
farming system, which, if not itself sound, cannot be made
permanently successful by any system of manuring.
175
PRICES OP ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Description.
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended April 7.
Bristol
Hull
L'pool
London
Costs
per
UnitH
i
5.
L
5 .
£
5.
£
5.
5 .
d
Nitrate of Soda (N 15!%) . . '
7
12c
7
I2C
7
125
7
125
9
10
,, ,, Granulated (N. iO%)
7
12c
7
125
7
125
7
125
9
6
Nitrate of Lime (N. 13%)
7
oc
7
05
7
05
7
05
10
9
Nitro-Chalk (N. 15^%)
1*
7
5c
7
50
7
5 ^^
7
9
A
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20 *6%) . .
7
5C
7
.v
7
5r
7
5 ^
7
0
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20*6%) ^
7
5d
7
5d
7
5d
7
5d
7
0
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . ^
2
18
2
15
2
15
2
15
3
ri
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5
0
4
17
4
15
4
17
3
3
.. (Pot. 20%)
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8
3
8
I
7
17
8
1
3
3
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
9
15
9
13
9
9
9
L 3
4
0
Basic Slag (P.A. 1 5i%)
2
126
2
5b
. .
2
106
3
2
,, ,, (P.A. 14%) • • • •
s
2
86
2
06
2
06
2
66
3
3
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P.A. 26-
274%)
2
I2fl
. .
2
loa
2
5a
I
8
Superphosphate (S.P. A. 16%) . .
3
4
. ,
3
3 ^
3
of
3
9
.. (S.P.A.
3
1
2
17
2
195
2
ibf
4
I
Bone Meal (N. 3j%, P.A. 2oJ%)
, .
6
10
7
5^
7
0
, ,
Steamed Bone Flour (N. }%,
P.A. 27 }%~ 29 i%) ..
5
5 ^
1 5
10
5
os
5
0
wJLmm
••
Abbreviations : N, = Nitrogen ; P.A. — Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A.= Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. = Potash.
♦ Prices are for not less than 0-ton lots, at purchaser’s nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carnage-paid prices.
§ IMces are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r, prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve
b Prices for 0-ton lots. Prices at Bnstol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o r. at depots in London
district, lameness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 0 tons the price is is per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 105 . extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 55. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 105 . i>cr ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton, 155. extra, and
for lots of less than 10 cwt. but not less than 2 cwt., 205. extra.
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails 1$. 3d. extra.
g Prices .shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
^1 These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 units " (equal parts
0/ 22'4 lb,) so that a fertilizer, for example, with lO per cent, nitrogen contains
16 such “ units ” in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a unit " of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 14O, “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,*' obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
176
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A,, Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
The Food Requirements of Sheep. The accurate rationing
of livestock is only possible under conditions of indoor manage-
ment or confinement to yards. Under any outdoor system,
whether on arable or pasture, there is bound to be great
uncertainty as to the amount and food value of the material
taken by the animal off the ground, and moreover the variable
conditions of exposure from day to day probably give rise to
greater variations in the daily food consumption than is
customary indoors, even with ad lib. feeding. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the formulation of feeding standards
for the u.se in the rationing of sheep has been much more
difficult than for dairy cows and pigs, and that at best such
standards as have been drawn up for the sheep cannot claim
to be more than rough guides to the needs of any particular
flock, serving as a starting point for the rationing, to be raised
or lowered according to experience, system of management,
and nature of food supply.
The first systematic attempt in this country to arrive at the
fundamental requirements of the sheep over the whole range
of live-weights was made by the late Professor T. B. Wood,
in 1928, and his conclusions were embodied in the table of
feeding standards contained in the Ministry’s Bulletin No. 48.
In this table the requirements are given for different live-weights
in terms of total dry matter consumed, and the amount of
“ protein equivalent ” that should be contained therein. For
a sheep of 100 lb. live- weight for example, the food requirement
is given as 24 lb. dry matter per week (or 34 lb. per day)
including if lb. of “ protein equivalent ”.
The problem has been further explored at Oxford by Scott
Watson and his co-workers, who have adduced evidence from
the older literature and from new experiments, pointing to
the conclusion that Wood's dry matter standards are too high,
even for well-balanced rations consisting mainly or entirely
177
Notes on Feeding
of palatable dry foods. The highest consumption recorded
in Watson’s experiments with a wide variety of dry foods
fell short of Wood's figures by 10-15 cent., whilst on
a diet of roots, hay and limited concentrates the discrepancy
increased to nearly 30 per cent. From his results Watson
concluded, therefore, that witli the ordinary type of winter
feeding practised in this country the daily dry matter
consumption of sheep is unlikely to exceed zb-z'j lb. per
100 Ib.live-weight, and that this level can only be maintained
if from one-third to one-half of the dry matter is given as
air-dry foods (hay, meals, etc.). This level of appetite
represents 75-80 per cent, of Wood’s standard. With heavy
root feeding or on low protein rations the consumption of
dry matter may be still lower.
This discrepancy between the Cambridge and Oxford
standards has led to further investigation at Cambridge, the
results of which, as reported by Dr. Woodman and co-workers
in two papers in the current issue of the Journal of AgricuUural
Science (Vol. 27, p. 191-211, 212-223), seem to settle the issue
in favour of a close approximation to the Oxford standard.
These new Cambridge reports contain much of interest,
both as regards the methods of experiment and the details of
the data obtained from day to day and at different seasons
with individual sheep. The first report deals with trials'made
in the winters of 1933-34, i934-35> and 1935-36 with a variety
of rations, and the second report with determinations made
in the summers of 1934 and 1935 of the amounts of grass
consumed by sheep on pasturage of varying quality.
In the first series of trials the sheep were kept continuously
out of doors in boarded runs provided with shelters. Suffolk
wethers were used in the first winter, and cross-bred wethers
by Suffolk ram out of Cheviot x Border Leicester ewes in the
two following winters. Ten experimental feeding periods of
14 days each were carried out in the first winter, and nine in
each of the following years.
In the first year, the trials commenced in October and the
diets tested consisted of lucerne hay of medium quality fed
both in the chaffed and in the long condition; unchaffed
lucerne hay of very good quality; lucerne hay and swedes;
lucerne hay, swedes and balanced concentrates; ryegrass-
sainfoin hay, swedes, and concentrates; hay, marrow-stem
kale and concentrates: hay, raw potatoes and concentrates.
In the second year, the trials commenced early in July and
178
Notes on Feeding
the diet in the first period consisted of meadow hay, green
lucerne and concentrates. Subsequently, the lucerne was
replaced by either marrow-stem kale or thousand-head kale.
In the third year, the trials commenced in early September,
and the rations up to the last period consisted of hay, marrow-
stem kale and concentrates. In the final period the kale was
replaced by sliced mangolds.
The rations thus included a considerable variety of foods,
but in most periods were of the hay-succulents-concentrates
type.
On every diet the variations of consumption from day to
day were considerable for each individual sheep. In one
specimen case quoted, in which the animal was on a diet of
chaffed meadow hay ad lib, marrow-stem kale ad lib, and a
fixed allowance of concentrates, the variations in daily
consumption of dry matter on 14 consecutive days ranged
from 184 to 549 grm. for the hay, from 646 to 954 grm. for the
kale, and from 1155 to 1654 grm. for the total dry matter con-
sumed. On each diet a similarly wide range of variation was
also observed in consumption as between different individuals.
On comparing the results obtained on different diets, it is
noted that, on changing from a diet of chaffed lucerne hay
to one of the same hay fed long, the average daily consumption
was lowered by nearly ^ lb. of dry matter per head. With
lucerne hay of better quality, even though fed in the long state,
the daily consumption rose fully up to the original level.
In most instances the feeding of swedes along with the
lucerne hay caused a slight depression of appetite, amounting
on the average to about 5 p)er cent., but this was fully
rectified when balanced concentrates were added to the diet.
Replacement of swedes by kale did not materially affect the
results, but when raw potatoes took the place of swedes the
daily intake of dry matter was considerably reduced.
When the results are arranged with relation to the live-
weights of the sheep in each period, it is seen that at all
weights the average daily consumption of dry matter was
well below the amounts expected from Wood’s standards, the
extreme individual values ranging from 69 to 108 per cent,
of the expected appetites. In 34 out of 159 animals the
consumption lay between 69 and 80 per cent, of the predicted
value, in 86 animals between 80 and 90 p)er cent., in 27
animals between 90 and 100 per cent., and in 12 animals
between 100 and 108 per cent. The general average of all
179
Notes on Feeding
results was 860 per cent. On the whole the degree of
deficiency below Wood's standards was much the same
throughout the whole live-weight range, with a slight tendency
towards better appetites relative to the standards at the highest
weights from about 135 lb. onwards. If the results for these
heavier sheep be excluded, the average of the remaining 136
results for sheep varying from 60 to 135 lb. live-weight works
out at 85 2 per cent., and Woodman suggests, therefore, that
the dry matter standards in Wood’s table be corrected by
multiplication by the factor 0 85, or a reduction of 15 per cent.
This gives, for example, for the 100 lb. sheep a daily appetite
standard of 2 9 lb. (3-4 x 0-85), a figure in reasonably good
agreement with Watson's figure of 2-6-27 lb. , Kellner’s figure
of 2-6 lb. and Henry and Morrison's 27-31 lb.
The new standards for dry matter arrived at as indicated
above are summarized below : —
Live Weight
Appetite
Dry Matter per Week
lb.
lb.
60
•. 145
80
17*9
ICO
20*4
120
22*9
140
25*5
160
28 '0
180
29-8
200
3^-5
In the same paper, the Cambridge authors re-examine the
evidence as to the maintenance requirements of sheep at
different live-weights, as to which previous work at Cambridge
had led to the conclusion that the standards of Kellner and
others were much too low. This conclusion is confirmed by
the additional data now available, and therefore no change
is necessary in this particular in the revision of Wood’s
standards.
Grass Consumption by Sheep. The difficulties involved
in ascertaining the amount of grass consumed by sheep under
pasturage conditions, to which reference was made in
the opening paragraph, were apparently overcome with a
considerable measure of success by the Cambridge workers by
the ingenious but laborious device of running digestion trials
with weighed amounts of grass in parallel with the grazing
trials, and comparing the weights of dry matter voided as
faeces in the two series.
180
Notes on Feeding
In the first grazing period of the season 1934 (May 10-24),
conditions were ideal for high consumption, the herbage
available being excellent in quality and digestibility. Under
these conditions, and in marked contrast to the winter feeding
results summarized above, the sheep consumed amounts of
dry matter that were from 4 to 17 per cent, in excess of Wood's
standards (unrevised). This increase in appetite is ascribed
to the high palatability of the young spring herbage, and
confirms the view that farm animals in general tend to over-
eat when first put out to grass in spring, frequently with
resultant “ scouring”, which is not surprising in view of the
succulent, protein-rich nature of the herbage.
During the second grazing period of 1934 (June 5-16), the
quality of the herbage was not so good, the digestibility of the
organic matter being about 10 per cent, less than in the first
period, and probably also there had been a corresponding
decline in palatability. Despite these disadvantages, the
consumption of dry matter was little short of Wood's
standards, the averages for different sheep ranging from 94
to 106 pwr cent, of the ” standard ” values in the first half
of the period, and from 90 to 100 per cent, in the second half,
when the grass had undergone further deterioraton in
digestibility and quality. Thus even at the worst the grazing
animals were taking appreciably more dry matter per day
than they did on the winter diets.
In the 1935 trials, which commenced in May, the condition
of the grass at the outscit was by no means so good as in May
of the previous year, and consequently the dry matter
consumption did not reach the same level, although still well
up to Wood's standards (98-108 per cent.).
From these results we may infer that sheep consume a
bigger ration, in terms of dry matter, when on pasture in
spring and summer than under winter feeding conditions
with diets composed of hay, succulents and concentrates.
The size of the ration will vary according to the quality of
the herbage, and will normally be greatest on young, leafy
pasturage.
Influence of Food Oil on Body Fat in the Fowl. An
important factor in the problem of securing high quality in
meat production is the tendency of any oils in the food to
impart their character to the fats of the body. Food oils of
a softening tendency will lead to a softening of the body fat,
181
Notes on Feeding
and this means that fats that are naturally inclined to be soft,
such as the fat of the pig and the fowl, may thereby be
seriously deteriorated in dietetic value.
This problem, in its application to the fowl, has for some
years occupied the attention of the Poultry Section of the
Cambridge Animal Nutrition Research Institute, whose
reports have indicated a close relationship in this instance
between food-oil and body-fat. In particular it is the
unsaturatcd acids of the food oils that tend to accumulate in
the body-fat. A measure of these unsaturated acids is given
by the power of the oil for combining with iodine, so that,
broadly speaking, an oil of low “ iodine value ” may be
described as “ hardening ” and one of high iodine value as
“ softening ” in its effect upon the body fat.
In poultry fattening, the foods used chiefly are oats, maize
and barley, tire first two being comparatively rich in oil of
softening character (3-6 per cent.), and it is therefore obviously
of interest to know how these cereals compare in their influence
upon the consistency and quality of the body fat deposited
during the fattening period
Data upon this subject are given in a paper by Dr.
Cruickshank of the Cambridge Institute, in the current issue
of the Journal of Agricultural Science. In her expepments
the three cereals mentioned above were compared both with
young and with older birds (Light Sussex), the ration in all
instances consisting of 88 parts of the ground cereal mixed
with 12 parts of dried skim milk.
In both experiments the best growth rates were obtained
on the oats ration, with barley second, and maize a bad third.
With the mature birds the general consistency of the fats
was practically normal, but the softest fat, as judged by the
iodine value and other criteria, was produced by the oats
ration, followed closely by the maize ration. From this it
must not be assumed, however, that the oil of barley is a less
potent softener than the oils of maize and oats, since, owing
to the poverty of barley grain in oil, less of this oil was fed
than of the other two oils.
In the second experiment, in which the birds were less
mature, and consequently the live- weight increases were
greater, the body fat in all three groups was very similar,
and gave an iodine value rather lower than the normal, or
in other words tended to be firm rather than soft. In
explanation of this result it is suggested that, since the weight
182
Notes on Feeding
increases during the period were greater (i.e., the fattening
was more rapid), a greater proportion of the fat had to be
formed from the carbohydrate fraction of the food, which
gives hard fat. This is in accordance with the experience
in pig-breeding that rapid fattening tends to the production
of firmer fat than slow fattening.
These Cambridge results thus offer no support to the
objections often raised against the use of maize in poultry
fattening on the grounds of its assumed softening influence.
That it exerts such an influence in pig-fattening can hardly
be doubted, but with pigs the fattening period is far more
prolonged than with poultry, and the proportion of body-fat
produced from the oil of the maize correspondingly greater.
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
Wheat, British . .
i 5 .
10 0
L
0 8
£ s.
9 12
72
s. d,
2 8
d.
1*43
%
9-6
Barley, British Feeding
8 10
0 8
8 2
71
^ 3
1*20
6*2
,, Argentine
8 17
0 8
8 9
71
2 5
1*29
6*2
„ Persian . .
8 7 *
0 8
7 ^9
7 ^
2 3
1-20
6-2
„ ► Polish . .
8 I2§
0 8
8 4
7 ^
2 4
I '25
6-2
Oats, English, white . .
8 13
0 9
8 4
60
^ 9
1*47
7-6
,, ,, black and
grey ..
8 13
0 9
8 4
60
2 9
1*47
7-6
,, Scotch, white
9 7
0 9
8 18
60
3 0
1 *61
7-6
,, Canadian, mixed
feed
8 5
0 9
7 16
60
2 7
1-38
7-6
Maize, Argentine
7 0
0 7
6 13
78
I 8
0-89
7-6
,, Gal. Fox
6 I 3 t
0 7
6 6
78
^ 7
0-85
7-6
„ South African,
No. 3, White Flat
7
0 7
15
78 i
1 9
0-94
7-6
Beans, English, Winter. ,
7 0|!
0 17
3
66 '
1 10
0-98
19*7
Peas, English Blue
11 5 §
0 15
10 10
69 •
3 I
1-65
i8-i
„ Japanese . .
24 5 t
0 15
23 10
69
() 10
3-66
i8- 1
Dari
8 5 t
0 8
7 17
74
2 I
1-12
7*2
Milling Offals : —
Bran, British . .
7 12
0 16
6 16
43
3 2
1*70
9-9
,, broad . .
8 2
0 16
7 ^
43
3 5 1
1*83
10
WeatingsJ
7 17
0 14
1 3
.50 '
2 7 ^
1-38
10*7
,, Superfine J: . .
« 7
0 13
7 14
(>9
2 3
1*20
12-1
Pollards, imported . .
7
0 14
6 8
2 7
1*38
II
Meal, barley
10 0
0 8
9 12
71
2 8
t -^3
6-2
M ,, grade 11 . .
9 5
0 8
8 17
71
2 6
1*34
6*2
, , maize . . . . {
7 7
0 7
7 0
78 .
1 10
0-98
7-6
,, ,, germ ..j
7 10
0 II
6 19
84 ,
I 8
0-89
10*3
,, locust bean . .|
7 15
0 5
7 10
71 1
2 1
1 • 12
3*0
M bean .. ..1
8 10
0 17
7 13
()d ;
2 4
1-25
19*7
,, fish (white) ..1
14 15
2 2
i-J 13
59
4 3
2-28
53
,, Soya Bean (Ex- ;
tracted) t . • |
8 TO
I 9
7 I
64 ;
2 2
I • 16
38-3
Maize, cooked, flaked . . I
7 17
0 7
7 10
84 '
I 9
0*94
9-2
,, gluten feed ..1
7 12
0 13
6 19
76 j
T 10
0*98
19*2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil
10 2
I 0
9 2
74
2 6
1*34
24*6
M 9 % ..
9 10
I 0
8 10
74
2 4
1*25
24*6
»* >»
9 5
I 0
8 5
74
2 3
I • 20
24*6
Cottonseed cake,
English,Egyptian seed,
4 i%oil .. ..
5 17
0 18
4 i 9
i
4 ^ j
2 4
125
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian, 4i% oil , .
5 5
0 18
4 7
42
2 1
I -12
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
decorticated, 7% oil. . .
8 i 5 t
I 8
7 7
68
2 2
I ‘16
34*7
Cottonseed meal,
decorticated, 7% oil . .
8 I 5 t
I 8
7 7
2 I
I-I 2
36*8
184
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS (continued)
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton i
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
j 100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
£ s.
£ s-
£ s.
s. d.
d.
%
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
Ground nut cake.
1 5
0 18
6 7
i
77
I 8
1
0*89
16-4
decorticated, 6-7% oil
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated,
8 2t
I 8
6 14 1
1
73
I 10
0*98
41-3
6-7% oil
Palm-kernel meal,
8 5
I 8
6 17 !
73 j
I II
1-03
41*3
1-2% oil
7 0
0 12 !
6 8
71 i
I 10
0*98
i6-5
Feeding treacle . .
5 0
0 8 j
i 4 iz
i 51
I 10
0*98
2-7
Brewers’ grains, dried ale
6 7
0 11 1
1 5 16
1 48
2 5
1*29
12-5
,, ,, >. porter
6 0
0 11
159
1 48
2 3
1*20
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . .
From ys. 6d. to 17s. 6d. per ton ex-factory
(according to factory).
* At Bristol. § At Hull, f At Liverpool.
I In these in.stanccs manunal value, starch equivalent and protein
e(iuivalent are provisional.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the av{;ragc prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wist* .stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were current
at the end of March, 1937, and are, as a rule, considerably lower than the
jirices at local country markets, the difierence being due to carriage and
dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative
\ allies of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the method of
calculation used in tliese notes. Thus, if linseed cake is offered locally
'dt £\i per ton, then since its manunal value is £i per ton as shown above,
the cost of food value ])er ton is ;^io. Dividing this figure by 74, the
starch equivalent of lin.seed cake as given in the table, the cost per unit
of starch equivalent is is. ^d. Dividing this again by 22*4, the number
of pounds of starch eciuivalent in one unit, the cost per lb. of starch
eijuivalent is i*43<f. Similar calculations will show the relative cost
per lb. of starch equivalent of t>thcr feeding stuffs on the same local
market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can determine
which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices quoted on his
own markets. The figures given in the table under the heading manurial
value per ton are calculated on the basis of the following unit prices : —
N., 7s. 3</. ; PjOi, 2s. 3</. ; KjjO, 3s. 6(/.
185
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent
£ «•
Barley (imported) . .
6*2
8 12
Maize
78
7*6
7 0
Decorticated ground-nut cake
73
« 3
,, cotton-seed cake
68
34-7
8 15
(Add los. per ton, tn
each instance,
lor carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*16 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent o • 70 shillings. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The Table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The food values,**
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisoiy schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issiu‘ ol the Ministry *s
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Starch
Protein
Food Value
Crop
equivalent
equivalent
per Ion, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Wheat
72
()‘6
8 2
Oats
60
7-6
6 15
Barley
7 ^
0-2
7 18
Potatoes
18
0*8
I 19
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds
7
0-4
« 15
Beans . .
66
i iq *7
7 i6
Good meadow hay . .
37
4-6
4 3
Good oat straw
20
0-9
2 4
Good clover hay
3 «
7*0
4 7
Vetch and oat silage . . |
I 13
1*6
I 0
Barley straw . .
23
0-7
2 10
W’heat straw . ,
! ^3
0*1
I 8
Bean straw
1 OO
f ^
1-7
2 11
* Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6 d., post free yd.
186
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The March index of the prices of agricultural produce at
130 (base 1911-13 = 100) is i point higher than in February
and 14 points above the figure recorded for March, 1936.
(If allowance be made for payments under the Wheat Act,
1932, and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act,
1934, the revised index becomes 134.) During the month
under review, average prices of fat cattle and sheep, butter,
cheese, poultry, potatoes and hay moved upwards, whereas
those of wheat, barley, oats, fat pigs and eggs declined.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. (Corresponding
months of 19 11-13 == ^00.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
IT4
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
I T 2
115
118
129
March
113
* ro2
JO8
112
116
130
April
117
: 105
111
119
123
May . .
115
102
1 12
111
June
III
' 100
1 10
III
116
July
106
101
II4
1 14
117
August
105
J05
119
i »3
119
September . ,
104
! 107
119
120
127
October
100
, 107
. 114
113
125
November . .
roi
t 109
1 14
1^3
125
December . .
, 103
t no
1
I
113
114
126
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act (b).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
1 1 1
119
124
125
J33
February . .
110
117
122
123
133
March
106
112
118
122
134
April
T09
116
126
128
May . .
105
116
117
120
June
104
JI4
117
I 2 I
Jniy
. .
104
117
120
121
August
108
108 1
I 122
120
124
September . .
108
IIT
125 1
128
133
October
104
112
121 !
119
129
November . .
105
II3
120
119
129
December . .
107 ,
1
114 1
120
120
130
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (fc) Commenced September, 1934.
187
Miscellaneous Notes
Grain. The monthly average price of wheat at Qs. per cwt.
was id. below that of February and the index declines from
122 to I2I. (If the deficiency payment under the Wheat Act,
1932, is taken into account, &e index is 133.) Barley at
gs. lod. and oats at 8s. 2d. per cwt. showed a reduction on the
month of 2d. and id. per cwt. respectively; the index for the
former at 124 remains unchanged, owing to a similar down-
ward movement in the base price, but the index for oats falls
by I point to 115. In March, 1936, wheat averaged 6s. 3ti.,
barley 7s. yd. and oats 5s. iid. per cwt., the relative indices
being 84, 96, and 84.
Livestock. Quotations for fat cattle, which had been rising
since November last, showed a further advance, the average
for second quality moving from 34s. y^d. in February to 36s.
j)er live cwt. , and the index at 102 for March is higher by 3
points. The addition of the subsidy under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934, brings the index up to 117.
At IS. per lb. for second quality, the average price of fat
sheep appreciated by id. and the index moves upwards from
137 to 145 points. Baconers at 12s. y,d. and porkers at 13s. id.
per score (20 lb.) were lower by id. and 2d. respectively than
in February; the relative indices decline by 4 points to 122
and I point to 124.
Dairy cows were cheaper by 13s. per head, but owing to
a fall of a somewhat similar amount in the base price, the
index remains unaltered at iii. Quotations for store cattle
and sheep were higher than in February, the index for the
former appreciating from loi points to 105, and that for the
latter from 115 points to 117. Store pigs were slightly
reduced in price; the index at 129 shows a fall of 10 points by
reason of the reverse price movement which took place during
the corresponding months of 1911-13.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. The regional contract price
of liquid milk remained at last month’s level and the index
of 171 is repeated. Butter rose by \d. to is. 2\d. per lb., the
index at 100 being higher than in February by 3 points. Eggs
averaged los. 2d. per 120, compared with 13s. id. in February,
but as the reduction was less than that recorded during the
base years, the index rises from 115 to 121. At £4 2s. 6d.
per cwt., cheese realized 2s. 6d. per cwt. more than a month
earlier, while at no the index is increased by 3 points. All
descriptions of poultry were dearer and the combined index
moves upwards from 121 to 123.
188
Miscellaneous Notes
Other Commodities. Prices of potatoes advanced to a small
extent, and the average rose by 2 s. to £y lys. per ton; owing,
however, to a proportionately higher rise having occurred in
the base prices, the index is reduced by i point to 200. Botli
clover and meadow hay were a little firmer in price, the
combined index now standing at loi as against q8 a month
ago. At IS. 4fi. per lb. wool was unchanged, but a slight
rise during the base period causes the index to fall from 131
to 130.
Monthly index numbers of prices of individual commodities (Correspond-
ing months of 1911-13 = 100.)
Commodity
1935
1936
T937
Mar.
Mar.
Dec. j
|an.
Feb.
Mar.
Whecat
62
84
118 1
133
122
121
Barle\
^>5
96
1^5
T24
124
Oats. .
06
84
101
120
116
115
Fat cattle . .
88
93
91
97
99
102
sheep . .
139
128
140
137
145
Bacon pigs . .
JH
112
124 ,
130
126
122
F-’ork
1 20
117
131
131
125
124
94
109
106 1
95
115
I2I
Poultry
12.4
120
119
120
I 21
123
Milk
161
171
171
171
T7I
171
Butter . . . i
88
95
98
b5 ,
97
100
Cheese . . |
91
97 !
1 103
107
107
1 I 10
J\^tatoes . . , ;
108
^93 i
' 220
-it)5 !
201
200
1 lay
J03
8t
98
i)H 1
C)8
JOT
Wool . . I
«3
9b 1
1
118
131 :
131
130
Dairy cow.s . . . .
lOT
102
III !
1 1 r
II f
Til
Store cattle
80 !
92
98 .
99
lOT
105
, , sheep . . . , !
113 !
T02
118
115
117
.. pigs .. ,, j
130 ;
1^3
t
15& ,
152
139
129
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and the
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act.
Wheat .. .. 1 T17
122*
134
134
133
133
Fat cattle . . . . 1 102
107
105
1 12
114
117
General Index . . | 118
122
130
133
133
134
* Superseding figure previously published.
Importation of Cherries
With the object of preventing the introduction of the Cheny
Fruit Fly, the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries has made
an Order under the Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877
189
Miscellaneous Notes
to 1927, regulating the importation of cherries into England
and Wales during the 1937 season.
Cherries grown in Spain will be admitted without restriction
until May 18, after which date the importation of Spanish
cherries is prohibited.
Cherries grown in France will be admitted until May 27 if
accompanied by a certificate of origin; after that date the
importation of French cherries is prohibited with the exception
of those certified to have been grown within a small district
around Honfleur; details of this district arc given in the Order.
Cherries grown in Italy will be admitted until June 12 if
accompanied by a certificate of origin; after that date only
those certified to have been grown within the Region of Emilia
or the Province of Verona will be allowed to enter; after
June 23 the importation of all Italian cherries is prohibited.
Cherries grown in Germany will be admitted until June 26 if
accompanied by a certificate of origin; after that date no
German cherries will be admitted except those certified not to
have been grown south of latitude 53” N. or in East Prussia.
Cherries grown in Hungary will be admitted until June 17 if
accompanied by a certificate of origin; after that date the
importation of Hungarian cherries is prohibited.
Certificates of origin must accompany cherries grown in
any other European country, when imported after May 18.
Copies of the Importation of Raw Cherries Order of 1937
(S. R. and O. 1937, No. 292) may be obtained from H.M.
Stationery Office, price 2d. net.
Agricultural Research Scholarships and Studentships for
Research in Animal Health
Acting in consultation with the Agricultural Research
Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the
Department of Agriculture for Scotland invite applications
for the following post-graduate Agricultural Research Scholar-
ships and Studentships for Research in Animal Health, tenable
as from October i, 1937, for a period not exceeding three
years : —
(i) Not more than four Agricultural Research Scholarships, each of the
value of £2.00 per annum, to which will be added, if necessary, a
sum which will not normally exceed l$o per annum for fees and
expenses.
(ii) Not more than three Studentships for Research in Animal Health,
each of an inclusive value not exceeding £y:>o per annum. A
Veterinary Scholarship of the value of £200 per annum, with
190 .
Miscellaneous Notes
allowances not exceeding per annum, and tenable for not
more than four years, may be awarded instead of one of these
Research Studentships to enable a graduate with Honours in
Science to obtain a veterinary professional qualification with a
view to undertaking research in animal health.
Applications must be received not later than May 31, 1937.
Nomination forms and further particulars may be obtained
from the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 10
Whitehall Place, S.W.i, or from the Secretary, Department
of Agriculture for Scotland, 29 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh
2, according to the country in which the candidate resides.
Travelling Scholarship in Agriculture
The Governors of the College of Estate Management offer
a Travelling Scholarship to the value of £300, tenable for one
year, for the purpose of studying agricultural methods in this
country and abroad.
The Scholarship is open to British-born graduates of a
British University, or those holding such qualifications as
may be approved by the Board of Governors of the College.
All applicants must be under thirty years of age on the date
of application.
The next award of the Scholarship will be made at the end
of the year 1937, and application forms will tlien be obtainable
from the Secretary of the College, 35 Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
W.C.2.
Coronation Day Bonfires
A chain of large bonfires on high points throughout the
country is being organized as part of Coronatiorr Day
celebrations. Local Authorities and others proposing to erect
a bonfire are requested to take the utmost care to ensure the
avoidance of disturbance or damage to any Ordnance Survey
triangulation pillar which may be in the vicinity.
Large numbers of these concrete pillars have been erected
by the Ordnance Survey on hills and mountains throughout
the country to mark positions that have been established in
connexion with the retriangulation of Great Britain. If a
pillar, or its foundations, were disturbed or cracked by the
heat of a bonfire or by onlookers, the accuracy of the triangula-
tion position would be lost, and considerable delay and expense
would be entailed in making the re-observations necessary to
establish it again.
191
Miscellaneous Notes
For this reason, no bonfire should be erected within 50 yards
of any such pillar, and adequate steps should also be taken to
prevent any damage to pillars by onlookers.
Tithe Redemption Annuities
The Tithe Redemption Commission draw the attention of
owners of land which was subject to tithe rentcharge to the
fact that, by the Tithe Act, 1936, tithe rentcharges (including
Extraordinary tithe rentcharges) were extinguished on October
2, 1936, and in place of each tithe rentcharge a redemption
annuity, payable to the Commission, is charged for a pelriod
of 60 years from that date. The annuities are payable half-
yearly on April i and October i. The demands for the first
half-yearly instalments, which became due on April i, 1937,
will be issued shortly by the collectors for the Commission,
who are not in all instances the former collectors of tithe
rentcharge.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. During the month ending
April 15, 1937, legal proceedings were taken against nineteen employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee i
Area 1
1
Court
1
Fines
Imposed
Costs ;
Allowed
i
Arrears ol | tNo. of
Wages 1 workers
ordered ^involved
Buckingham-
L d.
£ d. ;
i s. d \
shire
Great
1
Missenden
o lo o'
2 12 0 i
39 15 ,
2
Cambridge-
j
shire
March
0
0
o
100
53 14 !
Cornwall . .
Liskeard . .
lo o o j
1
2 12 7 ,
2
Dorsetshire
Dorchester
lo o o
0 8 0 1
20 0 0 ,
1
Durham
West
i
1
Hartlepool
1 lO o
20 5 2
3
Essex
Romford
400
24 If) 0
1
Gloucester-
shire
Chipping
Campden
0
0
0 9 6
21 1 8
I
Herefordshire
Ledbury . .
15 0 0
—
18 10 0
1
Lines (Kest-
1
i !
even and
1 1
Lindsey) . .
Grantham
0
0
2 2 0
j 20 0 0
3
Yorks (East
Riding) . .
Market
Weighton
100
060
9 12 9
I
Breconshire
Builth Wells
0
0
I 16 0
25 0 0
2
91 0 0
8 14 0
255 8 II
19
192
WIRELESS TALKS TO FARMERS, MAY, 1937
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speakers
Subject
National :
May 3
6.20
Mr. J. G, Ste%\art
Beef
M 17
6.20
t* ft
Cornish Farming
24
6.20
ft
Dairy Cows
.. 31
6.20
Mr. J. G. Stewart and an
Australian Farmer
Sheep Shearing
West:
May 0
2.30
Rt. Hon. W. S. Morrrson,
M.I* , Minister of Agri-
culture
Cider Tasting at Ixing Ash-
ton : Presentation of prizes
and address.
,, 20
6.40
For Western Farmers.
North :
May 7
7-30
Messrs J Hanley, N
Me Vicar and \V B
Mercer
For Northern I'armers :
Farming Fundamentals.
,, 20
j
“ Sheep Fratch " (i.e. a dis-
cussion about sheep), by
three Keswick Flock-
masters and Mr. R. H.
Lamb, of Caldbeck, a
farmer-journalist, who re-
sides in llie farm adjoining
that in which John Peel
' lived, on the eve of Kes-
' wick May Fair, with par-
ticular reference to the
blackfaced variety of sheep.
Welsh :
May 5
5- 0
Mr. A. W. Ling
Children’s Hour : L)own on
the harm.
0
5- 0
Mr T. H Evans, who Avill
bring an expert to the
studio
j Children's Hour : Sheep
1 Dog Trials
- 7
1
8. 40 !
1
1
j Messrs. W. H. Jones and
11 Janies
For Welsh Farmers : Rural
Electrification and its
h)evelopment.
,, 21
—
For Welsh Farmers (from
Aberystwyth).
Scottish :
i
May (>
6.50
Mr. A 1 ). Buchanan
Smith
For Scottish Farmers
,, 19
6.15
Mr. J. Ritchie
Maggot Fly on Sheep
25
6.20
Mr. R. L. Scarlett
For Scottish Farmers.
Northern
Ireland :
- 7
8-30
S. Shaw', Jean Fullerton,
Marian Dickson and F.
Patterson
Young Farmers’ Clubs : A
Discussion — That the
Ulster Farmer of To-day
is Not I’rogressive.
193
Notices of Books
Foot>and-Mouth Disease. — No outbreak of Foot-ancl-Mouth Disease
has been conJinnod since February 5. At the time this issue of the
Journal went to press, no part of Great Britain was subject to any
restriction in connexion wnth lliis disease.
APPOINTMENTS
county agricultural education STAFFS: ENGLAND
Bucks : Miss M. McKenzie has been appointed Tnstnictress in Rural
Domestic Fconomv.
Cornwall: Mr. R. Gardner, N.D.H., has been appointed Lecturer in
Horticulture for West Cornwall "
Norfolk: Mr. R. Line, B.Sc.(Agric.), N.D.A., has been appointed Senior
Agricultural Advisory Officer for West Norfolk, vice Mr. D. H.
Findlay. B.Sc.(Agric.). N.D.A , N.D.D.
NOTICES OF BOOKS
The Second Report on the Corrosion of the Tinplate Container by
Food Products. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research :
Food Investigation, Special Report No. 44. By T. N. Morris, M.A.,
and J. M. Bryan, B.Sc., Ph.D. Pp. vi -} 5.1. (London : His
Majesty's Stationery Office. 1936. Price 15)
This publication reviews the work that has been done on the subject
since 1931, when the first reprint appeared. It consists chiefly of descrip-
tions of a large number of experiments. The details gn^en are mainly of
interest to research workers, but for the benefit of canners and practical
technicians, points of practical significance are brought out with brevity
and clarity. The summary of the report is necessarily brief, since we are
as yet only on the threshold of a successful attack on the problem of
tinplate corrosion. The lines of the next advances, however, are now
clear. The general introduction should be read by everyone in the
canning industry, since the position is there stated with admirable clarity
and succinctness.
Up from Poverty in Rural India. By D. S])encer Hatch, B.Sc., M.Sc.
in Agr., Ph.D. Preface by the Earl of Willingdon. 3rd edition.
Pp. xix + 208, and 12 Figs. (Oxford University I^ess, 1936.
l^icc 4s. 6 d.)
Most of the readers t)l this Journal arc interested in the affairs of
India, w^hile some have a practical interest in the rural problem that has
long been one of the chief preoccupations of the administrations in that
important part of the Empire, To either of these groups this survey
should make a strong appeal, especially at a time when India looms so
large in the public mind. In spite of the progress that has been achieved
under the British Raj, the problem as stated in the opening chapters is
certainly ^ave. Dr. Hatch writes from a long experience of various
efforts to improve rural conditions, the guiding principle of which has
been self-help with intimate expert counsel," and, although progress
must necessarily be slow, there can be no doubt that the methods adopted
are gradually bringing a fuller and happier life to some of the poorest
people in the world.
194.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY
Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous
International Institute of Agriculture.— K Survey of Current Biblio-
graphies on Agriculture and Allied Subjects (84 pp. ) Rome,
1937,
Board of Trade — Report on the Import Duties Act Inquiry (1934),
Part J. Tlie Textile Trades, The Leather and Clothing Trades,
The Food 'I'rades, The Chemical and Allied Trades, Miscellaneous
Trades and a General Summaiy^ Statement, (xii + 386 pp.)
London : H.M, Stationery Office, 1936, bs.
British Commouivealih Scientific Conference, London, 1936. — Report of
Proceedings. (74 pp.) (Cmd. 5341 ) London: H M. Stationerv
Office, 1937, 3^*
Watson, /. A. S., and Hobbs, May 7:.-— Great Farmers. (287 pp. -f- 23
plates.) Lruidon : Selvvyn & Blount, 1937, bi/.
Cm V.SO??, 7.).- 'f he Countryman’s Year (^7- pp.) London’ Hodder
(Jt Stoughton, 1936, 5s.
Jones, S. IL Knghsh Village Homes, (vii and 120 ]>p 09 plates.)
London : B. T. Batsford, 1936, 7s. bd,
Blyton, ll'. j. Country Airs. (227 j)p ; 8 plates.) London :
Blackie, 1935, 75 bd.
Cormsh, \\ -The Preservation of Our Sceneiy. (xiii -f 91 pp. 12
plates.) Cambridge: at the l-mversity Press, J937, 75. bd.
Blyton, ir. J The Rolling Year, (x -f- 278 pp. 8 plates.)
London and Glasgo^v : Blackn; & Son, 1936, 75. bd,
Goodwin, M E., and Morgan, Q. 1 . — Jh-actical Science of Living
Things. Book II. (125 pp ) London: Gregg Publishing Co.,
193b, IS, bd.
Mountjoy, T. W , H. -J\)ints of the Dog. (281 pp. -f 48 plates.)
London : Kveleigh Nash Sc Grayson, 1930, 3s. bd.
Wilson, H. F. — Columbia University Studies in the Hrstory ot
American Agriculture — 111. The Hill Country of Northern New
England, Its Social and Economic History, 1790-1930. (xv -f
455 PP- P 4 plates.) New York : Columbia University ITess ;
London : Humphrey Milford, 1936, 21s.
Knowles, I\, and Watkin, J. E. —A Practical Course in Agricultural
Chemistry for Senior Students of Agriculture, Daiiying, Horti-
culture and Poultry Husbandly*. (ix -f 188 pp.) London :
MacMillan & Co,, 1937, 105.
Association oj Official Agricultural Chemists. — Olficial and Tentative
Methods of Analysis. (4th Edition.) (xix -f 710 pp.) Washing-
ton, 1935-
Agricultural Economics
Fay, C. R. — Co-opcration at Home and Abroad, \’ol. I. Pre-War.
(4th Edition.) (xvi T 447 PP ) London : P. S. King, 1936, 155,
Thomsen, F. L.- -Agricultural lYiccs. (x -f- 471 pp.) New York and
London : McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1936, 246'.
Institute oJ Pacific Relations, New Zealand Council. — Recent Economic
Changes in New Zealand. W. B. Sutch. (164 pp.) Wellington,
Melbourne, Sydney and London : Whitcombe & Tombs, 1936,
7s. bd.
International Institute of ylgncM/fior.— Studies of the lYincipal
Agricultural I^oducts on the World Market. No. 2. Inttrnational
Trade in Meat (xi + 424 pp.) Rome, 1936, 25 lire.
195
Additions to the Library
Goodrich, C,, and Others — Migration and Economic Opportunity. The
Report of the Study of Population Redistribution, (xvii -f 763 pp.)
Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press ; London :
Humphrey Milford, Oxford University l^ess, 193b, 225. bd.
Agricultural Education
Begtrup, //., Lund, H., and Manniche, P. — The Folk High Schools
of Denmark and the Development of a Farming Community,
with an Introduction by Sir Michael Sadler. (176 pp.) (Third
and Popular Edition.) Copenhagen : Arnold Bu.sk ; London :
Humphrey Milford, 1936, 45.
Colonial Office. — (Colonial, No. 124.) A Survey of Vocational Agri-
cultural Education in the Colonial Empire. (29 pp.) London :
H.M. Stationery Office, 1937. (^d.
Agricultural Machinery
University of Oxford — 'J'hc Second Conference on Mechanized Farm-
ing. Rhodes House, Oxlord, January 5 -8, 1937. Programme and
Papers. (118 pji.) Oxford, 1937. Report of Discussions.
(37 PP )
Imperial Economic Committee. — A Survey of the Trade in Motor
Vehicles. (170 pp.) London : H.M. Stationery Offic(‘, 193^^*
2s. 6d.
United States Department of - -Farmers’ Bulletin No.
1761 : — Harvesting witJi Combines. (36 pp.) Washington, i93h.
Agricultural Marketing
International Institute of Agriculture. — Studies of the Principal
Agricultural Products on the World Market. No. i i—World
Cotton Production and Trade, (xii -f 462 pp. -f xx charts.)
Roni«‘, 1936, 30 lire.
Agricultural Research
Commonwealth of Australia, Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research. — C.S.I.R. Ten Years of Progress, 1926-1936. (67 pp.)
Melbourne, 1936.
Medical Research Council of the Privy Council.-- Tho. use of the
Developing h'gg in Virus Research. E. M. Burnet. (58 pp. -f
List of Publications, xii pp.) I^ondon : H.M. Stationery Office,
1936, IS.
Love, II. /7.- -Application of Statistical Methods to Agricultural
Rcsi^arch. (ix -1~ 501 pp ) Shanghai : The Commercial Press,
193b, 15'?-
Botany
Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics (For Crops Other Than Herbage ). —
An Outline of Cytological Technique for Plant Breeders. (14 pp.)
Cambridge : School of Agriculture, 1937, ^d.
Crops
Wallace, H. A., and Bressman, E. N . — Corn and Corn Growing.
(43b pp.) (4th Edition.) New York : Wiley; London: Chapman
& Hall, 1937, J^ 3 ^* ^d.
196
Selected Contents of Periodicals
Dairying and Dairy Products
Dixey, R. N. — Tuberculin-Tested Milk. A Study of Reorganization
for its Production, (iii pp.) Oxford: The Agricultural
Economics Research Institute, 1937, 2^-
West of Scotland Agricultural College. — Bulletin No. 132 : The
Variations in the Fat Content of Milk. (pp. 87-102.) Kilmarnock,
1936.
Diseases of Animals and Veterinary Science
Miller, W. C., and Robertson, E. D. S. — Practical Animal Husbandry,
(x ~f 432 pp. 16 plates.) (2nd Edition.) London : Oliver &
Boyd, 1937, 155.
Cawthron Institute, New Zealand ~~ Pasture and Soils Research Publi-
cation No. 35 : The Importance of Cobalt in the Treatment of
Certain Stock Ailments in the South Island, New Zealand.
(92 })p.) Wellington, 1936.
Food and Nutrition
Filby, F. A . — A History of Food Adulteration and Analysis. (269 pp )
London : Allen & Unwin, 1934, 105.
Medical Research Council of the Privy Council — Special Report
Series No. 218 : A Dietai^^ Survey m Terms of the Actual Food.stuffs
Consumed. E. P. Cathcart and Mrs. A M. T. Murray. (56 pp. +
List of Publications, xii pp.) London : H.M. Stationery Office,
193b. IS.
Horticulture
Smith, T . — The Profitable Culture of Vegetables. (Edited, revised
and brought up)-to-date by W. E. Shewell-C ooper .) (334 pp.)
London : Longmans, Green & Co., 1937, 1^' bd.
Truffaut, G — Comment on soigne son jardm. (7th Edition.)
(478 pp.) Versailles: Georges Truffaut, 1937, lo /r.
Livestock
Fraser, A. — Sheep Farming. (178 pp. -j- 14 plates.) I-ondoii :
Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1937, 75. bd.
SELECTED CONTENTS OF PERIODICALS
Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous
The Nation’s Food Supjdies in Relation to Defence. N. Rooke.
(Trans. Chart. Surv. Instn. 69, 2 (Jan. 1937), PP- 80-116.)
Resinous Plant Products. T. H. Barry. (Sci. Progr. 31, 123 (Jan.
1937)* PP- 449-461.)
Tithe Barns. J. D. U. Ward. (E.state Mag. 37, i (Jan. 1937) »
pp. 1 7-2 1.)
Ziele und Aufgaben der deutschen Landeskultur. R. Geith. (Der
Forschungsdienst 2, 9 (Nov, 1936), pp. 429-431.) (Aims and
Problems of German Agriculture.)
Agricultural Economics
The World Statistical Situation of Linseed. A. di Fulvio. (Int.
Rev. Agric. Mon. Crop Rep. and Agric. Stats. 27, 12 (Dec. 193b).
PP- 905’-9i2.)
197
Selected Contents of Periodicals
study of the Results of Farm Accountancy in Scotland in 1932-33
and 1933-34. /. Deslarzes, (Int. Rev. Agric. Mon. Bull. Agric.
Econ. Soc. 27, 12 (Dec. 1936), pp. 3^9-381)
Protection of Agricultural Production and of the Export of Agri-
cultural Products in some South American Countries. Results
of this I^olicy E, Martinez. (Int. Rev. Agric. Mon. Bull. Agric.
Econ, Soc. 27, 12 (Dec. 1936), pp. 382-401.)
'Phe Pig-Cycle in Great Britain. An Explanation. R. H. Coase and
R. F. Fowler. (ICconomica 4, 13 (Feb. I937)i PP- 55-^2. )
Agricultural Machinery
Contrast Between the International I'rade in Agricultural Machines
and in the Technical Progress Made in Their Manufacture. H. J.
Hapfen. (Int. Rev. Agric. Mon. Bull. Agric. Sci Prac. 27, T2
(Dec. 193b), pp. 445-453.)
Botany and Plant Physiology
The Effects of Alternate I’eriods of Liglit and Darkness of Short
Duration on the Grov\tli of the Cucumber. G. B. Portsmouth
(Ann. Bot. 1, i (Jan. 1937). pp. 175-189.)
Crops
World Maize Pn>duction and Trade. V . Desmireanu. (Int. Rev. Agric.
Mon. Crop. Rep. and Agric. Stats. 27, 12 (Dec. 193b), pp. 879-892.)
Subterranean Clover. J. E. Harnson. (J. Dep. Agric. Viet. 34, 12
(Dec. 1936), pp. (>09-614.)
The World Wheat Situation, 1935-36. A Review of the Crop Year.
(Wheat Stud. Stanford Univ. 13, 4 (Dec. 1936), pp. 141-232.)
Die HagelversSicherung in der Welt. W. Rohrbeck. (Fier. ii Landw'.
Sonderheft 127 (1937), pp. 1-244.) (Insurance Agaihst Hail
Throughout the World.)
Dairying and Dairy Products
The Construction of Cow Houses. G. V. Charlton. (J. Land Agents’
Soc. 36, I (Jan. 1937), pp. 18-23 + I plate.)
Breeding for Milk Yield and Uniformity. A. D. Buchanan Smith,
(Scot. J. Agric. 20, I (Jail. 1937), PP- 26-30.)
The Coagulation of Milk with Rennet. Some ICxperiments w ith Slow-
Renneting and Soft-Curd Milks. F. H. McDowall, R. M. Dolby
and K. R. McDowell, (J. Dairy Res. 8, i (Jan. 1937), pp. 31-52.)
The Effect of Certain Metallic Contaminants on the Cheddar Cheese
Making Process. C. R. Barnicoat. (J. Dfiiry Res. 8, i (Jan. 1937),
PP- 53-bo.)
Studies on the Chemistry of Cheddar Cheese Making. V. Factors
Influencing the Acidity and Mineral Content of Cheese. R, M.
Dolby, F. H. McDowall and A. K. R. McDowell. (J. Dairy Res.
8, I (Jan. 1937), pp. 74-85.)
Studies on the Chemistry of Cheddar Cheese Making. VI. Factors
Affecting the Relation Betw^een Lactic Acid and Titratable Acidity
in Wheys. R. M. Dolby, F. H. McDowall and A, K. R. McDowell,
(J. Dairy Res. 8, i (Jan. I937)» PP- 86-91.)
Studies in Cheddar Cheese. V. The Effect of Chemical Substances
on the Ripening I’rocess. W, L. Davies, J. G. Davies, D. V.
Dearden and A. T. R. Mattick, (J. Dairy Res. 8, i (Jan. 1937),
pp. 92-104.)
198
Selected Contents of Periodicals
Diseases of Animals and Veterinary Science
The Combating of Animal Diseases and the Improvement of Stock
in Enij)ire Countries. J^art I. The Combating of Animal Diseases.
/. Smith. (Emp J. exp. Agric. 5, 17 (Jan. i 937 )> PP*
Fertilizers
Concentrated Fertilizers. li\ S Landis. (Chem. Ind. Rev. 56. i
(Jan. 2, J937), pp. 3-0.)
I'he Restoration and Maintimance of Fertility. Sir A. tLmiard.
(J. Fmrs’ Cl. I-ond., Pt. 1 (Feb. 1937), ]>]). r-18.)
Food, Nutrition and Preservation
National Nutrition and British Agruiilture. I. Agriculture and
Ihiblie Health, Str J. Orr IT. A National I Man for Agriculture,
Sir D. Hall. 111. Increased Meat Production, J. A. Scott Watson.
IV. Increased Production of Milk, H. D. Kav. (Scot. J. Agric.
20, I (Jan. J937), pp. j-25.)
Recent Advances in the Work on Refrigerated (xas-storage of Fruit.
F. Kidd and C. West. (J. Pomol. 14, 4 (Jan. 1937), pp. -199-316.)
E2ftect of IMx vious Cold Storage on the Respiration of Vegetables at
Higher Temiitratures. C O. Apple man anu C L, Smith. (J. Agric.
53. « (Oct. 15, 1936). pp. 557-580 )
Fruit Culture
Storage Experiments with Pollen of Culti\ateil Fruit Trees. B. R,
Nebel and M. L, IhUtle (J. Pomol. 14, 4 (Jan. 1937), PP- 347“359-)
The Reinvigoratioii of Apple Trees by the Inarching of Vigorous
Rootstocks. Joan Kearman, A. Beryl Beakbane, R. G. Hatton
and W.A. Road. (J. Pomol. 14,4 (jan. 1937), PP* 37^>’390 + 4
plates )
Horticulture
The Potato in Its b'arly Home and Its Introduction into Europe.
R. N. Salaman. (J. R. Hort. Soc. 62. 2 (Feb. 1037), PP- 77 + 7
plates)-- (to be continued.)
The Effect of I’henylacetic Acid and of Indolebiityric Acid on the
Growth of Tomato Plants. H. L. Pcarse. (J. Pomol. i^, 4
(Jan. 1937), pp. 365-375 -f 3 ]>lates.)
Livestock, Breeding and Feeding
Dual Purpose Cattle. T. B. Goiuher. (Estate Mag. 37, i (Jan.
1937). pp- 30-34-) ^ ^
Entwdcklung und Stand der Milchleistungspruf ungen beim Schaf.
Fr. Richter. (Der Forschungsdienst 2, 9 (Nov. 1936), pp. 474-487.)
(Development and lYesent l\)sition of the Methods of Testing the
Milk TM-oductivity of Sheep.)
Grass and Money. J. Orr. (Scot. J. Agric 20, 1 (Jan. 1937). PP-
31-40.)
The Chemical Composition of Grass Silage. 5. J . Watson and W. S.
Ferguson. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 1 (Jan. 1937). PP- 1-42.)
The Losses of Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients m Low-Tempera-
ture Silage, With and Without Added Molasses or Mineral Acids.
5. J. Watson and W. S. Ferguson. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, i (Jan. i937).
pp. 67-107.)
Artificial Insemination of Sheep. 1, I^reliminary Investigation on
Its Application to Sheep Breeding in Kenya. J. Anderson. (J.
Agric. Sci. 27, i (Jan. 1937). PP- J43-150 )
199
Selected Contents of Periodicals
Plant Diseases and Pests
A Mosaic Disease of Iris. P. Brierley and F. P. McWhorter. (J,
Agric. Res. 53, 8 (Oct. 15, 1936), pp. 621-635.)
Seed Disinfection. II. Large-Scale Field Trials on the Disinfection
of Seed Corn with Mercury Dust Disinfectants. W. A, R. Dillon
Weston, F. Hanley and /. R. Booer. (J. Agnc. Sci. 27, i (Jan.
1937). PP* 43 - 5 ^ + I plate.)
Seed Disinfection. III. Experiments on the Germination of Peas. Seed
Protection by the Use of Disinfectant Dusts containing Mercur>’.
C. C. Brett, W. A. R. Dillon Weston and ]. R. Booer. (J. Agnc. Sci.
27, I (Jan. 1937), pp. 53-66 + I plate.)
Poultry and Small Livestock
Digestibility Trials with Poultry. VIII. The Digestibility of Dried
Molassed Sugar-Beet Pulp. E. T. Hainan, (j. Agnc. Sci. 27, i
(Jan. 1937). PP* T 37 -i 4 '*^*)
Soybean Oil Meal Ihrepared at Different Temperatures as a Feed for
Poultry. /. W. Haywood, J. G. Halpin and Others. (Poult. Sci.
16, I (Jan. 1937), PP* 3-14*)
Digestibility Trials with Poultiy\ VII. The Digestibility of Wheat
Offals, with a note on the apparent discrepancy between the
digestibility coefheients and nutritive values of these products.
E. T. Hainan. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, i (Jan. 1937), pp. 126-136.)
Scientific Problems of the Poultry Industry, i. Introductory, W.
Hamnett. 2. Constitutional Vigour in Poultry, A. W. Greenwood.
3. Some Aspects of Poultry Nutrition, E. T. Hainan. 4. The
Economic and Disease Aspects of Parasitic Worm-Infestation m
Poultry, E. L. Taylor (Emp. J. exp. Agnc. 5, 17 (Jan. 1937)»
pp. 29-47.)
Scientific Management in Rabbit-Breeding. E. Bertclli. (fnt. Rev.
Agric. Mon. Bull. Agnc. Sci. Prac. 27, 12 (Dec 1936), pp. 453-488.)
Soils
Available Calcium a Factor in Salt Balance for Vegetable Crops.
V, A. Tiedjens and L. G. Schermerhorn. (Soil Sci. 42, 6 (Dec. 1936),
pp. 419-433)
Soil Warming. E. Brooks. (Estate Mag. 37, i (Jan. 1937), pp.
24-28.)
The Character of Barley Grown on Soil Made Acid with Sulphate of
Ammonia. H. H. Mann. (J. Agnc. Sci. 27, i (Jan. 1937), PP*
18-122 -i- I plate.)
Improved Technique in Grading of Coarse and Fine Sands During
Mechanical Analysis of Soils. B. E. Beater. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 1
(Jan. 1937). PP- 123-125 )
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duke Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 3 June, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Milk and Nutrition
In December, IQ34, on the initiative of the Advisory
Committee on Milk Publicity of the Milk Marketing Board
for England and Wales, a Milk Nutrition Committee was set
up under the chairmanship of Lord Astor to undertake investi-
gations into the nutritive value of milk, with particular
reference to the effect of pasteurization. The broad lines of
the proposed investigations were settled by the Nutrition
Committee, which set up an Expert Sub-Committee under the
chairmanship of Sir John Orr to plan the details of the investi-
gations and to supervise their carrying out.
The principal research was carried out at certain elementary
schools with the object of ascertaining the benefits of the
consumption of milk made available in connexion with the
arrangements under Section ii of the Milk Act, 1934, for
increasing the demand for milk by the supply of milk at
reduced rates. In addition, experiments on rats and on calves,
as well as some purely chemical work, were undertaken by
the National Institute for Research in Dairying, Reading, and
by the Rowett Institute, Aberdeen. These two Institutes have
prepared a report* that deals with the results of the work witli
rats and that on the direct chemical estimations of vitamin
potency. Further reports, dealing with the investigations in
schools and with calves, will be published in the near future.
The investigations dealt with in this report were designed
to measure the effect of commercial pasteurization on the
nutritive value of milk. The report gives full details of the
experimental technique and of the data obtained. A statistical
♦ Milk and Nutrition .* New Experiments Reported to the Milk Nutrition
Cofnmittee. Part I, The Effect of Commercial Pasteurization on the
Nutritive Value of Milk as Determined by Laboratory Experiment.
^ 13 inset tables, and 8 Figs, (to be purchased directly from the
National Institute for Research in Dairying, Shinfield, Reading. 1937-
l^ce 25. 6d, net, by post 35.).
A
201
Notes for the Month
appendix shows how, in the analysis of the data, use has been
made of recently devised methods applicable to small samples
(in most of the experiments 6 pairs of rats were used).
The conclusions drawn from the direct chemical estimations
of vitamin potency are that neither vitamin A itself, nor the
pro- vitamin, carotene, is affected by commercial pasteuriza-
tion. Commercial pasteurization, however, was found to
cause a loss of about 20 per cent, of the orginal vitamin C
content of the milk but experiments recorded elsewhere have
shown that this loss only occurs if the milk has been previously
exposed to light.
The conclusions drawn from the experiments on rats arc
that the nutritional availability of the calcium and phosphorus
in milk is unaffected by pasteurization. It also appears that
the biological value and digestibility of the protein are not
affected by pasteurization. It was found that when used for
rats as an exclusive diet, pasteurized milk supplemented with
iron, copper and manganese is not inferior to raw milk
supplemented in the same way (in both cases the mineral
supplements were necessary in order to avoid nutritional
anaemia which would otherwise overshadow the point at issue).
There was some loss, however, of vitamin B (undifferentiated).
The report does not discuss the extent to which the findings
obtained with the rat as the experimental animal are capable
of application to the problems of human nutrition, and more
particularly the bearing that the results recorded may have
on the question of the advisability or otherwise of pasteuriza-
tion of milk for human consumption. It is intended to deal
with these points in due course, but to wait until the findings
of the investigations on calves and on schoolchildren become
available so as to permit of a wide basis of assessment.
Marsh Spot in Pea Seeds
The following note has been communicated by Dr. G. H.
Pethybridge, O.B.E. : —
In this Journal for December, 1934, and for April, 1936,
articles on Marsh Spot in Pea Seeds were published. In the
latter, evidence was given that supported the idea that this
trouble — the cause of which has for so long remained a mystery
— might be due to manganese deficiency in the soil; and, in
this connexion, trials recently carried out in Holland are of
particular interest. The March number of the Dutch
Tijdschrifl over Planlenziekten has two articles on the
202
Notes for the Month
subject by Mr, A. Ovinge and Mr. C. Koopman respectively.
The trials carried out by the former in 1935 and 1936 show
clearly that some varieties of peas, e.g., Zelka and Mansholts,
are much less susceptible to Marsh Spot than others, like
Jumboka. The application of a solution of manganese
sulphate to the soil between the rows at the time of flowering
resulted in a very definite reduction of the percentage of Marsh
Spot in the harvested seeds. Those from the untreated crop
showed 26 per cent, of attack, whereas when sulphate of
manganese was applied at the rate of 100 kg. per ha.
(about J cwt. p>er acre) the figure was 8 per cent., and
with double this quantity only 2 per cent. Mr. Koopman’s
trials are of special interest because he sprayed his plants
with a 01 per cent, solution of sulphate of manganese,
first just after they had finished flowering and a second
time about three weeks later. Jumboka and Zelka were
the two varieties used and the percentage of Marsh Spot
was reduced from 33 to 10 in the former and ii to 0 5 in the
latter. In Jumboka, too, the peas from the sprayed crop were
larger than those from the unsprayed. Mr. Koopman considers
the results so promising that he recommends growers to carry
out spraying trials on a large scale during the present season.
The amount to apply, the best times for application, and
whether the manganese salt can be used effectively as a powder
strewed between the rows are matters well deserving of in-
vestigation. Indications at present are that a fairly late appli-
cation gives better results than early treatment of the crop.
Reduction of Charges for certain Poultry Disease
Services at the Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge
The Ministry wishes to notify poultry fanners that as from
May 15, 1937, the charges for blood agglutination tests for
bacillary white diarrhoea have been reduced from zd. per
bird to ijd. per bird, with no discount for quantities. The
charges for fowl pox vaccine have also been reduced by 30
per cent, to is. gd. for 30 doses (minimum quantity supplied),
and thereafter 6d. for 10 or part of 10 doses, e.g., 5s. 3d. for
100 doses and £2 los. for r,ooo doses. The minimum charge
of IS. gd. covers a supply of 30 doses, together with a scarifier
and brush for applying the vaccine, and full instructions for
use.
Payment must accompany all specimens and orders for
vaccine. Cheques, postal and money orders should be made
A 2 203
Notes for the Month
payable to " The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries ” and
crossed “ Bank of England.” Postage stamps cannot be
accepted.
Communications relating to blood testing and the supply
of vaccine should be addressed to the Director, Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, Veterinary Laboratory, New Haw,
Weybridge, Surrey.
Interesting Birds: (4) The Blackbird
The Blackbird, one of the commonest of all our birds, is
too well known to need description. It is one of our finest
songsters — ^in the opinion of many people the best of them all.
The Blackbird is especially subject to albinism. It is by
no means uncommon to see specimens that are prettily pied
with black and white, and pure white ones are sometimes seen.
The Blackbird’s nest is built in a variety of situations, with
little or no attempt at concealment. Large numbers of nests
are destroyed annually by various means, but the species
seems to be as common as ever it was. Two or even three
broods of young are raised by one pair of birds in a single
season. This fact no doubt offsets the high rate of mortality,
and is an important factor in the maintenance of a steady
Blackbird population.
It must be admitted that the Blackbird does a great deal
of damage in the fruit season. It is very partial to cherries,
and also to currants, gooseberries and other bush fruit. In
many districts it is a decided nuisance in the fruit season,
and, naturally, most gardeners and fruit growers dislike it.
On the beneficial side, the Blackbird destroys numbers of
noxious insects, slugs, and other pests. The Blackbird is,
therefore, an example of a species that throughout most of
the year is highly beneficial; but, for a limited period, and
in certain circumstances, may do a good deal of harm.
Where fruit crop>s can be protected by such means as netting
or alarm guns, these methods are preferable to wholesale
slaughter.
Tuberculosis (Attested Herds) Scheme
(England and Wales).
As foreshadowed in the Statement of Agricultural Policy
made by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries in the
House of Commons on May 27 (see p. 210) the Minister has
204
To face page 204.
Bl.Jt'Kbinl and Mcst
lPh(>rnp,uiph iolmnju . U K. >(’Ufo.
Notes for the Month
amended the Tuberculosis (Attested Herds) Scheme (England
and Wales) dated January, 1935, by the issue of a revised
Scheme which supersedes it as from June i, 1937. The
purpose of the new Scheme, which adheres to the principles
on which the earlier Scheme was based, is to encourage the
addition of increased numbers of herds to the Register of
herds officially certified to be tuberculosis free, by the offer
of additional financial inducements to owners of cattle herds
qualifying for a Certificate of Attestation.
The conditions which a herd must satisfy before a Certifi-
cate of Attestation will be issued and the herd entered in the
Register of Attested Herds, kept and published by the
Ministry, remain as heretofore, viz., the herd must pass an
official test, and this test in turn will be applied only if the
herd has passed the two preceding herd tests carried out by
the owner’s veterinary surgeon at the stipulated intervals
without any reactors being found. The principal amendments
contained in the new Scheme are as follows: —
(1) Any owner having a herd of cattle which has been
tested with tuberculin and has been found to contain not
more than a certain specified proportion of reactors (about
ten per cent.) may, if the reactors have been disposed of,
apply to the Ministry for financial assistance towards the
cost of further tests (up to a maximum of four complete
herd tests) with a view to completing the eradi-
cation of tuberculosis from his herd and applying for a
Certificate of Attestation. The contribution payable by
the Ministry in respect of each of these “ assisted ” herd
tests will be at the maximum rate of 2s. 6d. per head of
cattle tested plus a sum of £i is. od. per herd, but the
contribution will in no case exceed the amount of the
charges made by the veterinary surgeon who carries out
the tests. It is intended that ftese assisted tests shall be
carried out by a veterinary surgeon employed by the
owner of the herd, but the arrangements for the tests must
be submitted to the Ministry beforehand for approval.
(2) In any case in which a herd fails to pass the official
test required before a Certificate of Attestation can be
issued, the owner, instead of having his application rejected
as at present, will have the opportunity of appl3dng for
further official tests at the expense of tiie Ministry up to
a maximum of three complete herd tests (making four
205
Notes for the Month
official tests in all). When the whole herd passes one of
these tests a Certificate of Attestation will be issued.
(3) Herds which have been accepted for “ assisted
tests or for additional official tests mentioned in the two
preceding paragraphs will be known as “Supervised
herds and their owners will be required to observe the
Rules set out in the 2nd Schedule to the Scheme, dispose
of reactors, and disinfect the premises. These Rules vary
somewhat from those applicable to Attested Herds but are
designed with the same object, viz., to protect the herd
from the risk of infection by contact with cattle which are on
adjoining premises or which may be added to the herd.
(4) The interval required to elapse between any of the
qualifying tests for attestation has been shortened to one
of from ^ to 90 days, thus enabling herd owners to achieve
attestation in a shorter time than formerly.
(5) Provision is made whereby official tests (other than
those for the purpose of deciding whether a Certificate of
Attestation may be granted in the first instance) may be
carried out by the veterinaiy practitioners nominated by
the Ministry. These are the tests required at certain
intervals to satisfy the Ministry of the continued freedom
of the herd from tuberculosis before a Certificate of
Attestation is renewed. All official tests will be at the
expense of the Ministry.
The direct advantages to herd owners of entering the
Scheme of Attestation lie in the provision by the Ministry of
free tests, together with a bonus of id. per gallon on all milk
from the herd sold through the Milk Marketing Scheme.
The advantages of owning a tubercle-free herd do not by
any means end here. The wastage of cattle due to the
ravages of tuberculosis is considerable and the Attested
Herds Scheme affords a means of protection against such
wastage. As proved at recent sales, animals coming from
known tubercle-free herds command substantially higher
prices than animals from herds in respect of which there is
no such guarantee.
Applications for further information in regard to the
Scheme should be addressed to the Secretary of ffie Ministry
Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i.
206
Notes for the Month
Single-handed Hay Making
The following note has been contributed by Mr. T. S. Pick :
At the beginning of March last year, I was greatly worried
as to how to collect hay single-handed from about 15 acres
of land. I had recently purchased some more land, bringing
my total up to 40 acres, and had failed to obtain assistance
for the single man I employed who had come to me from a
different part of the country. Much less did I anticipate being
able to obtain temporary help in the hayfield, being a stranger
in the district. I should add that I myself travel into town
each day, and could at the most only give a little assistance
in the evenings and on Saturday afternoons.
The “ Preservation of Grass and other Fodder Crops ” and
other books had been studied in an attempt to solve the
problem, but it seemed that all the schemes mentioned were
unwarranted for so small an area. There was a short
reference to baling, and I thought that if I could get a single-
handed baling machine, I could arrange to bale, cart and
stack the hay without assistance. I might also add that some
helpful correspondence with the Institute for Research in
Agricultural Engineering, Oxford, confirmed my impression
that baling would be a good thing, without the extra induce-
ment of single-handed operation.
I was extremely lucky, because one evening I happened
to notice in a showroom window a small waste-paper baler,
and, although it had a label on it warning the operator not
to use it for straw or other fibrous material, I decided to
purchase one as the price (;^I7) was well within that justified
by 40 acres of land.
As it turned out, help in the hayfield was forthcoming,
but I decided to use the baler myself, largely because I was
of small value in the normal hayfield work, having had little
previous experience. I found that, even with my inexperience
and somewhat indifferent physical ability, I could bale
continuously without effort at the rate of 5 bales per hour,
including the time for carting the hay over a mile and
stacking it in a Dutch bam.
Each bale measured 24 x 21 x 15 in. and contained
between 45 and 60 lb. of hay, depending on its quality, with
an average for moderately good meadow hay of 56 lb. per
bale (6'5 cu. yd. per ton).
207
Notes for the Month
The method of procedure was to hitch the baler, which
was mounted on skids, behind a car and trailer, and move
up between the windrows. Usually, 3 bales were made
between each movement, and as the bales were made they
were piled on to the trailer, which took a maximum load of
10 bales, after which the baler was unhitched and the load
taken to the bam.
Towards the close of a day's work, the hay remaining on
die field was collected into a pike to be baled at leisure at
a later date. Probably an ideal method would be to use a
tripod drying system, and bale from each tripod in turn.
In many instances baling was carried out on hay that was
still too damp to stack in the normal way, as well as on one
or two occasions when slight rain was falling. All the bales
have turned out in good condition, slight mould occasionally
occurring in the strata or layers between successive pressings
in the baler.
There is no need to emphasize the savings. Units of 56 lb.
of hay in bundles half the size of a normal truss have been
fed to the cows in the field, without the chaff associated with
cutting hay out of a stack, so that the whole of it is cleared,
leaving little or no trace as to where they were fed. There
is the immediate economy of storage space, allowing for
ventilating spaces, 8 cu. yd. only were needed per ton
without having to wait for the pile to settle.
Working in all 43 hours on odd evenings and Saturdays,
I had cleared and stacked over 5 tons of hay, and I would
suggest that anyone more used to manual labour could have
cleared this amount at least in 30 hours, so that an acre per
day of average meadow could be dealt with single-handed,
which is comparable with the time occupied per man in the
normal method of carting and stacking. This, coupled with
tile ease of rationing and the ultimate saving of waste, storage
space and labour during the winter months, might be attractive
to other small-holders who do not feel justified in spending
large sums in mechanical equipment.
One last word. The baler need not be idle in the other
months of the year, because straw and other general litter
can be squeezed into an extraordinarily small space for easy
handling. As an example of tiie baler’s general usefulness,
I might add that it has recently been used on firewood,
reducing 6 faggots of normal pea-stick size to a compact bundle
of 3 cu. ft.
208
To face page 208 .
Notes for the Month
World’s Dairy Cong:re8S
The offidal programme of the nth World's Dairy Congress
to be held in Berlin during &e period August 22-28, 1937, has
now been issued. It contains full information concerning the
daily programmes and Congress rules, and also includes
particulars of travelling facilities and accommodationinBerlin.
Copies of the English edition, together with full information
regarding the Congress, may be obtained on application to the
Secretary, British Dairy Farmers’ Association, 28 Russell
Square, London, W.C.i.
At the daily sessions of the Congress, papers submitted by
experts from all countries will be read and discussed, and
opportunity will be provided for the exchange of views on
scientific and practical experiences in the whole field of the
dairying industry.
In connexion with the Congress an International Dairy
Exhibition has been arranged, in which Great Britain will
participate with a photographic display illustrating various
aspects of the dairying industry in this country, including
modem marketing features and educational and research
activities.
During the Congress, excursions will be made to centres of
interest in the neighbourhood of Berlin, and afterwards tours
of inspection of the important German milk-producing areas
will be arranged, including visits to dairy research institutes,
prominent milk processing establishments and dairy equipment
factories.
17th International Congress of Agriculture at the Hague
On the recommendation of the Agricultural Research
Council, His Majesty’s Government has appointed Sir Daniel
Hall, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., and Mr. E. J. Butler, C.M.G.,
C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Secretary to the Council, as official
delegates from the United Kingdom to the above Congress.
As recorded in the Journal for February last, this Congress
is being held from June 17 to June 21 at the Hague, under
the patronage of H.M. the Queen of the Netherlands.
Further information may be obtained from the Secretariat,
Rue de Bellechasse. 18, Paris (Vile).
209
STATEMENT ON AGRICULTURAL POLICY
In reply to a question by Mr. Attlee in the House of
Commons on May 27, 1937, Mr. Morrison (Minister of
Agriculture) said he was glad of this opportunity to make a
statement. Proceeding, Mr. Morrison said: —
The Government have very carefully considered the
position of agriculture from the points of view of the welfare
of agriculture itself, national defence, and the importance of
maintaining continuity in our agricultural policy that is
designed to ensure maximum supplies for the consumer con-
sistent with reasonable remuneration for the producer. The
Government have in the past initiated proposals for dealing
with particular agricultural products. This side of the
Government's policy will continue and I hope shortly to
announce proposals for the future of the milk and pig
industries. There are, however, certain fundamental matters
with which I wish to deal in the following statement.
In regard to defence, I should like at the outset to stress
the following considerations. The two objectives — of pro-
ducing the maximum quantity of food to meet our re-
quirements in time of war, on the one hand, and of the
efficient development of our agriculture in time of peace, on
the offier — ^not only demand very different methods but, to
a material extent, are opposed to each other. In particular,
a drastic policy of food production for war purposes would
entail the ploughing up of an extensive area of our grass-
land for the purpose of growing cereals and other crops for
human consumption. In peace time, however, livestock
husbandry, which is the foundation of our agriculture, is
naturally based on a grassland system on account of the
physical and climatic advantages which favour it. The
Government have had to determine where, between these two
objectives, the path lies which, on balance, it would be
wise to follow.
In the opinion of the Government, to put agriculture on
a war-time footing with all the regulations, the regimentation
of the farming community, and the heavy costs that it would
unavoidably involve, would not be practicable at the present
time; nor in their opinion is the situation such as to require
the adoption of this course in time of peace. The Govern-
ment are equally satisfied that considerations of national
defence would not justify a policy in peace time of stimulat-
ing agricultural production to such a pitch that the country
210
Statement on Agricultural Policy
would be faced with a highly artificial situation which would,
sooner or later, have to be liquidated if the emergency did
not arise. Such a pohcy would be costly to build up and
costly to close down. Moreover, farmers themselves will
have a vivid recollection of the disorganization and un-
certainties which followed the repeal of the Com Production
Acts in 1921, and the Government have no wish to put them
in such a position again.
Having regard to these considerations, the Government are
satisfied that the best course in the general national interest
is to continue their efforts to improve the general prosperity
and efficiency of home agriculture, and in particular to
promote an increase in the fertility and productivity of our
soil. The proposals which I shall now outline are so designed
that should an emergency arise we should be in a position
immediately to take advantage of improved fertility but,
should it not arise, we should be increasing the productivity
of our land and stock by means which are consistent with,
and not opposed to, the normal development of our agri-
culture on economic lines in time of peace.
To achieve this object, the Government propose that the
following measures should be taken : —
Liming. One of the most serious deficiencies of the
land of this country arises from failure to maintain the
old practice of applying lime to the soil. Due to the
long depression, farmers have been unable to bear the cost.
The result has been felt not only in diminished fertility, but
also in the lack of elements essential to healthy plant and
animal life. The Government propose to assist farmers in
raising the fertility of the soil by increased use of lime. They
also consider it desirable to secure increased application par-
ticularly to grasslands, of basic slag which, like lime, is
available from home sources and has an enduring effect
upon the soil. They propose that for a limited period of
years the cost to the farmer of lime and basic slag should be
reduced by approximately 50 per cent, and 25 per cent,
respectively. The object of these proposals is not only to
make good past exhaustion of soil fertility in many parts of
the country, but to build up reserves of fertility, valuable
in peace time, and immediately available to meet the heavy
demands upon it which might be made in time of war.
Wheat. It is proposed to raise the limit of the “anticipated
supply ’’ under the Wheat Act, 1932, from 6,000,000 to
2II
Statement on Agricultural Policy
8,000,000 quarters and tlicreby to stimulate an increase in the
wheat acreage. In jjresent cireuinstances this involves no
cost blit will give valuable additional insurance to wheat
growers in the United Kingdom.
Oats and Barley. The Government propose also to
introduce a scheme in respect of oats and barley which will
be in the nature of an insurance against low prices. It will
apply only to those growers of oats and barley in the United
Kingdom not receiving benefit under the Wheat Act. For
the purpose of the Oats Scheme there will be a standard price
of 8s. per cwt., and a national standard acreage will be
determined. A payment will be made to the grower in respect
of each eligible acre. This payment will be calculated on the
basis that, on the average, about 6 cwt per acre are sold
off farms. The payment will therefore be equal to six times
the difference between the standard price of 8s. per cwt.
and the average market price over a period. If the total
acreage eligible for subsidy exceeds the national standard
acreage, the rate of payment will be reduced proportionately.
In the case of barley the principle of a national standard
acreage will also apply, and it is proposed that payment will
be at the same rate per acre as that for oats. At the prices
prevailing for oats at the present time no payment would be
made, but it is estimated that if prices were to fall to the
lowest level of recent years the Exchequer liability in any
year, in respect of both oats and barley, would not exceed
£1,750,000. In no case will the payment exceed £i per acre.
Drainage. It is proposed to extend the system of
Exchequer grants for land drainage. In England and Wales
grants will be given for works to be carried out by the lesser
Drainage Authorities concerned. In Scotland the rate of
grant for drainage under the scheme administered by the
Department of Agriculture for Scotland will be increased.
It is hoped that with the aid of these grants it will be pos-
sible, in any one year, without interfering with the labour
required for agriculture, to undertake essential works costing
up to £450,000.
Grassland Improvement. In a policy aimed at raising
the fertility and productivity of our soil the improvement of
our grassland must be an objective of fundamental impor-
tance. ^ Grass forms one of our greatest natural resources
and it is in the national interests that it should be more fully
and profitably utilized in time of peace and be a reservoir
212
Statement on Agricultural Policy
of fertility for an emergency. By the Livestock Industry
Bill at present before Parliament and the arrangements for
regulating supplies of livestock and meat to this market the
Government are seeking to promote the prosperity and
efficiency of the livestock industry. The Government believe
that this measure and those now proposed for drainage and
for the increased use of lime and basic slag will lead to a
marked improvement in the grassland of this country. The
Government are also alive to the potentialities of dried grass
as a possible addition to home-grown supplies of feeding
stuffs. They are accordingly encouraging further experiments
in grass drying.
Eradication of Animal Diseases. The Government also
propose to initiate a large-scale and more comprehensive
campaign for the eradication of animal diseases in Great
Britain. Our object is to improve the health of our livestock
and increase agricultural productivity by seeking to eliminate
what is perhaps the worst of all forms of wastage and eco-
nomic loss in agriculture. In the first instance, efforts will
mainly be directed to the eradication of diseases among
cattle. The scheme will involve an additional charge on the
Exchequer of about £600,000 per annum for the first four
years. It will, however, involve centralization of public
veterinary services and as against the increased cost to the
Exchequer, the expenditure by Local Authorities will be
reduced by about £170,000. Parliamentary authority will
be required for these proposals. The Government are
anxious, however, to lose no time in developing the existing
schemes of control of disease and accordingly, I am arrang-
ing at once to amend the Attested Herds Scheme under the
Milk Act, 1934, by providing additional assistance in
England and Wales, as has already been done in Scotland,
to owners of dairy stock who are desirous of eradicating
tuberculosis from their herds. This revised scheme will
become op>erative on June i next.
In the opinion of the Government, the proposals which I
have outlined, by increasing the productivity of our agri-
culture, not only will enable it better to meet the situation
in the event of war, but will be a substantial aid towards
raising efficiency, lowering costs and establishing the industry
on a sounder economic foundation in time of peace.
The necessary legislation to give effect to these proposals
will be introduced at the eariiest possible moment.
213
COUNTY COUNCIL SMALL-HOLDINGS IN DORSET
AND HAMPSHIRE*:
III. MARKET-GARDEN AND FRUIT SMALL-
HOLDINGS
Edgar Thomas, B.Litt., B.Sc.,
Agricultural Economics Department, Reading University.
The Sample. This section is based on information obtained
from 8i smallholders, 78 in Hampshire and 3 in Dorset. With
a few isolated exceptions the majority of the small-holdings
were concentrated in groups situated within easy access of the
large towns on the south coast of Hampshire. The largest
group was situated between Southampton and Fareham,
around Titchfield, Botley and Fareham. The second largest
group was on the outskirts of Bournemouth.
These small-holdings can be divided into three classes
according to the type of production carried on; 40 can best
be described as market-garden holdings, 21 as strawberry
holdings and 20 as a mixture of market-garden and straw-
berry holdings.
Type of Production. The total area of the 40 market-
garden holdings was 386 acres. Of this, 309 acres were under
market-garden crops, 29 acres under fodder crops, 18 acres
under fruit and 30 acres either taken up by buildings and roads,
or utilized as poultry runs or as grazing ground for a horse.
On only a few holdings was any fixed rotation of crop)S
practised, although in nearly all instances care was taken to
avoid growing the same crop on the same piece of land twice
in succession. The land was cropped as many times as
possible, though intercropping was not general. Altogether,
17 different sale crops were grown on these 40 holdings. In
order of importance they were as follows : —
Spring and winter cabbage, early potatoes, sprouts, savoys, brocoli,
cauliflowers, peas, broad beans, runner beans, lettuces, carrots, parsnips,
beetroot, radishes, onions, rhubarb, strawberries.
Only 4 holdings had fewer than 5 different crops per holding,
23 had 5-9 crops, and 13 had 10 or more types of crops. In
addition to these crops, ii smallholders kept pigs, 5 kept
poultry, and 8 kept pigs and poultry.
♦ The first of these articles appeared in the issue of this Journal for
April, 1937, nnd the secf)nd in that for May.
214
County Council Small-Holdings
The total area of the 20 mixed fruit and market-garden
holdings was 147 acres. Every holding had roughly half its
acreage under market-garden crops and half under fruit,
mostly strawberries. Thus, of the total 139 acres of crops
grown, 67 acres were under fruit, 62 acres under market-
garden crops and 10 acres under fodder crops. The market-
garden crops grown showed the same diversity of type as
those mentioned above. In addition to strawberries, currants
and raspberries were also grown. Only 7 holdings had fewer
than 5 types of product, ii holdings had 6-g types, and 5
had 10 or more types. In addition, 3 smallholders kept
poultry, 2 kept pigs, and 5 kept both pigs and poultry.
The total area of the 21 strawberry holdings was no acres,
of which 79 were under strawberries, 15 under market-garden
crops, 10 under fodder crops, and 6 under roads, buildings
and grass. Many of these smallholders, especially the smaller
ones, cropped the land continuously with strawberries.
Others gave the land periodic rests, growing either potatoes or
cabbage in between. In some instances a crop of mustard
was grown and ploughed in as green manure. Only very
rarely was any land left fallow. Besides strawberries, the
following crops were also grown : currants, raspberries, goose-
berries, apples, potatoes and cabbage. Several of the
smallholders stated that they were inclined to increase their
acreage of market-garden crops at the expense of the straw-
berry area. In this group, 7 smallholders had nothing besides
the strawberry crop, ii had from 2-4 different crops, and only
3 had 5 or more crops. In addition, 5 smallholders kept
pigs, and i kept poultry.
On all 81 holdings livestock were of minor imp>ortance, and,
as indicated above, 28 holdings kept no livestock at all. The
total numbers of livestock on the remaining 53 holdings at the
time of the survey were 41 horses, 61 sows, 415 other pigs,
and 3,196 poultry. On 52 holdings horses were not kept, the
smallholders hiring horses and implements for the heavier
cultivations cither from neighbouring farmers or from the
larger smallholders. Sometimes the horses and implements
only were hired, the smallholder himself supplying the
manual labour. Pigs were kept on 31 holdings, and they
were valued as much for the manure they produced as for
the revenue they brought in; they also provided a useful
means of turning waste produce to profitable use. Poultry
were kept on 29 holdings but only on 22 of them were they
215
County Council Small-Holdings
really regarded as conunerdal enterprises deserving of special
attention.
Many of the smallholders expressed the view that they
would keep more livestock if they had larger acreages and
suitable accommodation, mostly because of their importance
as a source of much needed farmyard manure. At the time
of the survey, 52 smallholders used dung, and 32 of these
relied entirely on purchased supplies. The others stated that
they could not alford to buy dung, partly because of its high
price and partly because of the inferior quality of the available
supply. It was found that on 35 holdings both dung and
artificial manures were used, 18 holdings used artificials only,
17 holdings used dung only and ii holdings used no manures
of any kind.
Disposal of Produce. Information about the disposal of
market-garden crops was obtained from 50 smallholders.
Retailing was practised by 19, and 31 sold their produce
wholesale. Of the latter, ii sold direct to retail shops and
20 sold in the open market, 9 doing the selling themselves and
II selling through salesmen working on a commission basis.
The towns in which the produce was sold and the numbers
sending to each town were as follows : —
16 to Portsmouth. 3 to Fareham.
13 to Southampton. i each to Poole, Basingstoke,
10 to Bournemouth. Bishops Waltham, Titchfield,
3 to Gosport. Wimborne.
The strawberry growers disposed of their crops either by
selling direct to wholesalers or by selling through commission
agents. The destination was very varied and far flung, but the
most important market was Covent Garden.
Capital Invested. Complete financial data were obtained
from 51 holdings only, and the data apply to the growing and
sale of the 1935 crops. It will be convenient to divide these
51 holdings into the following three groups: —
No. of
holdings
Group 1. Market-garden holdings with livestock . . 19
Group II. Market-garden holdings with no livestock 13
Group III. Fruit holdings . . . . . . . . 19
51
The average capital invested per acre on each of the three
groups of holdings is shown in Table VI. The figures do
216
County Council Small-Holdings
not show the total investment, for nothing has been included
for tenant right and cultivations on growing crops.
TABLE VI
Capital Invested per Acre on 51 Market-garden and
Fruit Holdings
Group 1
Group 11
Group III
All Groups
£ s. d.
£ 5. d.
£ i. d.
£
Implements
340
z 12 6
I 16 0
2 7 10
Horses
126
100
6 6
! 17 4
Other livestock . .
3 16 10
— i
I 14 6
'256
Total
00
, 3 12 6
3 ’7 0
1 5 10 8
Further, capital invested in motor vehicles has also been
excluded, for it applied to only a few holdings and its inclusion
would not give such a representative picture. Thus the
inclusion of 4 motor vehicles owned by 3 smallholders in
Group I and by 3 smallholders in Group II would raise the
average investment for these two groups by £i 12s. and
i8s. gd. per acre respectively. Again, the inclusion of glass-
houses owned by i smallholder in Group I and by 3 small-
holders in Group II would have raised ttie average investment
of these two groups by £z 7s. ^d. and ;^io 6s. 3d. per acre
respectively.
Expenses. The expenses per acre and per cent, for each
of the three groups are shown in Table VII.
The average expenditure of £45 iis. 2d. per acre illustrates
the much greater intensity of cultivation on these small-
holdings compared with that of the dairy small-holdings
already described. As with the dairy holdings it includes an
estimated figure for family labour assessed at current wages
rates. The rental figure shown also includes file rent of
houses in order to make the statement comparable with that
already given for the dairy small-holdings. There is consider-
able variation between the three groups, both as regards total
expenditure, and the relative importance of the various items.
The most important single item of expense on all three
groups, however, is labour, accounting as it does for 53 per
cent, of the total expenditure. The total labour cost was
highest for fee fruit holdings, and lowest for Group II holdings.
In all instances family labour was more important than hired
labour.
217
County Council Small-Holdings
TABLE VII
Expenses per Acre and per cent, on 51 Market-garden
AND Fruit Small-holdings
Expenses
Group I
Group 11
Group III
J verage,
all Groups
L rf-
£
s .
d.
i
.V.
d.
/ 5
d.
Rent and rates
5 9
b
*3
10
b
Tb
()
b b
2
,, ,, per cent.
1 >-8
ibM)
13*9
13*8
Family labour . .
19 3
14
9
ib
1
3
14 5
8
,, ,, per cent.
Hired labour . .
27*6
37*3
32*8
31*4
11 lb 0
<>
7
9
10
9
2
10 I
8
,, ,, per cent.
16*2
- 21*3
22' I
Feeding stuffs . .
639
1
1
4
2
b
8
3 16
I
,, ,, per cent.
2*7
4*8
8*4
Livestock
lo 5
—
12
8
9
0
,, per cent.
I • I
—
1*3
1*0
Artificial manures
166
I
lO
2
I
13
0
1 9
4
,, ,, per cent.
2-8
3-8
3*4
3**2
Dung
16 1
I
H
0
I
0
4
I 1
9
,, per cent.
1*7
4*3
2 • I
-^*4
Plants and seeds
1 - 19 10
r
t8
5
17
9
2 1
5
,, ,, per cent.
Straw . .
1 6-4
4*9
1*8
4*5
1 13 ^
7
0
I
I
6
14
3
„ per cent.
Hire of machinery and
0-9
2*2
I - b
hired cultivations . .
3
T 7
t
10
b
13
6
,, ,, per cent.
1-4
2 ' 2
I * 1
1*5
Implements — upkeep . . '
3 10
4
2
4
()
4
2
,, per cent ,
0*4
0*5
0*4
Transport . , , .
3
4
3
3
to
i 1
2
,, per cent.
0*2
0*5
b *7
* 2*3
Packages
JI 9
8
6
2
lb
8
1 3 J
10
„ per cent.
1*3
I • I
5-8
2*6
Other expenses
2 I 4
3
9
0
I
3 10
^ 3
2
„ „ per cent.
4*4
8.7
2*4
4*7
Total
46 17 8
39
10
7
49
0
2
45 11
2
,, per cent.
100 -o
100 -o
100*0
100*0
In Group II and Group III the second most important
item of cost was rent and rates, but in Group I the second
place is taken by the cost of purchased foods. The figure for
purchased food in Group II was incurred in buying horse-feed,
while the corresponding figure in Group III was incurred
almost entirely by 3 smallholders who kept pigs. (These 3
smallholders also account for the relatively high item for
livestock purchased in this group.)
The other expenses show considerable variation from group
to group, and this is explained by the difference in the
2X8
County Council Small-Holdings
nature of the production. Thus the presence of livestock in
Group I partly explains its lower expenditure on manures.
Expenditure on plants and seeds is higher for the market-
garden holdings, but expenditure on straw is highest for the
fruit holdings. The high expenditure for transport and
containers shown for the fruit-growing group indicates the
much higher marketing costs involved.
Receipts. The receipts per acre and per cent, for each of
the three groups are set out in Table VIII.
TABLE VTIl
Receipts per Acre and per cent, on 51 Market-garden
AND Fruit Small-holdings
Receipts
Group 1
- .
Group 11
Group III
Average,
all Groups
i s
£ s. d.
£ s. d
£ s- d,.
Market -garden crop.s . .
33 ’9 4
34 3 9
2 15 9
25 1 3
per cent.
64*2
8 q *8
5*5
51*5
Fruit crops
4 15
i 15
45 5 6
10 3 6
,, ,, per cent.
iJ’Q
9 '9
00
6
33*3
Pigs
6 0
289
503
per cent.
, 17-0
4*8
! 10*3
Eggs and Poultry
' 3 A-i 4
2 0
^ 4
; I 14 6
M .. IH'i* cent.
1 6-8
0*3 i
0*1
' 3-5
Miscellaneous . .
’160
1
6 0
1 13 3
,, ,, per cent.
-•4
1
0*0
1 ^
Total . . . . . .
; 52 18 10
38 1 <>
50 17 4
48 12 9
,, ])er cent
1
100*0
1
100*0 j
1 00 * 0
100*0
The average figure of I2.s-. c)d. per acre is inclusive of
the value of livestock products consumed by the family. This
figure was, however, very small, amounting to only 6s. 3d.
per acre for all the holdings. In Group I, 15 holdings
produced their own eggs and poultry supplies, while in Group
II, 3 holdings, and in Group III, 2 holdings kept a few head
of poultry to supply home needs. Unfortunately, it was
impossible to put a figure for the value of the vegetables and
other crops consumed by the families of the smallholders.
Most of the smallholders stated that they produced their own
vegetables and potatoes but were unable to give any
quantitative data of supplies.
The Table illustrates well the greater diversity of receipts
in the first group of holdings, and there is little doubt that
219
County Council Small-Holdings
this diversity was an important factor, not only in increasing
the total receipts, but in spreading the receipts over the year.
In most of the holdings in the third group the great bulk of
the receipts was derived from the strawberry crop and was,
therefore, obtained during the very short period of some 3
weeks in the summer. This dependence on one crop and the
concentration of the receipts to such a restricted period is
undoubtedly a very serious matter for the smallholders
concerned.
The figure for miscellaneous receipts shown for Group I
and Group III is explained by the fact that some of the small-
holders in these groups did some outside work. Thus, in
Group I, 2 smallholders did some haulage, 2 hired out horses
and I hired out implements. Again, in Group III, 3 small-
holders did a little outside labour, although they were mostly
employed on their own holdings.
Profits and Losses. The average profit, calculated in the
usual way, per acre and per holding for each group was as
follows : —
j Profit per Holding
Profit per Acre
Group I . .
Group II
Group III
/ .s. d,
41 10 0
— (> lO 0
9 0 4
i s. d.
563
— I II 0
I 18 0
1
All Groups . .
16 19 8
2 12 0
The above figures illustrate the superior position of the
more diversified holdings in Group I. As in the corresponding
table for the dairy holdings, however, they tend to exaggerate
the position. The size and distribution of profits and losses
for each group is shown in Table IX, which provides a better
indication of the actual position.
When family labour was charged at current wages rates,
only 51 per cent, of the holdings showed a surplus income,
but when no such charge was made, all except 9 of the
holdings (i.e. , 90 per cent.) showed a surplus. Table X shows
the average “ family income ” per holding and the average
" income ” per person employed for each of the three
groups.
220
County Council Small-Holdings
TABL 1 -: IX
Profits and Losses on 51 Market-garden and Fruit
Small-holdings
Group I
Group II
Group III
All Groups
Profit per holding :
No.
No
No.
No.
Over ;£ioo
3
—
2
5
51-0
From £^o to £j 00
3
I
6
From £25 to /50
3
I
3
7
per
cent.
Less than £2^ . ,
2
3
3
8
Loss per holding :
i
Less than £2$
2
I
4
7
49-0
From £2$ to £^o
3
4
5
'
per
Over £^o
3
1
1
' 6]
cent.
TABLE X
Average “ Income " per Family and per Person on 51
Market-garden and Fruit Small-holdings
j Average Family
\ Income
Average Income
per Person
£
£
Group 1 . .
143
98
Group 11 . .
80
70
Group III . .
88
80
All groups , .
. . , 10(1
8 b
The figures in Table X again help to emphasize the
comparative superiority of the diversified group of holdings.
While it is not possible to ascribe success to any one factor,
the evidence does suggest that there is a greater chance of
success for those smallholders who do not depend too
exclusively on the production of only one or two commodities.
In particular, the introduction of small livestock into the
farming system has undoubtedly improved the financial
position of the smallholders concerned during the period
under review.
{To he concluded.)
221
SHEEP BLOWFLY INVESTIGATIONS
The late W. Maldwyn Davies, B.Sc., Ph.D.,
and
R. P. Hobson, B.Sc., Ph.D.,
University College oj North Wales, Bangor.
Introduction. The importance of the sheep blowfly
problem needs no emphasis ; all owners of sheep in this
country are only too familiar with the ravages of this pest.
It is no new problem, as is sometimes believed, for the
writings of Fitzhcrbert** (1534) and Tusser® (1557-1585) show
that the symptoms of attack by maggots were well known
at that period. Although in many districts the actual annual
loss by death is usually small, this is due only to the care
and vigilance of the owner or shepherd, whose time may be
almost fully occupied in examining and dressing sheep that have
been struck. To the loss of time thus caused must be added
the continued disturbance and irritation to which the sheep
are subjected. Since, in an abnormal season, such as 1936,
up to 30 or 40 per cent, of the sheep may be struck, the
actual loss in live weight becomes considerable, and \s
witnessed by the number of attacked lambs still in poor
condition at the end of the autumn. On rough grazings,
particularly if infested with bracken, actual deaths may be
numerous, as the sheep when struck seek the shade and it is
often impossible to find them.
During recent years, the problem has received the attention
of research workers in Australia,® South Africa,^ and Great
Britain.®’ ® In all instances the work has been commenced
by entomologists, but soon, as it proved in North Wales, it
has become apparent that a solution to this complex problem
cannot be found by approaching it from one angle alone. It
is true that it is the insect that has to be controlled, and that
a detailed knowedge of its structure, life-history and habits
must be obtained. When, however, we ask the questions
'* Why does the sheep blowfly — which is normally a carrion
feeder — attack live sheep? What conditions produce the
attraction, and how can these be counteracted? ” we soon
find the problem extending into the fields of biochemistry.
222
* For references see p. 230.
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
animal husbandry, and even bacteriology. The sheep blowfly
problem, therefore, must be added to the growing list of
investigations where joint study by a team of research workers
from the different branches of science is essential if progress
towards a satisfactory solution is to be expected.
As the result of financial assistance from the Agricultural
Research Council, which has permitted addition to the
laboratory facilities and the establishment of an experimental
flock of sheep for these studies, it has been possible to develop
the investigations along these lines.
Since, at the onset, the investigation of a complex problem
like sheep blowfly attack must be directed to give information
mainly of a fundamental character, it cannot be expected
that results having immediate practical application will be
rapidly forthcoming. Thus, this article is not intended to
give an account of a final efficient treatment for the pest, but
aims, at this stage, at giving certain results which it is believed
have a real bearing on the problem and should be known to
sheep farmers generally.
Species of Fly. There is a general impression among sheep
farmers that at least two species of flies are involved, viz.,
those having small maggots which tend to burrow down into
the skin, and the larger maggots which wander away more
readily. This impression has not been substantiated, for,
both by a survey of the species involved when farmers were
invited to send in maggots from live sheep, and by numerous
instances of maggot attack since the survey of 1928, it has
been established that, with very rare exceptions, only one
species— the grecnbottle fly (Lucilia sericata Meig.) — ^is
involved. The belief that two species attack sheep has
probably arisen from the change in the habits of the maggots
of Lucilia sericata at different stages. The smaller young
maggots are ravenous feeders and tend to pass down to their
food: the larger, older maggots arc preparing to pupate in
the soil, and, therefore, move away from the fleece more
readily. The exceptional cases mentioned include the
common bluebottle fly {Calliphora erythrocephala) , the
maggots of which have been taken in two advanced cases of
attack where it was present with maggots of the greenbottle
fly. Maggots of the bluebottle have not been taken alone on
sheep. Another female fly, believed to be the species Lucilia
caesar. was found last summer egg-laying on an already
223
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
attacked sheep. Recently, too, Macleod^ has found another
species, Pkormia ierrae-novae, attacking sheep in a single
district in the West of Scotland.
Development of Maggot Attack. The life-histoiy of
Lucilia sericata on carrion has been studied by many workers,
but, in order to present a complete stoiy in this paper, a
summaiy is given of the development on sheep.
(i) Egg-laying , — The gravid blowflies do not lay eggs indiscriminately
on any sheep, or even on any part of the sheep, but the flies are definitely
attracted to a particular sheep, and select a particular spot on the sheep
in which to lay eggs. (The nature of the attraction will be discussed
later.) The fly, on arrival, usually spends a few minutes selecting the
site in which to lay. It walks around pushing out its proboscis or mouth,
tasting and feeding on any liquid material near. Should it encounter
anything distasteful, as, for instance, an arsenical poison bait, it will
fly away and will not lay eggs. If it finds conditions favourable, it
projects its ovipositor or egg-laying tube deep into the wool, and lays a
batch of about loo to 150 eggs. As many as 30 egg-laying females have
been counted on a single .sheep that had a small batch of maggots feeding
and supplying the attraction. Often when a favourable site is found the
fly is so persistent in its effort that even pushing away by hand will not
prevent its return for egg-laying.
(ii) Hatching , — ^Whether or not eggs thus laid in the fleece will hatch,
depends almost entirely on the humidity around them. The site must
be practically saturated with moisture if the eggs are to develop and
hatch. In a moist situation on the sheep the eggs hatch in about 9 hours.
Quite commonly, however, eggs laid on sheep fail to hatch, or, if ^hey
hatch, the young maggots soon dry up. For instance, when the ewes
of the experimental flock were examined on May 26, 1936, it was found
that eggs were present on 12 out of 68 sheep, but, owing to the dry
conditions, maggot attack only developed in 2 instances. Thus, during
a spell of dry weather, when very few sheep are attacked by maggots, it
does not follow that the blowflies are absent, or even that the sheep have
not been blown ; the eggs may have dried up.
(iii) Feeding and Growth of the Maggots , — ^The newly-hatched maggots
tend to congregate in a small, moist cluster, and, as such, pass down the
wool fibres to the skin. They can only grow slowly on excretory products
in the wool, but, normally, their rapid movements on the skin surface
causes inflammation and exudation of serum from the skin, this exudate
providing ample food for the yoUng maggots. Growth is slower when
feeding on serum compared with carrion. The maggots can continue to
feed on serum without actually penetrating the skin, and this often
happens under wet conditions, when they can wander over the lx>dy.
Thus, the period of development of maggots on the sheep may vary
from about 70 hours, when the flesh is quickly penetrated, to 83 hours,
when the maggots feed mainly on serous exudation.
It is seldom that a severe attack of maggots originates from a single
batch of eggs. The usual procedure is for the young maggots of the
first batch to start feeding, and then the excreta from these, which is
particularly attractive to gravid females, attracts more blow^es to lay
masses of eggs near the feeding maggots. Under the moist conditions,
and with favourable food alre^y present, the newly-hatched maggots
from these later eggs soon aggravate the situation, causing the attack to
224
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
spread ami l>ecomo acute, I'liis difference in apje results in small and
large maggots being present on the same sheep.
The maggots keep close to the skin while feeding, but when fully fed
they wander about in preparation for passing f)ut of the fleece and falling
to the ground to pupate.
(iv) Pupal Stage , — Once on the ground, the maggots rapidly tunnel
into the soil, where during the summer months they pass Into a stationary,
reddish-brown, barrel-shaped, pupal stage about i in. long. The duration
of the pupal stage varies with soil temperature, but, in the summer months
lasts about 15 to 21 days, after which the flics emerge. In the autumn, the
maggots that fall from the sheep do not pupate at once, but remain as
maggots in the soil until March, when they come to the surface to pupate.
It is mainly in the maggot stage in the soil that this pest spends the \\dnter,
and hibernating maggots have been collected in frozen soil, which, on
thawing, has yielded live maggots.
(v) Adult Stage . — The flies, when they emerge from the pupal case,
need water, and will soon die under dry conditions. Provided with a small
quantity of water, such as droplets of dew, they can soon search for
nutritive liquid food found in sugary products of flowers and carrion.
There is evidence that the males may search for a different source of food
from that sought by the females. The .stink-horn fungus, for instance, is
often found in woods smothered with blowflies feeding on its slimy surface,
but in one instance all proved to be males. It has been shown that the
female must have a meal on carrion or animal focxl before it can lay eggs.*
The life of the adult fly under caged conditions, ranged from 28 to 89
days, and in this country’' there are 4 generations each year.
Destruction of Maggots. It is quite a common practice
for shepherds when attending to sheep to rub out the maggots
with the shears before applying any treatment, believing that
maggots thus rubbed out die of starvation away from the
sheep. Unfortunately, this does not happen, for when such
maggots were collected and put in soil with no further supply
of food, over 90 per cent, proved to have had sufficient food
before being nibbed out to be able to develop into flies.
(Any shepherd can test this for himself by placing some
maggots rubbed out into a tin containing soil or sand and
keeping them in a warm place for about a fortnight.) Since
all these maggots will be those of the sheep blowfly {Lucilia
sericata), and since they are likely to be rubbed out in a field
where the flock is grazing, it is clear that such maggots will
provide an important source of blowflies, which will be ready
to attack the sheep within less than a month’s time. It is,
therefore, most important that shepherds should realize this
and apply any treatment before rubbing out the maggots.
or make sure that the maggots are killed. (Method of
treatment is dealt with later.)
Nature of Attraction. We must now turn to the question
" What attracts the sheep blowfly, normally a carrion fly, to
the lim sheep?” The answer that suggests itself, owing to
235
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
the frequency of attacks on the hind quarters, is that sheep-
dung is the attraction. On further inquiry, and also by
experiment, it is found that sheep-dung lying on the field, or
in experimental cages, offers no attraction for the egg-laying
flies. Further, there are many cases of attack that take
place on the shoulder or back, away from wool contaminated
with dung. Such observations led to a careful investigation
of the nature of the attraction. It has now been
established®- that the nature of the attraction is two-fold.
Firstly, there must be present “ products of putrefaction ”.
For instance, when a 2 per cent, solution of ammonium
carbonate, or 002 per cent, of indole is placed on a healthy
sheep, female blowflies, ready to lay eggs, have arrived on
the treated part at the rate of 30 in half an hour. Strangely
enough, however, these materials are not attractive when placed
away front the sheep. Thus, it is clear that a second factor,
which at present we can only describe as the ‘ ‘ sheep factor,
plays an essential part in this dual attraction. The exact
nature of this “ sheep factor ” is the subject of further
research. Since the factor termed “ products of putrefac-
tion ” can undoubtedly be supplied by dung, all methods of
cleaning up the hind quarters of the sheep must form an
important part of any method of combating this pest.
Crutching, which involves the shearing of the wool from
above the tail, and around the hind legs of the sheep — a
method commonly used in Australia — is seldom practised
extensively in this country and could be developed with
advantage.
As already indicated, dung is not the only source of the
factor “ products of putrefaction ”. The nature of the
attacks on apparently clean parts of the body is more
complicated. There is evidence that in Welsh sheep, at least,
a certain " wool condition ” predisposes to attack. In
Australia, this condition has been referred to as “ wool rot ”,
and various grades have been described in Merino sheep.®
The nature of the origin of this condition is being investigated,
but a brief description is given here so that farmers may
examine their sheep to see to what extent such conditions are
common in their flocks. Normally, the wool grease and
products of excretion of the skin are distributed uniformly
through the wool, so that, if the wool is parted, there is no
indication of colouring or accumulation of waxy products.
When this wool condition is present, however, these products
226
SHEasp Blowfly Investigations
appear to remain in the form of a crusty layer at the base
of the wool. As the wool grows, this crusty layer passes up
with the wool and ultimately appears on the outside of the
fleece. There is usually a matting of the wool when this
condition exists, with the result that moisture penetrates easily.
We have observed that blowflies will select such a site for
egg-laying and will thrust the eggs actually into the crust.
It is of interest to record that one Welsh ewe and one
Southdown cross ewe purchased in September, 1935, were,
because of this wool condition, the first to be attacked by
maggots in 1936, and the flies had blown the particular area
where the wool condition existed. It should be recorded that
the ram lamb of the Southdown cross ewe also showed this
wool condition.
That such wool condition is not uncommon among flocks
is seen from th(; following figures : —
Experimental flock (April) of 68 (‘wes . . • • 4 severe, ii slight.
Welsh Mountain ewes, Aber (June), of 121 (*wes . . o ,, 22
The Problem of Control. A solution to the problem of
the control of sheep maggot attack is being sought along the
following lines : —
I. Humidity in the Fleece. It has been mentioned
frequently in this article that both eggs and young maggots
are particularly susceptible to dry conditions. In fact, it is
probable that, owing to the ease with which eggs dry up,
there are at least as many instances of unsuccessful develop-
ment of eggs following egg-laying on sheep as there are of
successful development of maggot attack. It has been shown
that, at the temperature of the sheep’s body, eggs and young
maggots require over 90 per cent, relative humidity if they
are to develop. It was shown also that the humidity at the
base of the fleece of healthy sheep is surprisingly low, about
40-70 p>er cent, even under showery conditions. We can,
then, picture the normal sheep as possessing a dry area in the
wool near the skin, in which eggs and young maggots cannot
develop. This dry region must be penetrated by moisture
before there can be any attack by maggots. Dung and
urine will cause penetration to the skin by moisture in the
hind quarters. In other regions of the body some condition,
such as the wool condition mentioned, is necessary before a high
humidity can be maintained near the skin and so permit
development of eggs or maggots.
227
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
Any method, therefore, that maintains or promotes dry
conditions near the skin will greatly assist in preventing an
attack. The effect of different dips on the humidity in the
fleece is being studied.
Dry conditions in the fleece may result from the physical
nature of the wool that will permit rapid drying out. For
example, the fact that the Wiltshire breed and its crosses are
rarely attacked is probably due to the hairy nature of the fleece
and the absence of any thick wool. Some farmers in this
district buy in Wiltshire cross lambs in order to avoid trouble
from this p>est. It has also been noticed that certain types
of Welsh sheep, which have a hairy region around the breech
and under the tail, are less subject to attack.
In order to test the effect of the drying out of the fleece as
a control for maggot attack, 35 lambs were shorn over the
entire body and grazed with another 35 unshorn lambs at the
College farm in 1934. During the period of observation the
maggot attack was only slight, but it was interesting to note
that all 4 cases of attack were on unshorn lambs and that
not one of the shorn lambs was attacked, although instances
of bad scouring were found among these lambs. It has been
learnt that in parts of mid-Wales and in the Romney Marsh,
it is the practice of some farmers to shear the lambs along
with the ewes in the early summer solely to reduce blowfly
attack.
2. Counteracting Attraction of the Sheep for
Blowflies. The ideal method of control would be to prevent
the sheep from attracting blowflies. With the knowledge
gained on the nature of the attraction, it has now been possible
to test systematically a wide range of chemicals as repellents
to blowflies on sheep.
Various proprietary dips, used primarily for the control
of sheep scab, were tested first to find out if any acted as
repellents to the flies. The dips included arsenical, sulphur,
carbolic, sulphur-arsenic, nicotine, derris, pyrethrum and
spirits of tar. At varying periods after dipping, a small
quantity of the standard attractant solution (2 per cent,
ammonium carbonate) was placed on a piece of cotton wool
which was tied in the fleece of the dipped sheep. With all
the dips mentioned, flies arrived and laid eggs in a very few
days after dipping, showhig that there was no marked
repellent effect by any of the dips. A search for an efficient
repellent among other chemicals not used at present in dips
aafl
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
has, therefore, been commenced. Since the wool condition
referred to is known to attract blowflies, its nature and
treatment are being studied.
3. Destruction of Newly-hatched Maggots on Sheep.
The alternative method of control by destroying newly-hatched
maggots before they cause damage is also being investigated.
The value of the previously-mentioned dips as poisons and
the duration of their toxicity in the fleece were tested by
taking samples of the wool of dipped sheep at weekly intervals
after dipping and feeding young maggots on serum added
to this wool. Details of the experiments will be published
elsewhere, but the results of these tests can be summarized
as follows: —
Samples of wool from the sulphur, derris powder,
py rethrum dips were not toxic after r week; wool from
carbolic-dipped sheep ceased to be toxic after 2 weeks;
whereas the fleece of sheep dipped in arsenical dips remained
toxic for 3-6 weeks. There is no doubt, therefore, that of the
existing proprietary dips those containing arsenical compounds
are the most efficient and that these act mainly as stomach
poisons and not as repellents. There is evidence, however,
that most of the arsenical dips, even when used at the half-
strength for sheep scab dipping, do damage the skin, causing
a special type of wool condition, and a search, therefore,
is being made for a dip of equal larvicidal value, which is
harmless to the skin.
Dressings for Maggot Attack. There is a real need
for an efficient dressing for maggots on sheep. The ideal
dressing should destroy maggots quickly before they fall to
the ground, should act as an antiseptic in healing the wound,
and should prevent reblowing by flies.
The usual dressings in this country are carbolic solutions.
Most of these are successful in killing the maggots, but they
are particularly harmful to the skin and do not prevent
reblowing. It has not yet been possible to make a systematic
study of chemicals to find an efficient larvicide, but, owing
to the number of attacks during 1936, an emergency dressing
of paraffin was added to reduce the proportion of cresol in
order to minimize the harmful effects of carbolic solutions.
This was used with success as a dressing for most of the
attacks in the experimental flock, but it is hoped in 1937 to
prepare a more efficient larvicide that will have all the
properties of an ideal dressing for maggot attacks.
229
Sheep Blowfly Investigations
Recentiy/* the Australian workers recommended glycero-
boric preparations as dressings for maggots. These were
tried on the experimental flock in 1936, but, unfortunately
they are expensive and in several instances did not succeed
in destroying the maggots or preventing further attacks; they
were eflicient in cases of slight attack.
It is intended to develop the most promising lines of control
as rapidly as possible during the season of attack, and a
technique has been elaborated for continuing the study of
certain aspects of the problem during the winter session.
Since there is evidence that sheep maggot attack may vary
somewhat among different breeds, the junior writer will
always welcome any observations made by sheep owners
whose flocks are subject to frequent attack.
REFERENCES
* Fitzherbert, J. ; The Book of Husbandry. London, 1534.
* Tusser, T. : Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, London, 1573.
•*’ Joint Blowfly C ommittee : Res. Coun. Sci. Indust. Res. Australia,
1933. 37 , 1^136.
Smit, B. : Union of S. Africa Dept. Agric., Bull. No. 47 , 1929.
® Davies, W. M. : Ann. App. Biol., 1934, 267-282.
•Ritchie, J. : Scot. Jour. Agric., 1934, ^ 7 , 249-260.
’ MacLeod, j : Nature, 1936, 138 , 467.
• Mackerras, M. J., and Freney, M. B. : Jour. Exp. Biol., 1933, 10 ,
237-246.
• Hobson, R. P. : Ann. App. Biol., 1935, 22, 294-300.
Hobson, R. P. : Ann. App. Biol., 1936, 23 , 845-851.
Davies, W. M., and Hobson, R. P. : Ann. App. Biol., 1935, 22,
^ 79 - 293 -
Freney, M. B. et al : Jour. Coun. Sci. Indus. Res., 1935, 8, i6i-i68.
230
WHITEHEADS OR TAKE-ALL IN WHEAT
Geoffrey Samuel. M.Sc.,
Rothamsted Experimental Station
In recent years the disease of wheat known as Whiteheads,
or Take-all, has been more prevalent than formerly, especially
on some farms on the lighter soils of Norfolk, Hampshire, and
the Yorkshire Wolds. The disease is mainly troublesome
when several white-straw cereal crops arc taken in
succession on light land. With the tendency towards greater
mechanization of farm work there is often a larger proportion
of cereal crops on the farm at any one time than in former
years, and under these conditions it becomes very difficult
sometimes to keep the trouble under control. Knowledge of
the disease has increased considerably during the past few
years, and a brief account of what is now known about it
should be of interest at the present time.
Empty ears in wheat may be the result of one or other of
a number of different causes, including both fungus root-rots,
and insects such as the Stem Sawfly and the Hessian Fly.
It is considered by some w'orkers that severe attacks of
Whiteheads are often due to a complex of several of these
troubles, since all tend to multiply if land is cropped too
frequently with wheat. This may sometimes be true, but
there is no doubt that the disease here discussed, namely,
the root-rot due to the fungus Ophiobolus graminis, is the
most .serious and the commonest cause of Whiteheads on light
ijoils, and is responsible for by far the greatest losses. On
farms where it has been allowed to multiply, it may cause
trouble not only when two or more crops of wheat are taken
successively, but also on land that has been fallowed or under
some other crop, which might therefore have been considered
likely to be free from the disease.
Name of the Disease. Take-all was the veiy' expressive
name given to the disease by the farmers of Australia, who
suffered severely from it in the latter half of last century.
After the introduction of improved fallowing methods and the
use of superphosphate, the disease became less serious there,
but it is still an important factor to be considered on light,
alkaline soils. The disease is known both in a severe, early
form, in which the plants die before heading, and in a less
231
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
severe, later form, in which the plants come into ear, but
bleach off before ripening, and fail to produce grain.
Originally, the former stage was known as Take-all and the
latter as Whiteheads or “ dead heads,” but after MacAlpine
proved in 1900 that the two forms were caused by one and
the same fungus, the name Take-all has come to be the one
generally used for all stages of the disease.
In England, the early stage, in which the plants die before
heading, does hot occur very frequently, and it is the
bleaching of the ears just before harvest that is the more
familiar form of the disease. Consequently, names such as
” blight,” “ whiteheads,” and ” night ripening ” have come
to be those most generally used in England, the name White-
heads being the one at present recommended in the List of
Common Names of British Plant Diseases. Nevertheless,
some English farmers who have experienced trouble with
the disease recently, and who have read something of its
occurrence overseas, have been employing the name Take-
all as used in published accounts of the disease from
Australia, Canada and the United States. Since frequent
reference will be made here to the occurrence of the disease
in these countries the name Take-all will be used in this
article.
Symptoms. When infection is very severe, the plants may
begin to look yellowish and stunted in spring, and may fail
to come into ear. More commonly the crop comes into ear
normally, and diseased plants become visible as a result of
premature ripening, or rather, bleaching. The plants become
almost white instead of the normal golden colour of ripe corn,
and the cars are found to be empty, or to contain only
shrivelled grains. In damp summers these whitened, dead
ears usually become spotted with a greenish-black growth
of moulds.
The old distinction between the Take-all and the Whiteheads
stages of the disease has been somewhat over-emphasized in
the past, since all intermediate stages between the two
conditions are found. It is quite common, for instance, to
find dead plants with the ears formed but still enclosed within
the sheaths, and others in which the ears had only partially
emerged at the time of death. The severity of tiie disease
depends upon the extent to which the root system is destroyed
by the fungus. If conditions greatly favour the fungus, the
332
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
wheat plant dies before heading. If conditions favour the
wheat, grain may mature in spite of the presence of some of
the fungus on the roots. Usually, however, there is an inter-
mediate state of affairs, and the wheat plant is able to grow
to the stage of heading, the growth of the fungus on the roots
being by that time so far advanced that death and bleaching
of affected plants occurs shortly before the normal ripening
of the crop.
It is usually not until this stage is reached that the farmer
is able to see the extent of his losses. The prematurely
whitened plants are then easily distinguishable scattered
among the normal green plants. The most important con-
firming evidence that the disease is Take-all is the blackening
of the roots and the base of the stem (Figs, i and 2). The
blackening on the base of the stem can usually be seen better
when the basal leaf-sheaths arc pulled away (Fig. i). There
is often a thin black coating of fungus, called “ plate
mycelium,” between the leaf-sheaths and the stem, which
may be pushed off in fine flakes with the thumbnail.
If weather conditions have been dry, and the growth of
the fungus slow, it sometimes happens that blackening may
not be visible on the stem-base. It may still be possible,
however, to find blackening on the roots, particularly if they
are first washed in water. W'hen the weather has been moist,
the blackening on the base of the stem may become very
pronounced. It is due to the mycelium of the fungus growing
up from the roots. In advanced cases of the disease it is
sometimes possible to see with the naked eye the spore-cases
of the fungus, as small black bodies, embedded in the
blackened portions of the leaf-sheaths.
Cause of the Disease. The fungus that causes the disease,
Ophiobolus graminis, acts as a parasite on the roots of living
cereals and grasses, and does not multiply in nature except
on these hosts. Its life-history is briefly as follows : Infective
material of the fungus, capable of attacking healthy plants,
may be of two kinds : a, mycelium in pieces of root or straw-
left in the soil from a previous cereal or grass crop on which
the fungus had developed, and b, spores that may have been
carried some distance by wind and rain from spore-cases
developed on infected stubble or on a wild grass in the
neighbourhood. When either material, be it a fragment of
infected straw or spores wind-borne from some distance away,
B 233
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
comes in contact with the roots of a healthy wheat jdant, other
conditions being favourable, it causes infection. The fungus
grows in a characteristic way as long, dark, runner
h3^hae down the outside of the roots, side-branches then
penetrating towards the centre of the root and absorbing the
food material. As far as is known, the mycelium of the
fungus will not grow in soil alone, so that spread of the disease
from plant to plant through the soil does not occur until the
roots of neighbouring plants come into contact, when it grows
from root to root. The rate of growth of the fungus along
the roots depends very much on soil conditions, discussed •
in further detail below. Under favourable soil conditions,
however, the fungus soon reaches the crown of the plant,
whence it can spread to all the roots and seriously interfere
with the nourishment of the developing wheat. Under moist
conditions, the fungus grows up the base of the haulms
forming the black “ plate mycelium,” previously mentioned,
and finally produces minute spore-cases embedded in the leaf-
sheaths (Figs. I and 2). Each spore-case (Fig. 3) contains
some hundreds of spores, too small to be visible to the naked
eye.
From this stage the life-cycle begins again. The infected
roots and straw from the diseased crop may either be
ploughed in, or be left for some months as stubble, perhaps
sown with a seeds mixture. In both practices the infected
material remains in the soil, a source of danger for some time
to any further cereal or grass crop sown there. In the second,
however, when the infected stubble is not ploughed in, there
is an additional source of danger, namely, the development of
further spore-cases on the diseased stem-bases as autumn
advances, and the discharge of spores, which may be blown
over healthy crops in the neighbourhood. These two sources
of infection may now be considered in somewhat more detail.
Persistence of Mycelium in the Soil. Many of the worst
outbreaks of Take-all come from ploughing up a stubble that
may have been only slightly diseased, and then sowing
another crop of wheat within the space of a few weeks. In
such circumstances there is not time for infected material to
rot away before the new roots of the young crop are growing
down amongst it. Naturally, the roots become infected at
an early stage, and if a warm, moist spring follows, the disease
may develop rapidly and seriously damage the crop.
234
\ u. 1 llu- 1)1. kt mill; .it tlu* liasi's ot tlu* li.uiliU''
<)l <1 wIitMl pkmt all(‘i tfil with \\ hiti'luMds oi 1 aki'-.ill Latr
sl.i;;r, in w huh the iiri Us ot llic spoir-i.iscs ol Liu' tiinj;us .ir*
V iMl>h .I'! iiiiiiiili’ black pojiitx (tJi ni tho blai konnl ])arts ol thi*
U'al-.sluMlhs riu‘ hwf-sluMth h.is hrm pulUnl awa\ to show
tlu' (lark i oloiiR'd tkikes ot “ pkitr iiU LcImm ” (f?) on llu'
base ol the stem itselt.
Vo fiut’ pdi^c j:34
]*iu. z Showing (.IS in log i) the blackening .it llu* b.isc ol
the haulm, vvitli the net ks of the spore-cases jirotnicling,
as at [a).
J i(, 3 \ ^pon -i .iM <>t th< l.iki-cill fun.LiU'', Op'h}><h<>lit^ i:i iHtii I'l (.‘inlKHldcd in a "iition of Icat-slR'ath
^\ltil lU v k prolmdini; , mutdi in i,miiln*d ( int pa< ot (Mirht '^poro'^ oO jiwt from lilt* n(_‘ck
anotln r \h\ }mv ju-st bur^t in tin air ainl a Iru --poio^ I, Irom tin* pn‘\ lou^ packt'l ot onj^ht an. still tloatinu
in tin an in ai I in* -.imn*'. ait t-vi >tiudl to bo M^iblt* to tin. nakotl ow
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
A similar result may follow the ploughing in of grass. The
Take-all fungus is frequently present in grass fields, main-
taining itself from year to year by slow growtii in the mat of
roots, the grass apparently healthy. If a grass field is
ploughed up and sown to wheat after too short an interval,
a serious attack of the disease may develop.
It is important, therefore, to know how long the fungus can
remain viable in the soil in the absence of its host plants. In
the past it has sometimes been recommended that, after an
attack of the disease, land should not be sown with wheat
for two or three years, or even longer. It is very doubtful
whether such long periods are necessary. Unfortunately, in
spite of the practical importance of the point, very little reliable
information about the rate of disappearance of the Take-all
fungus from different soils is available. There is no doubt
that the rate of disappearance will vary in different circum-
stances. In soils of different acidity or alkalinity, different
moisture content, and different organic matter content, it
would not be expected that the fungus would always rot away
at the same rate, but the qiustion remains whether the period
is likely to be one month, three months, six months, twelve
months, or more. A systematic investigation of this point
is now being carried out by Mr. S. D. Garrett at the
Rothamsted Expfjrimental Station, and it may, perhaps, be
said at this stage that, under the moisture conditions prevailing
in English soils, it is very unlikely that the fungus would last
as long as a year, provided the stubble has been j)loughed
under.
The safest way to ensure that there shall be no danger of
infection from mycelium in the soil is, of course, to adopt a
rotation in which wheat or barley is not sown immediately
following a previous cereal or grass crop. Soil can be freed
from the Take-all fungus by means of fallows of several
months’ duration, or by the growth of non-cereal crops such
as beans, sugar-beet, etc. , provided these are kept clean from
grass weeds. If it is specially desired to follow wheat with
wheat, then the sooner the stubble of the first crop is ploughed
in, and the longer the field is left before sowing Ae next crop,
the less likely will be loss from the disease. In other words,
wheat may be sown early on land that has been fallow for
several months or has carried some non-cereal crop, but after
a previous wheat crop, stubble should be ploughed in early
and seed sown late. Wheat should never sown following
B 2 235
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
a previous wheat crop in which the Whiteheads or Take-all
disease was known to be present.
The Australian practice of burning stubble helps greatly
in reducing the amount of fungus present before fallowing
begins. This is not often possible in England, however,
because of the shortness of the stubble left by English reapers.
Frequent working of the lighter soils, to stir them up, compact
the lower layers and check the growth of weeds, has also
been found in Australia to aid in more quickly eliminating
the fungus.
Dissemination by Spores. The second source of infection,
namely, wind-bome spores, may now be considered in more
detail. This danger arises when a stubble infected with Take-
all is not ploughed in, but is left untouched while the new
season's crops are sown, or because a seeds mixture was sown
with the wheat. In these circumstances the fungus is able
to mature its spore-cases slowly on the old diseased stem-bases,
and the spores ripen about October and November. When
the spore-cases are wetted by rain after periods of slow drying,
the spores are ejected into the air at the rate of up to several
hundred per minute from a single diseased stem-base. When
the rain ceases the spore-cases gradually dry, maturing further
spores, and when later rains come, still more spores may be
discharged from the same spore-cases.
Although these facts in the life-cycle are known, and it is
known that ascospores can infect young wheat plants, it is
unfortunate that practically no studies have been made on
the field side of this problem. Since the spores are ejected
only during or immediately after periods of rain, and since
the rain would usually tend to carry them down from the air
into the soil, it is unlikely that large numbers of spores would
travel much more than a few hundred yards. A few might
easily travel greater distances, but the numbers would be fewer
and fewer the farther from the source of discharge. Most
of the spores, however, would not succeed in reaching growing
roots that they could infect. In light, sandy soils, it might
be possible for them to be washed down into contact with
roots, but the heavier the soil the less would this be likely to
occur. Further studies on spore infection in different t3q)es
of soil are therefore very desirable.
At present, it seems possible that if the prevailing winds
carried spores over young cereal crops growing on light soils,
236
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
there might well be many spores that would be washed down
into the soil into contact with roots. Fortunately the delicate
spores of the Take-all fungus have a very short life, probably
about a week only, under the most favourable conditions,®*
so that unless they were actually carried over cereal or grass
crops they would not be likely to be a source of danger.
It is possible that in some districts infected grasses in
headlands or fields might be another source of spores, but
if this is so, it is likely to be to a small extent only. This is
another of the points upon which further information is needed
for English conditions.
Determining the Source of Infection. When a wheat crop
has been affected by Take-all, it is of interest to endeavour
to determine the source of infection, as an aid to guarding
against a future recurrence. From what has been said above
it is evident that infection must have come from one of two
sources — either it was in the soil when the crop was sown,
remaining from a previous cereal or grass crop, or it was
carried as spores over the growing crop at times of winter
or spring rains. Very often a knowledge of what was in the
field, and also in adjacent fields, the previous season, will
be sufficient to decide the question of the source. There
are, however, certain general characteristics of the two t5q)es
of infection that may be of assistance in reaching a decision.
As a rule, infection resulting from mycelium left in the soil
tends to result in more or less definite patches of disease in
the crop, as compared with the occurrence of individual plants
showing Whiteheads scattered promiscuously among the
healthy plants, which is likely to be more characteristic of
spore infections. The former type of infection may also be
more or less evenly distributed over the whole field, whereas
the latter is usually more severe on one side — the side from
which the spores came — ^gradually getting less and less across
the field. There are so many modifying factors that may
obscure these characteristics, however, particularly differences
in soil conditions, that too much reliance should not be placed
upon them.
The Influence of Soil Conditions on the Development of
the Disease. It is well known from field experience that the
development of the Take-all fungus is very much influenced
by soil conditions. It is more to be feared on light than on
• Seepage 241.
«37
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
heavy soils; it is more serious on alkaline than on acid soils;
and it is more serious on soils poor in organic matter than
on those well supplied with this. Satisfactory scientific
explanations for all these types of behaviour are not, as yet,
known, but research work now being carried out is increasing
our knowledge considerably. Workers in Canada and the
United States have shown that the presence of organic matter
exercises an inhibitory effect on the fungus, and they attribute
this to the antagonistic effect of certain of the soil micro-
organisms present. It seems possible that the periodic
dressings of dung given to many English fields may have some
beneficial effect in minimizing the amount of Take-all and
other cereal root-rots. In Canada and Australia, wheat fields
are not manured with dung. In England S. D. Garrett* has
made a study of the effect of certain soil conditions,
particularly soil reaction, on the development of the disease,
and suggestions have been advanced to account for its greater
prevalence on alkaline soils. Slowly but surely this work is
increasing our understanding of the often apparently erratic
field occurrence of the disease.
In the meantime, some lessons may perhaps be drawn from
field experience of the disease in countries where it is prevalent.
In Australia a loose seed-bed has been found to be favourable
to it, and light soils are ploughed only 2 or 3 in. deep.
Sometimes, rolling, or grazing off with sheep, is adopted with
the object of compacting the soil. It will be noticed that in
doing everything possible to consolidate light soils and
discourage Take-all, these operations at the same time improve
the soils for the growth of wheat, and this is undoubtedly
partly the basis of their good effect.
Manuring. Manuring may also be of importance. The
requirements of different soils are so varied that it is not
possible to make statements that will apply for all. Since
the disease is favoured by alkaline conditions, however,
preference should be given to sulphate of ammonia as a
nitrogenous manure rather than to the more alkaline nitrate
of soda, or nitro-chalk, unless the soil is definitely acid in
reaction. In Australia, superphosphate has a very beneficial
effect, mainly because Australian soils are very deficient in
phosphate; the supply of this substance promotes the produc-
tion of a more vigorous root-S5retem, thus favouring the
338
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
wheat plant as opposed to the fungus. It may be said in
general that liberal manuring, according to the requirements
of the particular soil in question, will have a beneficial effect
in minimizing tiie effect of the Take-all fungus if it is present.
Plants Attacked. A variety of wheat has not yet been
found that is immune from this disease, but red wheats, as
a class, are considered to be somewhat more resistant than
white wheats. A reasonably good crop of Little Joss has
been seen alongside a crop of a white wheat that was a total
failure from Take-all. Under some circumstances, however,
even red wheats such as Little Joss may be badly attacked.
When tested by inoculation in the seedling stage, red wheats
are found to be just as susceptible as white wheats, so that
differences in resistance observed in the field depend perhaps
upon differences in the amount of lignification or woodiness
that develops in the roots with maturity, or some other such
factor. Of the other commonly grown cereals, barley is
fairly susceptible, and it is dangerous to grow wheat after
barley, or barley after wheat if there has been any sign of
Take-all in the first crop. Rye is considerably less susceptible,
and oats still less so. In Australia, oats are considered to be
practically immune, and they can be sown with safety
following a diseased wheat crop. Under the wetter conditions
in England, however, especially in the west, there have been
a number of instances of oats having been affected by the
disease.
Many grasses are susceptible, and Kirby® has listed nearly
100 species that became diseased in greenhouse tests. Some
species are so susceptible that affected plants bleach white in
summer, have blackened stem-bases and develop spore-cases
of the fungus, in a similar manner to wheat. On others,
the fungus maintains itself in the mat of roots without causing
appreciable harm to the grass, as was mentioned above.
Some others appear to be immune. Fortunately, most of the
rye-grasses {Lolium spp.) appear to be very resistant under
field conditions. Practical advantage is taken of this on some
farms in Australia. The prevalent wild grass in certain
districts there is barley grass {Hordeutn tnurinum), which is
veiy susceptible to Take-all. In these districts it is always
dangerous to plough up a grass field and sow to wheat after
too short an interval. A little of the Australian rye-grass
known as Wimmera Rye Grass is put in with the wheat.
239
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
This seeds under the wheat crop and produces a fairly good
rye-grass pasture on the stubble the following year, largely
keeping out the worthless and dangerous barley-grass. Farms
that have adopted this practice have often been freer from
Take-all than their neighbours. In England, however, it
would be much more difficult to suppress a susceptible grass,
such as black bent {Alopecurus agresUs), in a similar way,
owing to its perennial rhizomes. More knowledge about the
susceptibility of English grasses is still required.
Influence of Weather. Finally, a few words should be
said about the influence of weather, although unfortunately
not nearly enough is known on this subject. In England,
Take-all was more prevalent in 1935 than in 1936, and this
must have been in some way connected with the weather. The
suggestion has been made that the disease is worse after mild
than after cold winters; and this seems reasonable, for the
Take-all fungus is not able to grow so well under cold
conditions as is the wheat plant.
Kirby,® in America, considered that a warm, wet spring
favoured Take-all, while Russell,^ in Canada, and Garrett,*
in Australia, also considered that a wet spring favoured the
disease. There is no doubt that the disease is worse under
wet conditions. There are, however, several distinct questions
involved that are apt to be confused because they overlap to
some extent. One is the effect of weather on the dispersal
of spores of the fungus; another is its effect on the survival
of mycelium in the soil; while still another is its effect on the
course and severity of the disease in plants already infected.
A proper understanding of the climatic factor will not be
obtained until each of these questions has been studied
separately.
Recommendations for Control. From the above it will
be evident fliat the measure of primary importance in the
control of Take-all is the elimination of the two sources of
infection, namely, the mycelium left in the soil from a previous
cereal or grass crop, and the spores developing on diseased
stubble. If the disease has appeared in a crop, the following
measures for future control should therefore be adopted :
(i) Ploughing in the stubble as early as possible. This
prevents it from being a source of infection to neighbouring
240
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
crops by means of wind-blown spores, and it also starts the
process of decomposition of the fungus in the soil.
(2) Rotation of crops. Wheat should preferably be
followed by some non-cereal crop, such as sugar-beet,
mustard, flax, turnips, beans, clover, etc. The Take-all
fungus soon disappears from the soil under these crops,
provided grasses are not allowed to grow in them. If it is
desired to sow a grass with clover, rye-grass is probably the
best to use; other grasses may favour the fungus.
If it is particularly desired to grow a cereal crop again,
oats is the safest, although this may also be affected under
wet conditions. It is too dangerous to grow a further crop
of wheat following one that has had the disease. When
considering whether another crop of wheat or barley could
be taken following a crop in which practically no disease could
be seen, it should be remembered that the practice of early
ploughing of the stubble, and late sowing of the following cereal
crop, gives a longer period for decomposition of any slight
amount of disease there may have been, and thus provides the
safest conditions. The growing of successive croj)s of wheat or
barley on light land must always be dangerous, however. Of
the wheats, red wheats are safer than white wheats.
(3) Manuring. On alkaline soils sulphate of ammonia
should be used as a source of nitrogen in place of nitrate of
soda or nitro-chalk, while superphosphate should be used
liberally if required by the soil.
(4) On light soils fallows should be kept well worked to
destroy grasses and to make a firm seed-bed.
REFERENCES
^ Garrett, S. D. : Factors affecting the severity of Take-all: 111 . Jour.
Agric. S. Australia, 1934, 97^^3*
2 ; Soil conditions and the Take-all disease of wheat. Ann. Appl.
Biol., 1936, 23 , 667-99.
* Kirby, R. S. : The Take-all disease of cereals and grasses caused by
Ophidbolus cariceti. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Mem. 88, 1925.
* Russell, R. C. : Field studies of Take-all in Saskatchew’an. Scient.
Agric., 1930, 10, 654-66.
* Samuel, G., and Garrett, S. D. : Ascospore discharge in Ophiobolus
graminis and its probable relation to the development of whiteheads in
wheat. Phytopath., i933i ^ 3 , 721-28.
241
A POISON BAIT FOR SLUGS
C. T. Gimingham, O.B.E., B.Sc., F.I.C.,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
and
H. C. F. Newton, B.Sc., A.R.C.S.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
In the course of the past year, several letters have appeared
in the horticultural Press* stating that good results have been
obtained by the use of a new type of poison bait for destroying
slugs and snails. This consists of a mixture of bran and
“ Meta,” a solid fuel sold for heating small domestic
appliances and for similar purposes. It is known that the
chief constituent of “Meta ” fuel is the compound metalde-
hyde,t a pol3mierized form of acetaldehyde.
Slugs and snails are among the most troublesome pests on
farms and in gardens and greenhouses alike ; they are
notoriously difficult to control, and though a poison bait
containing the arsenical compound, Paris green, has long been
recommended, and in many instances has given good results,
it has obvious disadvantages. It has therefore seemed
desirable to give a brief account of some preliminary trials
with bran baits containing “ Meta ” and metaldehyde, in
order to draw attention to the possibilities of the method.
The bait is prepared in the same manner as a Paris green
bait. Sufficient water is added to the bran to make it moist
without causing the flakes to stick together, the powdered
" Meta ” or metaldehyde is added, and the whole very
thoroughly mixed. The mixture may be made up diy, if
preferred, and can be used without addition of water if the
ground is moist. Various proportions have been tried.
“ Meta ” is sold in the form of small sticks, each weighing
about 4 grm., and a convenient amount to use on a small scale
is one stick (4 grm.) to about i quart of bran. The ” Meta ”
is easily ground to a fine powder : metaldehyde is obtainable
as a fine crystalline powder. The bait may be broadcast, but
♦ Gardening Illustrated, May 2, 1936, and Gardeners* Chronicle, Dec. 19,
1936, Jan. 23 and 30, 1937.
t Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, Supplement Vol. i, 1934,
P* 7-
A Poison Bait for Slugs
is perhaps most effective if placed in little heaps about i ft.
apart.
The notes that follow give details of some trials with these
baits. Counts were made of the numbers of slugs poisoned,
but it should be emphasized that no particular significance
can be attached to the comparative figures, since information
was not available as to the total population of slugs in the
area on which the baits were placed, nor is anything known
as to the distance from which slugs may be attracted. It is
probable that the variations in the numbers are due rather to
differences in the slug populations than to real differences in
the efficacy of the baits. The initial action of the poison
seems to be rapid, but affected slugs may remain alive in an
apparently moribund condition for some time.
I. Harpenden. On plots of swedes and young wheat in
garden.
T. “ Meta ” : 4 grin, to i .J jiints of bran.
2 Metaldehyde : 4 grni to l i pints of bran.
Small heaps placed at intervals of about I 2
in. between
alternate rows
of
swedes and wheat
on the
evening of
January 12.
Slugs CoLLKCTm
Wheat Plot
Swede Plot
' *
Meta
” Metaldehyde
" Meta "
Metaldehyde
Jan J3 . .
17
20
51
Jan. 1.^..
I 2
..14
1 1
^5
2 ^
43
06
A few more were found on subsequent dates.
Slugs were not very numerous on these plots and little
noticeable damage had been done to the plants. Only two
sj>ecies were represented, 64 i)er cent, of the total number
being Agriolimax agrestis (Grey Field Slug) and 36 per cent.
Anon hortensis (Garden Slug).
II. Harpenden. Swede plot in garden.
Small heaps placed as in I. on the evening of January 23;
there was a slight frost at night.
Slugs Collected
Jan. 26
Row I. Metaldehyde : 4 grm. to i.] pints of bran . . . . 28
Row 2. ,, 2 .. . • • . 13
III. Bournville. Private garden.
Four small heaps of the two mixtures given below were
343
A Poison Bait for Slugs
placed out and covered with tiles on the afternoon of
February 4.
Slugs Collected
Feb. 5
1. " Meta ” 4 gnn. to 2 pints of bran 253
2. Metaldehyde : 3 „ „ „ 149
The difference in the figures was largely accounted for by
about 60 more slugs round one of the “ Meta ” heaps. The
majority of the slugs here were Milax sp. (Keeled Slug), the
figures being Milax sp. 79 per cent., Arion hortensis 20 per
cent., and Agriolimax agrestis i per cent.
The following night there was frost and no slugs were seen,
but observations were continued by Mr. Wakeman, the owner
of the garden, to whom the writers are much indebted, and
by Feb. 22 totals of approximately 850 had been counted
on Plot I and approximately 550 on Plot 2. Slugs continued
to be caught on these heaps up to the time these notes were
written (March 21).
IV. Harper Adams Agricultural College Garden. On
plot of cabbage damaged by slugs.
la, Meta '' . . . . 4 grm. to 2 pints of bran.
ih. „ .. .. 8 „ ,, „
2, Metaldehyde . . . . 4 ,, ,,
The baits were put out on the night of February 4, arranged
as below.
244
A Poison Bait for Slugs
The area concerned was about 45 sq. yards, and each
lot of bran-bait was scattered over about i sq. yard with a
small covered heap in the centre. The figures in brackets
show the numbers of poisoned slugs counted on each area on
the following morning. They were mostly near the edges of
the patches and very few were at the central heaps. The
following night was frosty and no slugs were found, but the
central covered heaps remained attractive and many more slugs
were caught on each of the few warm nights that occurred
during the following 6 weeks. Owing to the very wet condition
of the ground, these were not regularly counted, but about 150
were collected at about the middle of this period, and there
were many on the heaps on March 21. No significant
differences in the numbers were noted on the different areas.
Here 80 per cent, of the slugs collected were Milax sp., and
20 per cent. Arion hortensis.
Subsequent further trials on these lines were unsuccessful
owing to low temperatures and flooding.
The figures quoted may serve to show the kind of results
obtainable with these baits in the winter and under unfavour-
able weather conditions. The chief catches were made on
comparatively warm nights, and many instances are known
to the writers where evidently much larger numbers (not
counted) have been poisoned in private gardens during the
warmer weather in the autumn, when slugs were more
abundant and active.
In a large-scale field experiment in April, over more than an
acre, on which the “ Meta ''-bran bait was broadcast in the
manner recommended for Paris Green bait, coxmts on 64
separate sq. ft. areas across the middle of the field gave an
estimated “ kill " of slugs of some 50,000 per acre, and of
some 70,000 per acre from counts on 44 sq. ft. areas nearer
the hedges. Similar figures were obtained on another
smaller-scale field trial.
The bait seems to be attractive to all the common and
destructive species of slugs, and snails also are reported to
take it readily. No evidence has, however, been obtained
that other soil pests are affected. In a recent experiment, for
example, " Meta "-bran bait was compared with Paris Green
and bran on a field of wheat infested with leather jackets:
on the area treated with Paris Green bait, numbers of dead
leaffier jackets were found (a rough count indicated a figure
in the neighbourhood of 100,000 per acre), whereas, on the
245
A Poison Bait for Slugs
area to which the “ Meta ” bait was applied, the kill was
negligible. ^
As will be seen from sortie 6f the figures given, the bait
remains attractive to slugs for a considerable time if protected
from heavy rain, and it is worth while arranging some simple
form of covering. As far as the writers' observations go,
wild bird's do not eat it, though on one occasion poultry did
so, without harm resulting. “ Meta " and metaldehyde are,
however, dangerous to the health of human beings if eaten,
and it is essential to take all reasonable precautions in
preparing the bait and using it.
It has already been mentioned that no special significance
can be attached to the figures given above for the numbers
of slugs killed under different conditions, and they cannot
be taken as indicating any real differences between the
efficiency of the various strengths used. More detailed
experiments on these points are required, and it is hoped that
they will be undertaken; the object of the present note is
merely to draw attention to this bait as a possible means of
reducing the numbers of slugs. In the meantime, it is
suggested that those who wish to try the method should make
up the bait in the proportion of 4 grm. of the poison (one
stick of “ Meta ”) to 2 pints (about 8 oz.) of bran. Judging
by the results of the trials it is probable that pure metaldehyde
and “ Meta ” are about equally efficient, but the former is
at present considerably more expensive than “ Meta ”.
Inquiries have been made as to the origin of the discovery
that metaldehyde is attractive and poisonous to slugs and snails,
since it seems likely to be of considerable importance. As
far as can be ascertained, the suggestion came from South
Africa, but the person to whom it was due has not at present
been traced.
246
THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MEADOW HAY
S. J. Watson and W. S. Ferguson,
Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd.,
Jealott’s Hill Research Station, Bracknell, Berks.
The stock farmer rightly considers the hay crop to be one
of the most important on the farm, and, given a good yield
gathered under favourable weather conditions, he faces the
winter months with a comfortable feeling that the greater part
of the winter food of the stock has been safely put by.
Unfortunately, the hay crop is extremely variable as regards
feeding value, and too few farmers take the trouble to obtain
some analysis of the material so as to be able to feed it in the
most economical way. In “ Rations for Livestock
meadow hays are classified as poor, good and very good, and
we have felt that a farmer often calls his average hay a good
sample in rather an optimistic way. The chief discrepancy is
to be found in the protein content, and the low value for this
constituent in average hay is a shortcoming that is not often
realized. Knox and Prowsc*, at Wye, examined a large
number of hay samples, and it is of interest to reproduce two
extracts from their paper, the first of which they give in
italics : —
** It has become increasingly apparent that this assignation of samples
of hay to arbitrary standards, having only one analytical interpretation,
is not entirely satisfactory.'’
“ An important feature of the results (of their senes of analyses of
samples of hay) is the generally low protein content. Of the thirty-one
samples, only five had a protein content approximating that given for
‘ good * meadow hay in the published figures (9*7 per cent.)."
The average crude protein content of the samples was 818
per cent, and the fibre was 28 27 per cent.
We have also noticed this as a result of our examination of
a large number of samples, and in an earlier publication®
reference was made to a series of samples of hay that gave crude
protein contents varying from 6 54 to 8-31 per cent, of the dry
matter. These were all made under carefully-controlled
conditions in good weatiier from grass in full flower, in mid-
June, the stage at which hay is most frequently cut.
* References arc given on p. 260.
347
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
To clinch the question, various samples of hay were collected
from as many counties as possible during the winter of 1935.
They were to be selected as t3qjical of average hay made in feat
district in 1935, and a questionnaire was issued to obtain fee
farmer's opinion of the hay and particulars of fee crop, its
stage of maturity and fee weather conditions during hay-
making. These have been summarized in Table i for fee
twenly-two samples collected, all of which were harvested
during the period from late June to mid-July, varying wife
fee district. In eleven instances the dates of cutting and
carting were given accurately, and the average time fee hay,
was " out ” was 7 days, with a range of 3 to 15 da57s. In only
two instances was rain reported during the ha3unaking period,
and fee weather conditions were, generally speaking, favour-
able for haymaking. Several of the farmers cut fee grass when
it was in full flower, at a stage variously called by fee farmers
mature, ripe, or fully ripe. Seven were cut at this stage, five
earlier than this at the early flowering stage, and five were over-
ripe. Of fee remaining five, the two from Lancashire were
specially selected for us by Mr. R. Stewart, Advisory Chemist,
Manchester University, as typical of average and good hays
for fee district.
The samples were obtained from fifteen counties, and, wife
two exceptions, they were made from permanent grziss land.
The farmers’ opinions are interesting. Out of 21 samples,
five were described as very good, nine as good, four as fairly
good, one as average, and two as fair — ^i.e., in fee fanners’
opinion, the average quality of the twenty-two samples was
good.
Chemical Composition. The chemical composition of fee
hays is given in Table 2. There is no correlation between fee
stage of growth of the crop when cut and any particular
constituent, but this is not very surprising. Of fee four hays
described as over-ripe or over-grown, numbers 7, 9, 13 and 16,
two had crude protein contents above fee average, and one had
a crude fibre content below fee average.
The fat or ether extract contents vary from 1-09 to 2 22 per
cent., and, in general, a high fat content is associated wife a
low crude fibre content and vice versa.
The crude fibre contents vary between 30 and 36 per cent,
with the exception of hay No. 10, which contained about 41
per cent, of this constituent,
248
The Nutritive Value or Meadow Hay
TABLE I
Particulars of Hay Samples Collected in 1935
The Notritive Valde of Meadow Hay
TABLE II
Chemical Composition of Hay Samples
(Stated as percentages of the Dry Matter)
No.
X
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Average
Ether extract . .
1-55
1'38
1 77
.•59
x*8o
1 77
1*86
1*96
2-99
1 16
2*10
Crude fibre
.'14 -54
35-57
32 77
32-38
35-57
3b 25
.34 47
30 oO
32 25
40 9b
30*82
Crude protein . .
10' X4
11 69
10*49
5-92
8*52
8 49
8* 19
9 7b
8 95
.V59
10 76
1
Ash
7*02
10*00
7-47
7 28
7*56
7*1H
b*94
8 21
7-39
5 51
7 76
N-fiw
extractives
46
4136
47 50
52*83
46*55
4b 31
48 54
49*81
50 42
46 78
48*56
1
3
8
1 '
Organic matter
92 '98
90*00
92 53
92 72
92*44
92*82
93 '06
91*79
92 61
94 49
92*24
True protein ..
8*23
io*6o
8*95
5*52
7*68
7 40
7 37
8*20
7*71
5-24
9 42 j
Drjr matter in
original material
[
8i*8o
! 83*80
84*30
1
85*70
84*00
83*80
85*80
85-50
1
86*30
' 84 70
83*60
No.
” !
13
24
15
16
i
ih
19
20
21
22
Average
Ether extract . .
2-75 '
I 09
209
2 22
1*78
1*64 ,
1 85
2 18
I *76
1 bs
J 64
I 75
Crude fibre
1
32*03
34-61
33 92
31-13
35 46
.34 32
31 10
30-98
.34 71
35 64
34 34
.33-78
Crude protein . .
9-27 1
4 81
9 96
12 90
9 07
7 51
7-82
9-07
10 26
b 40
10*79
8 92
Ash ..
8 38 '
5 62
7 22
8 68
8 28
8 57
8
7 59
8 J9
6 75
(>•48
7 58
N-frre
extractives
i
48-67
53-87
1
1 46 8a
45 07
' 45 ti
47-96 ,
.50 57
50 18 1
1 44 78
49 56
46 75
47 96
Organic matter
92*62 i
94-38
I 92 78
91 32
1 92 72
91-43 '
91 04
92 41 ,
j 9» 51
93 25
93 52
92-42
True protein .
8 04 1
4 38
' 6 76
ll*o6
7-83
b-37 ,
6 98
8 35 1
1
1 9 63
5 88
9-96
7 92
Dry matter in
onpnal material
1
83 «o I 83 80
84*80
82 80
85 10
84*30 1
84 80
89*90 !
80 40
80 80
84 60
84 30
There is a wide variation in the crude and true protein
contents— the ranges being 4-81 to iz-go per cent, and 4 38 to
ii'06 per cent, respectively. The hays Nos. 4, 10 and 13 gave
crude protein contents below 6 per cent.
It is generally accepted that an inverse correlation exists
lietween the crude protein and fibre contents of fresh herbage,
and, to a less extent, hays,, but ttiis is not evident in the present
series of analyses. The hays examined, however, were, with
few exceptions, low in crude protein, and it is probable that
had some of the hays been cut earlier with a higher protein
content, the correlation would have held good.
Smaller differences are seen in the ash contents, but ha3rs
Nos. 10 and 13 are again noticeable in their low content of this
constituent. The N-free extractives or soluble carbohydrates, ,
being, calculated values, naturally show differences depending,
on the amounts of the other constituents present. The values
vary from 4136 to 53 87 per cent. The values for the dry
950
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
matter contents of the hays do not present a true idea of the
material leaving the stack, since changes would have occurred
during the periods of transit to Jealott’s Hill.
A comparison of the average compositions of the hays with
those published in “ Rations for Livestock ” is given in Table
3, all the values being based on a moisture content of 15 per
cent.
TABLE 111
Chemical Composition of Hays as Compared with
Standard Values
(Stated as percentage of hay containing 15 per cent, moisiun)
As published in
*' Rations for Livestock "
Ether extract
Present
Investigation
Poor
Good
Very Good
1*49
I *49
2*48
304
Crude fibre . .
28*71
33-23
26 08
19*53
Crude protein
7-58
7-43
9 62
13*66
Ash . .
6-44
4 96
6*15
7*79
N-free extractives . .
40-78
37-89
40-67
40*98
According to these figures, if the crude protein content is used
as a basis for comparison, the average quality of the hay would
be poor. The low fibre content and high content of ash and
N-free extractives, however, suggest that the value should be
intermediate between poor and good. From the composition
data, therefore, it would seem that the farmers had slightly
over-estimated the values of the hays.
Digestibility. The digestibility of the hays was determined
by using sheep as the experimental animals, and the digesti-
bility coefficients are given in Table 4.
Some wide variations are seen in the digestibility coefficients
of the ether extract or fat, the range being from 27 to 59 per
cent. In the fibre, the values fluctuate less, and whilst the
values are fairly high, there appears to be no inverse correla-
tion betwen the crude fibre content and the digestibility
coefficients, as might have been expected. For example, the
digestibility of the fibre of hay No. lo, which from the chemical
analysis would have been classed as a very mature hay owing
to its high fibre content of nearly 41 per cent. , is slightly higher
than that of hays Nos. 18 and 19, which have low fibre
contents.
The digestibiUty coefficients of the crude protein show some
striking differences. The extremely low figure of 37 per cent,
digestibility is given by hay No. 13, which contained only 4 8 per
cent, of crude protein. Also hay No. 10, containing only 5 59
25J
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
TABLE IV
Digestibility Coefficients of Hay Samples
No.
I
2
3
♦
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
Average
Ether extract . ,
50 00
27-89
51-40
56-90
37-93
48-98
44-45
44-37
50-64
46-59
52-30
Fibre . .
6.0,
61-29
64 47
67 60
54-27
62 67
55-82
61-87
66-41
60-99
64-73
Crude protein .
41-30
50 11
49 92
37-20
38-39
41-62
38-13
48-86
51-80
7-98
51-46
1
True protein .
38 18
1
49-88
47 70
1 31 70 1
34-69
1 35-99 !
0
OO
42-54
47-91
11-22
49 29
N*frec
1
1
extractives
55-30
5 *! 90
59-12
! 68-20
59*90
57-86
51-76
63 89
65-95
57-12
63-65
0
Organic matter
55-87
55 47
59 85
1 ,
65-50
55*31
58-09
51-92
1 61 -20
64-41
55-75
62-33
1
Dry matter
54-79
54-32
58-63
1
63-30
1 53-40
56 10
50-88
1 59 83
62-62
54-01
61 35
No.
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 i
20
21
22
.
Average
Ether extract . .
53*78
53-33
51-88
59 39
54 41
50-40
48-23
44-89 1
55-12
41-67
40-80
48-43
Fibre . .
64*97
63 41
64-10
65-65
68-90
63-03
59-84
59 59 i
61-04
62-60
59*86
62-46
Crude protein
54-09
3-75
48 83
57- 65
49-78
40-18
42 04
37-61 i
50-54
30 65
53-72
42-07
True protein ..
50-74
3-03 1
49-33 j
56 92
50-17
37-81
38-65
! 36-84 ^
49-43
29-24
54-62
1 40 03
N-free
1
1
'
extractives
64*24
65*29
57 51 i
59-87
62-75
1 60-47 ;
1 61-65
j
61-58 ,
5398
59-36
54-13
1 59-84
Organic matter |
63-29
61-35 1
58-86
61-51 1
63 67 j
j 59*58 1
, 59-09
58-17
56-30 1
1 58 30 i
' 55-95
I 59-17
Dry matter ..
61-86
59*30
57-11
59-66 1
61-87
j 57-42
57*36
55-S8 1
55*45
: 56*59
55*15
1
! 57-56
per cent, crude protein, gave a value of about 8 per cent. The
remaining values varied between 306 and jyb per cent., and
there is a distinct tendency for the digestibility to increase with
increase of the crude protein content. The digestibility of the
true protein follows closely that of the crude protein.
The digestibility coefficients of the N-free extractives,
organic matter and dry matter show minor fluctuations, and
generally speaking, the values are somewhat lower than those
given by the fibre.
Digestible Nutrients. The digestible nutrient contents of
the hays, calculated from the data in Tables 2 and 4, are given
in Table 5. Those of the various ha5rs show some rather wide
differences, and the greatest fluctuations are seen in the
contents of digestible true protein.
The nutritive value of the ha}^ is judged on their starch and
protein equivalent contents, and here considerable variations
are to be seen. No relationship seems to exist between these
two series of values, and in some samples high starch
equivalent contents are accompanied by high protein
equivalent contents, whilst in others the reverse holds. No
252
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
TABLE V
Digestible Nutrient Contents of Hay Samples
No.
2
3
4
T
B
8
9
—
IX
Average
Ether extract . .
0-78
0-38
0-91
01
0*90
I DRY
0-68
MAra
0-87
R BAS
0-83
IS
0-87
l-OX
0-54
X-IO
Fibre . .
2X*10
21 *80
ax-13
21-89
19-30
22-72
19-24
x8-6o
20-75
24-98
29-95
Crude protein . .
4* 19
5-86
5-24
2*20
3-27
3-53
3-12
4-77
4-64
0-45
5*54
True protein ..
3-14
5-29
4-27
1-75
2-66
2-66
2-56
3-49
3-69
0-58
4-64
N-free
extractives
25-85
21 <88
28 08
36-03
27-88
26-79
25-12
31-82
33-25
26*72
30-91
1
Organic matter
51-95
49-92
55-38
60-73
' 5X‘i3 ^
53-92
48-32
56-05 1
59-65
52-68
57-49
I
Starch
equivalent
31-36
28 75
35-95 i
42-50 :
30-40 1 32 64
28 37
38 00
41-30
29-50
39-40
8
Protein j
equivalent I
3-67 1
5 58 '
4-76
i
1.98
2 97
J..0
2-84 ,
4-13
4-16
0-52
5-09 1
Starch
equivalent i
26-70
1
24-40 ,
ON FRESH lUY BASIS (ASSUMING 15% MOISTURE)
30-60 36-10 1 25-80 1 27-70 1 24*10 1 32-30 ' 35-10 i 25-10
33-50
Protem
equivalent |
3 12
4-74 1
4-05
x-68
2-52
2-64
a 41
3-51
3-54
0-44
4-33
No.
i »
13
24
1
!
I
. 17
1 x8
1 *9
1
1 20
21
22
Average
' ' 1
ON DRY MATTER
BASIS
j
j
Ether extract . .
0-94
0 58
X 08
1 32
0-97
0 83 ) 0-89
0 98
0-97
0-69
0 67
0-85
Fibre . .
20-81
21-95
31-74
20-44
24-43
21-63
18-79
28-46
21-19
22-31
20*56
2X'08
Crude protein . .
4-96
o-x8
4-86
7-44
4-52
3. 02
3-29
j 3-42
5-19
1-96
5-80
3-97
True protein . .
4-08
0-13
4-32
6-30
3-93
2*60
2-70
1 308
4-76
1-72
3*44
3*35
N-free
extractives
31-27
35-17
26 93
26-98
28-49
29-00
31-18
j 30 90
24-17
29 -42
25*32
28-78
Organic matter
57-99
37-90
54-61
1
56-17
58-40
54-47
54-15
j 53-75
51-52
54*36
52-32
54*68
Starch
equivalent
39-23
38-2S i
35«a
37-80
37.90
34-80
36-00
36-27 j
!
31-60
34-00
32 34
35*10
Protein
equivalent j
4-32
1 1
t
o-x6
4-59
687
1
4-^3
2-8x
3. 00
i
4-98
1-84
5-62
3-66
Starch
equivalent
ON FRESH HAY BASIS
(ASSUMING 1
5% MOISTURE)
33-30
32-50
29 90
32X
32-20
1
29-60 j 30-60
30-70
26-90
28-90
27*30
29-80
Protein
equivalent
3 84
0-.4
3 90
5-84
3-60
2-39
a-55
2 76 !
1
4-23
1-56
1
4*78
3*12
correlation can be found between the starch equivalent values
and the state of the crop. For example, the two hays giving
the highest starch equivalent values were described as “ fairly
mature " and " over-ripe ”, whilst the two hays giving the
lowest values were described as ” mature ” and ” over-ripe
253
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
The starch equivalent values have been calculated according
to Kellner's* method, and a deduction of 0-58 starch equivalent
has been made for each per cent, of crude fibre, in preference
to the use of a " value number In " Rations for
Livestock ” it is considered that the starch equivalents of hays
calculated by this method are too low, and in the published
Tables the values have been increased by one-fifth. This has
been done with the average value for the hay examined here,
and the value is given in Table 6, together with the digestible
nutrient content of the hay and the figures quoted in “ Rations
for Livestock ” and Kellner's " Scientific Feeding of
Animals.”
TABLE VI
Digestible Nutrient Content of Hays
[Stated as percentage of hay containing 15 per cent, moisture)
“ Rations
" Kellner "
Hay—^
for Livestock **
Very
Present
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Good
Investigation
Hay
Hay
Hay
Hay
Hay
Dige.stible ether extract . .
0*7
0*5
1*0
05
1*0
1*3
Digestible crude protein . .
3*4
3*4
5*4
3*4
5*4
7*4
Digestible true protein
2*8
2*5
3*8
2*5
3*8
5*0
Digestible fibre
17*9
15*5
14*9
15*5
14*9
13*8
Digestible N-free extractive.s
24*5
19- 1
25*5
19*1
25*5
27*9
Starch equivalent . .
35*8*
2 I * 8 »
36 - 7 *
i 8*9
31-0
36*2
Protein equivalent
3*1
2*9
4-6
3*0
4-6
6*2
* Starch equivalents, as calculated by Kellner's method, increased by one-fifth.
The figures given for the digestible nutrients in ‘‘ Rations
for Livestock ” are the same as those quoted by Kellner, and
it is only in the starch equivalent values that differences
are seen.
Under the conditions obtaining in 1935, the average quality
of the twenty-two samples of hay was good when file starch
equivalent content alone is considered, but the protein
equivalent content is about the same as the poor quality hay.
It was expected that the hay would be above average quality,
but it apparently was not if the description good is synonymous
with average.
The results are disappointingly low, since owing to the
generally favourable weather conditions, the losses of
digestible nutrients during drying in the field were probably
relatively small.
If the investigation had been continued in a year, such
as 1936, when the weather conditions were inclement, the
nutritive value of the hays would undoubtedly have been still
lower.
254
Tite Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
Considering the starch equivalent contents of the individual
ha3^, eight lie about half-way between the poor and good
class, twelve are in the good class and two could be called
very good.
On the protein equivalent contents, eleven hays are poor
(four of these might be classed as very poor), six lie inter-
mediate between poor and good, and only five are good.
It is of interest to compare the farmers' estimates of the
values of their hays with those of the approximate averages
of the values based on the starch and protein equivdent
contents. This has been done in Table 7, for 21 estimates,
and the rough approximations show that only one farmer
under-estimated the value of his hay, nine over-estimated and
eleven gave fairly correct judgments.
TABLE VII
Quality of the Individual Hays
No.
1 Farmers’
1 Estimate
1
Quality Based On
Remarks
Starch
Equivalent
Protein
Equivalent
I
G.
F.G.
P.
1 Over-estimated.
2
i G.
F.G.
G.
1 Correct estimate.
3
1 V.G.
G.
F.G.
Over-estimated.
4
1 F.G.
V.G.
V.P.
i Correct estimate.
5
' F.
F.G.
P.
r * >1
Over-estimated .
6
1 G.
F.G.
P.
7
G.
F.G.
P.
«
G.
G.
F.G.
Correct estimate.
9
G.
V.G.
F.G.
»» f«
10
V.G.
F.G.
V.P.
Over-estimated.
II
1 P- i
G.
G.
! Under-e.stimated.
F.G ;
G.
V.P.
1 Correct estimate.
14
1 A. !
G.
F.G.
i »• >>
15
1 1
G. ;
G.
16
! F.G. !
G.
F.G.
Over-estimated.
17
■ V.G. '
G.
P.
18 ..
1 V.G.
G.
F.
if §9
ig
1 V.G.
G.
F. 1
• 9
20
G.
F.G.
G.
Correct estimate.
21
F.G.
G. 1
V.P.
Over-estimated.
22
1 I
F.G.
G.
1
Correct estimate.
V.P. =
Very poor. P.
r= Poor. F.
— Fair. F.G. = Fairly good. I
A. — Average.
G. = Good. V.G. *= Very good.
It is evident that the farmers’ opinion can be inisleading,
and that some more accurate estimate of the nutritive value
«55
Tte Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
of the hay should be made if it is to be used to the greatest
advantage. Unfortunately, the experimental determination
of digestibility is a somewhat costly and lengthy business,
and could not economically be adopted to meet general
requirements. In consequence, attempts have been made to
determine the approximate feeding value of hays from their
chemical composition. One of the authors* has published
curves whereby the protein and starch equivalents of leafy
types of ha}^ can be calculated from their crude protein
contents. The protein equivalent values can be determined
thus with some accuracy, but fairly large errors may arise
in the calculation of the starch equivalents. The curves
quoted, when applied to the hays in the present investigation,
give rise to some quite large discrepancies, probably owing
to the different nature of the hays in the two series. It was
decided, therefore, to modify &e curves, using tiie values
obtained on the twenty-two samples examined here, which
^ould represent approximately the average types of ha5rs
produced in this country.
A search was made to see if any constituent or mixture of
constituents of the hay was correlated with the starch
equivalent value’ and it was found that if the starch equivalent
was plotted against the sum of 2 parts of crude fibre and i part
of crude protein, a fairly straight line resulted.
The linear regression equations were therefore calculated
for starch equivalent (S) on this sum (x) of 2 parts crude fibre
and I part of crude protein, and also for flie protein equivalent
(P) on the crude protein (y) . The equations are as follows : —
Starch equivalent (S) = 87*645 ~ o-SSy^x.
Protein equivalent (P) = o*7844>^ ■— 3*331.
It is perhaps advisable to illustrate the method of using the
equations. As an example, a hay may be taken with 15 per
cent, of moisture containing 2871 per cent, of fibre and 7-58
per cent, of crude protein. These must first be calculated to
a dry matter basis, e.g. 3378 per cent, fibre and 892 per
cent, crude protein in the diy matter.
To calculate the starch equivalent, multiply the fibre
content by two (33 78 x 2 = 67-56) and add the crude protein
(8-92), which gives a value of 76-48. This is then substituted
in the equation; —
S = 87*645 — o*6875X.
=• 87*645 - 0*6875 (76’48).
= 35 - 06 *
256
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
To calculate the protein equivalent substitute 8 92 in tiie
second equation: —
p = 0-78443/ - 3-331.
= 0-7844 (8-92) - 3-331.
• 3-67-
The starch equivalent is 35 06 lb. of dry matter, and the
protein equivalent is 367 per cent. These must now be
corrected for the 15 per cent, of moisture in the hay which,
therefore, contains 29-8 lb. starch equivalent per 100 lb. and
3'i2 per cent, of protein equivalent in the hay as it is fed. (It
is essential to calculate the values to a dry matter basis before
substituting in the equations.)
In Table 8 a comparison is made between the starch and
protein equivalent values of the hays as determined by
experiment and as calculated from the equations given above.
TABLE VIII
Starch and Protein Equivalent Values as Determined by
Experiment and as Calculated from Equations
Hay
No.
Kellner Starch Equivalent
Protein Equivalent
Determined
Calculated
Difierence | Determined
Calculated
I
8
(«)
w
(a)-
-(*)
(a)
w
(a)-(6)
I
33*1
— •
1*7
3-67
4-62
- 0*95
2
28*8
30*7
1*9
5-58
5-84
— 0*26
3
36-0
35*3
4 *
0-7
4-76
4-90
- 0-14
4
425
39*0
+
3*5
1*98
1*31
+ 0-67
5
30*4
32-8
2*4
2*97
3*35
— 0-38
6
32'b
31*9
+
0‘7
3*10
3*33
— 0*23
7
28-4
34*6
6-2
2*84
3*09
— 0*25
8
38*0
39.6
—
1*6
4*13
4*33
— 0‘20
9
41-3
38*5
-f
2-8
4-x6
3-69
+ 0-47
10
29-5
274
2'I
0*52
1-05
- 0-53
XX
39*4
37'8
+
x*6
509
5*11
— 0-02
X 2
39-1
37*3
-h
x-8
4*52
3*86
+ 0*66
13
38-3
36*7
1-6
o* 16
0-44
— 0*28
14
35*1
34 - 1
1*0
4*59
4-48
4- o*xx
15
37-8
35*9
-h
1*9
6*87
6-79
4“ o*o8
x6
37-9
32*6
4 -
5*3
4*23
3-78
-h 0*45
17
34-8
35*2
—
0*4
2»8i
2 - 5 <>
+ 0*25
x8
36*0
39*0
—
3*0
3*00
2*80
4-0*20
X 9
I 36*2
38-8
—
2-6
3*25
3*78
- 0*53
20
31-6
32*8
—
1*2
4*98
4*72 1
-f- 0*26
2X
34*0
34*2
—
0*2
I ‘84
1*79
4 - 0*05
22
32*3
1 33*0
—
0-7
5 ’62
5*13 !
4 - 0*49
Standan
i Error
2*62
—
- 1 0.43
257
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
It will be seen that generally there is very good agreement
between the determined and calculated values. In the starch
equivalent values only two hays, Nos. 7 and 16, show any
relatively large differences, but even errors of such magnitude
are not likely to be serious in ordinary fe.eding practice.
The equations given will not find general application. They
are applicable only to meadow hay, and will not be suitable
for “ seeds ” hays or for material of high crude protein
content cut at an early stage of growth. For meadow hay
as usually cut on the farm, i.e. at an advanced stage of growth,
the use of these equations will give values for starch equivalent
and protein equivalent which are a closer approximation to
their true feeding value than is ever possible by visual
examination.
This can be tested by applying the equations to the data
given by Kellner* for different types of hay and based on a
large number of digestibility trials and covering widely
differing conditions. There are five types of hay quoted by
Kellner, and the starch equivalent and protein equivalent
values given below are contrasted with the values calculated
by using the equations.
Table IX
The Calculated and Determined Values for Starch EguiVALENT
AND Protein Equivalent of Hays examined by Kellner
{Stated as percentages of the Dry Matter)
Quality
Crude
Crude
Starch Equivalent
Protein Equivalent
of Hay
1 _
Protein
Fibre
Deternuned
Calculated
Difiorence
Detenniiied
Calculated
Difference
Poor . .
8 - 7.1
39 f >9
(«)
22 05
(fc)
27 88
(a)-(ft)
- 5*83
(«)
3 44
m
3-53
(a)--(6)
- 0 09
Mrflium
10-73
34 07
27 61
33 42
~ 5*77
4 51
5’ 08
- 0 53
Good
n 32
30 6q
36 17
37
- 2 49
5 36
5 55
- 0 19
Very jjood
13-76
21 7 b
43 19
42 76
- 0 17
7 29
7 46
- 0-17
Excellent
16 07
2 .-
48 33
4500
+ 3'33
9 34
9 27
+ 007
The agreement between the calculated and the determined
values is fairly close, particularly the protein equivalent. It
is clear that the equations developed fit the standard values
of Kellner, even for hays of high protein content, and since
these values are usually accepted, the calculation of starch
equivalent and protein equivalent values from the crude
protein and fibre values is possible. The series of hays made
258
The NuTRiTivE Value of Meadow Hay
at Jealott’s Hill and described elsewhere® have not been
included in calculating the equations, since they were all made
in Berkshire, and it was considered more desirable not to use
them, as they would have given too heavy a local bias. There
were ten samples, ranging in crude protein content from 6 to
10 per cent, of the dry matter, and the determined values were
higher by 2 80 lb. of starch equivalent than the calculated
values (range - 2 42 to + 7 67) and 0 65 per cent, of protein
equivalent (range + 007 to + i'27). The agreement is fair,
but one or two values showed wide discrepancies. Five
samples of early-cut hay, varying in protein content from 10 0
to 15-5, showed an average determined value for starch
equivalent which was 7 99 lb. higher than the calculated value,
but the protein equivalent was only o 29 per cent, higher in
the determined values. This last-named series shows the
poorest agreement, but this was to be expected as the material
was leafy and low’ in fibre, and made under excellent
conditions.
The use of the equations will give a fair idea of the nutritive
value of a sample of hay, though they would have been more
satisfactory if they could have included some values for hay
made under really poor weather conditions.
Summary. Twenty-two samples of hays, collected from
fifteen counties in Great Britain, have been examined for
chemical composition and nutritive value.
All the hays were harvested in 1935, when the weather
conditions were almost universally favourable for hay-
making.
The content of crude protein in the hays was low, varying
from 4-81 to 12-90 per cent. , average 8 92 per cent, of the dry
matter, and of all the constituents the cnide and tnie protein
had the lowest digestibility.
Based on the starch equivalent values, only two samples
could be classed as very good, twelve as good, and eight inter-
mediate between good and poor. On protein equivalent
content, only five could be classed as good, six intermediate
between good and poor, and eleven as poor.
Equations are given whereby the protein equivalent value
can be calculated from the crude protein content, and the
starch equivalent calculated from the sum of 2 parts of fibre
and I part of crude protein.
259
The Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay
Acknowledgments. — ^We arc indebted to Messrs. E. A. Horton and
O. Neave for assistance with the analytical work, and to many others,
too numerous to mention, who were kind enough to obtain samples of
hay for us and collect the relevant details. We thank Imperial Chemical
Industries, Ltd., for permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES.
(1) Rations for Livestock : Bull. No. 48, Min. of Agric. & Fisheries.
(2) Knox, M. A., and Prowse, I. B. : jT. S.£. Agric, Coll., Wye, 1934,
No. 34.
(3) Watson, S. J., and Horton, E. A. : J. Agric. Sci., 1936, 26, 142.
(4) Kellner : Scientific Feeding of Animals, London, Duckworth, 1915.
260
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of
producer-retailers’ contributions for April, 1937, are given
below, with comparative figures for March, 1937, and April,
1936. The monthly wholesale liquid milk price was is. ^d.
per gal., a reduction of id. per gal. on that for the previous
month, and the same as in April, 1936,
Region Pool Prices Producer -Retailers*
Contributions
Apr.
Mar.
Apr.
Apr,
Mar,
Apr,
1937
^937
1930
1937
1937
i 93 <>
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern
J 2 i
J 3 i
Hi
3 i
4
North-Western
I2J
I 3 i
111
3 i
4
Eastern
12 iV
14
iii
2 «
3 ii
East Midland . .
M
Hi
3 i
2 #
4
West Midland . .
12 i
i 3 i
Hi
3*
3 iV
4 A
North Wales . .
I 2 i
i 3 i
III
3 i^
3 At
4*
South Wales . .
I 2 i
i 3 i
111
3 l
2 i
4
Southern
I2I
Mi
iij
2 «
2 i
3 «
Mid-Western . .
12
Mi
111
3 l
3 A
4 *
Far-Western . .
12
Mi
111
3 l
3 A
4 *
South-Eastern . .
13
Mi
14
2 i
2 A
3 *
Unweighted Average . .
12-45
M-82
11-52
3 -i 6
2-82
398
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited
Producers' premium of id. per gal. The sum required for
the payment of the latter premium was equivalent to a levy
of •348</. per gal. on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at 2d. per
gal. , compared with 2 \d. per gal. in April, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
April, 1937
{estimated)
April, 1936
Gal,
Gal.
Liquid . .
• 47*7641718
45 * 435 * 4*9
Manufacturing
• 25,043,243
31*593*504
72,807,961
77,028,923
Percentage liquid sales
65-60
58-98
Percentage manufacturing sales
34.40
41*02
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
April was 5-29^. per gal. compared with 4-95<^. per gal. for
April, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into cheese
261
Marketing Notes
on farms was 1,323449 gal. compared with 547,080 gal. in the
previous month and 1,342,723 gal. in April, 1936.
Hops Marketing Scheme. The Annual General Meeting
of registered producers was held on Ma,y 7, and the four
retiring special members of the Board were re-elected for a
further year.
Total consignments to the Board, of 1936 hops, amounted
to 229,030 cwt., of which 215,167 cwt. were sold up to March
3r, 1937. As sales are less by nearly 10,000 cwt. than the
estimated demand of 225,000 cwt., the call on the levy fund,^
to make up an average price of £q per cwt. on the estimated
demand, will be approximately ;£83,ooo. It has been agreed
that the cost of storing the unsold hops shall be borne by the
levy fund up to October 31, 1937. Advances representing 96
per cent, of the valuation of quota hops have already been
made to producers, and a final payment of 4 jxir cent, will
be made on settlement of the claim against the levy fund.
Potato Marketing Scheme. Sale of “ Seconds.” During
the period November i, 1936, to April 30, 1937, permits for
the sale of “ Seconds ” — potatoes which pass through a
riddle of in. but stand on a riddle of in. — have been
issued by the Potato Marketing Board for a total quantity
of approximately 23,000 tons.
Consumers’ Committees. Miss D. S. Tomkinson, O.B.E.,
M.A., J.P., who has been appointed a member of the Food
Council, has also tx-en ap^winted a member of the Consumers’
Committees for Great Britain and for England.
Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936: Manufacturing Milk. No
advances have been made by the Ministry in respect of
manufacturing milk since April 15, 1937: there is therefore
no alteration in th(' figures given in last month’s issue of this
Journal.
Milk-in-Schools Scheme. No further claims have been paid
between April 15 and May 15. 1937, in respect of milk
supplied to school children at reduced rates. The figures
shown last month also remain unaltered.
Cheese-Milk Price. For the purpose of payments under
the Milk Acts (whether by the Exchequer to Milk Marketing
Boards or by Boards to the Exchequer) in respect of milk
used for manufacture, the cheese-milk price has been certified
by the Minister and the Secretary of State for Scotland to
262
Marketing Notes
be 592 pence per lb. for the month of May, 1937. No
advances are, therefore, payable in respect of milk manu-
factured in Great Britain during May.
Nutrition Survey. A summary of the first report presented
to the Milk Nutrition Committee will be found on page 201 of
this issue of the Journal.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-Grown Wheat, Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commis-
sion by registered growers during the period August l, 1936, to
April 30, 1937, cover sales of 19,114,638 cwt. of millable wheat
as compared with 28,851,559 cwt. in the corresponding period
(to May I,) in the last cereal year.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Results of
the 1936-37 Campaign in Great Britain. A comparative
smnmary of the beet sugar manufacturing campaigns 1935-36
and 1936-37 is given below.
Total acreage under sugar beet
Less acreage grown lor seed
'lotal net acreage grown under contract for
delivery to factories («) • •
Tonnage of beet delivered to factories
Average yield of beet per acre (tons)
Average sugar content of beet (per cent ) . .
Average farm output of sucrose per acre of
beet (lb.)
Average price paid jier ton of beet delivered
to factories
d otal sum, including co.st of transport paid
by factories to growers . .
Number of beet growers
Av'erage acreage per grower
Number of factories . .
Average number of days w orked at factories
Average number of w orkers employed in the
factories during the campaign . .
Production of sugar :
(i) of all polarizations (tons)
(ii) in white equivalent (tons) . .
Average extraction of sugar expressed as a
percentage of the beet delivered to
factories
(i) all polarizations
pi) white equivalent . .
Average factory output of manufactured
sugar per acre of beet :
(i) all polarizations (lb.)
(ii) white cquiv^alent (lb.)
3.55.421
374.753
5 IJ
6 ot>
334>9io 374.H7
3,448,008
3, 403, 984
<>•7
9-1
* 7*3
16 *4
3 . 7 b 5
3.342
yfs . i )(/.
38s. TO(f.
/b, 853, 000
{,0,609,000
40.303
44.S19
8-8
8-3
tS
j8
^>7
98
o.boo
0.500
537 . 3 bb
4^7.325
521,044
17 *. 704
15*6
U*3
AST
*3*9
3.392
2,918
3>294
2,824
263
Marketing Notes
Average extractions of sugar expressed as a
percentage of the total sucrose in the beet:
t 9 J 5 ~jO.
(i) all polarizations
00 • I
87-1
(ii) white equivalent . .
Production of by-products :
« 7'5
84'5
Molasses (tons)
1 10,641
123.786
Pulp ; Dry (tons) . .
-578, 57 «
276,739
Wet (tons) . .
Average extraction of molasses expressed as
a percentage of the beet delivered to
83.967
116,324
factories
Direct lixchequer assistance paid on sugar
3-2
3-6
produced . .
li,S76,on)
£2,623,467(6)
(а) Calculations made in relation to acreage are on a net acreage basis;
(б) Includes ;t404,955 for capital services under the terms of Section ih
of the Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1036 {£2^0,000 depreciation
and 64,955 interest charges).
Livestock Industry Bill. This Bill, the passage of which
through Standing Committee was completed on April 13, was
re-committed on May 3 to a Committee of the whole House
of Commons in respect of amendments to certain clauses,
following which Report Stage was taken and, on May 4, the
Bill received a Third Reading. The Bill is now before the
House of Lords.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of
payments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936.
Average
Payments Animals payment |>er
Animal
April, 1935 . .
April, 1936
April, 1937 • •
£ ' £ s. d.
276,593 115..545 1 2 7 loj
316.021 133.837 2 7 2i
356,540 ' 150,108 276
•Sept. I, 1934 to
April 30, 1937
, !
1
10,236,594 4>3J7.95^ ! ^75
* Commencement of .subsidy payments.
National Mark Honey. When the National Mark Honey
Scheme was introduced, standard glass jars of a particular
design registered in the Minister's name were prescribed for
the packing of National Mark honey. The possibility of intro-
ducing an improved design was recently considered by the
National Mark Honey Trade Committee at a meeting ihat
264
Marketing Notes
was attended by representatives of the Glass Manufacturers’
Federation and by other interested parties who were invited
to express their views on this point. After consideration of
those views, the Trade Committee recommended the adoption
of certain modifications suggested by the Glass Manufacturers’
Federation. Specimens of the proposed new jars, with
different types of neck and fitted with caps of various depths,
will be submitted by the Federation in due course for the
consideration of the Trade Committee.
When the new standard jars are approved by the Ministry
they will supersede the present jars, but a transitional period
will be allowed during which existing stocks of the latter may
be used.
National Mark Wheat Flour Scheme: Substitution of
Wheatmeal " Grade for “ Wholemeal " Grade. On the
recommendation of the National Mark Wheat Flour Trade
Committee, the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries has given
notice of his intention to amend the Agricultural Produce
(Grading and Marking) (\^’heat Flour) Regulations, 1933.
The Draft of the Amending Regulations — the Draft Agricul-
tural Produce (Grading and Marking) (Wheat Flour and
Wheat Flakes) Regulations, 1037 — will shortly be placed on
sale by H.M. Stationery Office.
The amending regulations, besides providing for the
substitution of the grade designation All-English (Wheatmeal)
or National Mark Wholemeal in place of All-English (Whole-
meal) or National Mark Wheatmeal, also include the following
requirements in the definition of quality with respect to
wheatmeal : —
(1) The meal shall comprise at least 90 per cent, of the ground products
of the wheat. No bran may be added thereto or flour extracted
therefrom.
(2) The ash content shall exceed i per cent., but shall not exceed
1 • 7 per cent, of the total weight of the meal calculated on the
bavSis of 15 per cent, moisture content, and, on this same basis,
the fibre content shall exceed i per cent, but shall not exceed
2 per cent.
The opportunity has been taken of incorporating in the
Draft Regulations the provisions of the Agricultural Produce
(Grading and Marking) (Wheat Flour) (Amendment) Regula-
tions, 1935, which prescribe a grade designation and a
definition of quality for wheat flakes.
' C 265
Marketing Notes
National Mark Dressed Ponltry. Reports on market and
other inspections made during the past twelve months indicate
that the National Mark Dressed Poultry Scheme is having a
greater influence on poultry marketing than is indicated by
the actual numbers of birds that were packed under National
Mark labels. The methods of packing and marketing, which
the Scheme sets out to encourage, are apparently being widely
adopted by progressive producers and packers throughout the
country.
An interesting innovation is beginning to take shape in
regard to the type of non-returnable containers used for the
packing of supplies, and the half-dozen unit is becoming
more popular. Fibre-board cases are being used and arc
proving satisfactory and economical. There is, however,
still room for improvement both in design and durability.
Arrangements have been made for the continuance, at a
number of shows during the coming season, of competitive
classes for market packs of table poultry. The inauguration
of these classes has proved to be of considerable educational
value, and as a result, technique has steadily improved both
as regards production and presentation.
Marketing Demonstrations. Particulars of exhibits and
demonstrations to be staged by the Ministry during June and
early July are as follow: —
Show
Royal Counties, Reading . .
June 2-5.
Suffolk County, Beccles
June 3-4
Three Counties, Hereford . .
June 8-10.
Essex County, Maldon.
June 9-10.
Lincoln County, Spalding . .
June 16-18.
Northampton County. Kettering
June 23-24.
Aldershot
July 1-3.
Royal, Wolverhampton
July 6-10.
Demonstratiofi
Tomato grading demonstration.
Honey and dairy produce exhibits.
Apple grading, egg testing, and live-
stock demonstrations. Egg, table
poultry, honey and vegetable
exhibits.
Egg testing and fruit grading demon-
strations. Fruit, egg, table poultry
and honey exhibits.
Tomato grading demonstration
Table poultry exhibit.
Egg testing and grading, and live-
stock demonstrations. Egg and
vegetable exhibits.
Egg testing and fruit grading demon-
strations. Tabic poultry^ and egg
exhibits.
Egg grading demonstration. National
Mark exhibit.
Egg testing, fruit jading and live-
stock demonstrations. Fruit, dairy
produce, egg and honey exhibits.
266
ACCOMMODATION OF PICKERS OF HOPS, FRUIT
AND VEGETABLES
Following consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries and with representatives of Local Authorities and of
agricultural interests, the Ministry of Health has prepared for
the guidance of local authorities, a revised model series of
Byelaws relating to the lodging and accommodation of persons
engaged in the picking of hops, fruit and vegetables. The
revised model series, a copy of which is appended below, is
based on the existing model which, however, has been recast
in more convenient form. The following additional require-
ments have been incorporated in the revised model series : —
(a) The floor of a new lodging must be constructed of some impervious
material : clause 2 (li) ,
(b) A new lodging, while it is occupied, must be maintained free from
any obstruction from behind so near as to interfere with the access
of air and light : clause 2 (iv) ,
(6') At least fourteen days’ witten notice (instead of three days) of
the intention to use a lodging in any year after the year in which
It was erected must be given to the local authority : clause 3 (i) ;
(d) Where a building has been used for animals, it must not be used as
a lodging until at least ten days have elapsed since their removal
therefrom, and the building has been properly cleansed and lime-
washed or treated with some other suitable form of disinfectant :
clause 3 (iv) ;
[e) The person providing a lodging must secure that when a person
sleeps upon the ground floor there shall be a space of not less than
three inches between the ground and the bed upon which that
person sleeps unless the floor is made of impervious material :
clause 3 (vii) ;
(/) Suitable and sufficient receptacles for refuse must be provided and
maintained in good repair and in a clean and wholesome condition •
clause 3 (viii) ,
(g) At least tiventy square feet (instead of eighteen square feet) oi
available floor space must be allowed in respect of each person for
sleeping.
Two children under ten (instead of twelve) years ot agt‘ are tu be
counted for this pur|)ose as one person.
“Adult person” is defined to mean a person exceeding the
age of ten (instead of twelve) years : clause 3 (x) ,
(/i) The accommodation for the cooking of food and the drying of
clothes and other articles must include accommodation for the
dr^dng of bedding. The accommodation must consist of a properly
constructed fire grate, or of fire place accommodation measuring
laterally not less than four feet for every sixteen persons (i.e. pot-
rail system) : clause 3 (xii) ;
{%) A supply of water must be situated not more than one Imndred and
fifty yards from the lodging : clause 3 (xiii) ;
267
Accommodation of Pickers of Hops, Etc.
(j) Sanitary accommodation must provide individual privacy lor
women, afford protection from the weather, and be maintained in a
clean and inoffensive condition. The accommodation for men must
be separated from that for women and children by at least twenty-
five feet or have separate entrances invisible the one from the other :
clause 3 (xiv) ;
(k) Any part of a lodging which is above the ground floor and intended
for sleeping must be provided with adequate access from and to
the level of the ground by an external stairway or stairways :
clause 3 (xv) [a).
The Ministry of Health has sent copies of the revised model
series of Byelaws to the Local Authorities of those districts
where it is known that imported labour is used for the picking
of hops and has asked them to give it their early consideration,
and, if they propose to make new byelaws, to take early steps
to see that they come into force before this year’s hop-picking
season commences. It is also understood that the Department
is preparing a booklet for circulation by Local Authorities to
growers, for their guidance in meeting the requirements of the
new byelaws.
Model Byelaws- relating to the lodging and accommodation of hop-
pickers and pickers of fruit and vegetables.
Draft form as revised In May, 1937.
Byelaws made by tlie^
for securing the decent lodging and accommodation of persons engaged
m hnp-pickmg or m tiie picking of Irint and vegetables in*
1 la these byelaws " the Council means the*
* Insert “ iMayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the Borough of
, acting l>y the Council ", " Urban [or Rural]
District C'oiincil ol as the case may he,
“ Insert " the Borough ol or " the Urban [or
Rural] District ol \ or, if the byelaws are to apply
to part only of a rinnl district, "that portion ol the Rural District of
which comprises the contributory places of
", as the case may be.
Erection of New Lodgings.
2 . Any person who erects a new lodging not intended to be ordinarily
occupied for human habitation for persons engaged in hop-picking or in
the picking of fruit and vegetables shall comply with the following rules : —
(i) He shall, before commencing to erect a new lodging, give to the
Council at least twenty -eight days* written notice of his intention so to
erect it.
(ii) He shall cause the ground floor to be constructed of some
impervious material.
268
Acxx)mmodation of Pickers of Hops, Etc.
(ili) He shall provide and, while the lodging is occupied, maintain
in front of it (or, where lodgings form a block, in front of each such
block) an open space free from any erection and exclusively belonging
to or used with the lodging or block which shall extend —
(а) to a distance of fifteen feet if lodgings or blocks are not erected
face to face,
(б) to a distance of twenty feet between lodgings or blocks erected
face to face.
(iv) He shall so place it that there is not behind it any obstruction
so near as to interfere with the access of air and light, and \vhile it is
occupied he shall maintain it free from any such obstruction.
General Provisions
3. Any per.son who provides any lodging not ordinarily occupied for
human habitation for persons engaged in hop-picking or in the picking
of fruit and vegetables shall comply with the following rules : —
(i) ^Hc shall before the lodging is used in any yeiir after the year in
which it was erected, give to the Council at least fourteen days' written
notice of his intention so to use it.
* In the case of lodgings provided for persons engaged in the picking of
fruit the local authority will no doubt consider whether the period should not
be reduced to seven days.
(li) He shall not permit the lodging to be used unless its site is
reasonably free from damp and the lodging is clean, dry and w'eather-
proof and shall cau.se the lodging to be cleansed immediately before
each occasion on which it shall be occupied.
(ill) He shall cause the lodging to he provided with proper and
sullicient means of ventilation and lighting by natural light.
(iv) If the building has been used for animals he shall not permit it
to be used as a lodging until an interval of at least ten days has elapsed
since their removal therefrom, and the building has been properly
cleansed and lime-washed or treated with .some other suitable form of
disinfectant.
(v) He shall cause every part of the interior of the lodging, and of
any cooking-hijuse, privy, or other premises in connection therewith,
to be thoroughly cleansed immediately before the lodging is u.sed in
any one year.
lie shall cause the walls and ceilings of every room to be well and
sufliciently lime-washed or treated with .some other suitable form of
disinfectant once in every year not more than two months before
occupation.
(vi) He shall provide for every person received into the lodging a
sufficient supply of clean, dry, and suitable bedding, wdnch if it be straw
or other similar bedding shall not have been previously used, and shall
renews it from time to time as may be reasonably neces.sary.
(vii) He shall .secure that when a person sleeps upon the ground
floor there shall be a space of not less than three inches betw^een the
ground and the beil upon which that person sleeps unless the floor is
made of impervious material.
(viii) He shall provide for the persons received into the lodging or
block of lodgings, suitable and sufficient receptacles for refu.se at a rate
of not lcs.s than one for each sixteen persons and shall maintain the
same in good repair and in a clean and wholesome condition.
(ix) He shall cause all accumulations or deposits of refu.se filth or
any offensive or noxious matter to be removed daily from the lodging
and from the land surrounding or adjoining it of which he is the occupier.
c* 269
Accommodation of Pickers of Hops, Etc.
(x) ^He shall not cause to be received into the lodging or into any
room therein at any one time for sleeping a greater number of persons
than will allow twenty square feet at the least of available floor space in
respect of each person.
^ It is suggested in connection with this byelaw that Local Authorities should
print placards with spaces left blank for the figures. These placards could
be given to the farmers with a suggestion that, to prevent contraventions of the
byelaws and in their own interest, they should put them up in the huts.
For the purpose of this rule two children under ten years of age shall
be counted as one person.
(xi) He shall
(а) cause every room or part of the lodging which may be intended
to be used for sleeping by adult persons of different sexes
to be divided into compartments in such a manner that
every compartment shall be separated from every other
compartment by a screen or partition of such material,
construction, and height as to secure privacy to the occupant
or occupants of the compartment when so used ;
(б) not cause any compartment to be appropriated for the use of
adult persons of different sexes.
Provided that this rule shall not be deemed to prohibit the appro-
priation of a compartment for the exclusive use of a single family
comprising the following persons or any of them, that is to say, a husband
and his wife and their children not exceeding the age of fourteen years.
For the purpose of this rule ** adult person means a person exceeding
the age of ten years,
(xii) He shall provide, in a safe and suitable position in or in con-
nection with or adjacent to each lodging or block of lodgings, a
suitable cooking-house or other place, properly covered and sheltered
from the weather, in which fires may be safely and readily lighted and
food may be properly cooked and clothes, bedding and other articles
may be properly dried.
He shall cause the cooking-house or place to be so constructed and,
while the lodging or block of lodgings is occupied, so maintained that
for every sixteen persons received in the lodging or block of lodgings
there is separate accommodation for the cooking of food and the drying
of clothes, bedding and other articles, and such separate accommodation
shall consist either of a properly constructed fire-grate or of fire-place
accommodation measuring laterally not less than four feet.
For the purpose of this rule, any number of persons in excess of
sixteen or a multiple of that number shall be deemed to be sixteen.
(xiii) He shall (where it is not otherwise readily available) provide in
or upon or in connection with the lodging, or in some suitable place
readily accessible therefrom, such a supply of good and wholesome
water as will at all times suf&ce for the reasonable requirements, whether
for drinking, cooking, or washing, of the several persons received into
the lodging.
For the purpose of this rule a supply of water shall not be deemed
to be readily available or accessible if it is situated at a greater distance
than one hundred and fifty yards from the lodging.
(xiv) He shall provide, in a suitable and convenient position in
connection with every lodging or with every group of lodgings, water-
closets, earthclosets or privies, properly constructed (and, in the case
of earthclosets and privies, of su£&cient depth) for the separate use of
each sex, and at a rate of not less than one for every twenty persons,
270
Accommodation of Pickers of Hops, Etc.
The waterclosets, earthclosets, or privies shall
(а) provide individual privacy for women,
(б) afford protection from the weather,
(c) be maintained in a clean and inoffensive condition, and
(d) be marked MEN and WOMEN AND CHILDREN respectively,
and those marked MEN shall be separated by at least twenty-
five feet from those marked WOMEN AND CHILDREN, or
have separate entrances invisible the one from the other.
He shall cause the contents of earthclosets and privies to be covered
once each day with dry earth or other suitable absorbent material and
removed when necessary. He shall cause the contents of movable
receptacles used for such purposes to be removed daily.
(xv) He shall, where any part of the lodging which is above the
ground floor may be intended to be used for sleeping —
{a) cause that part to be provided with adequate access from and to
the level of the ground by an external stairway^ or stairways ;
(h) cause to be provided in connexion with any such part which
may be used by more than ^persons, at least
^ " stairway ” is used here to describe a meam of access with flat treads,
i.e. something more than a ladder with rungs. The ivord does not imply
what is known in building as a** staircase
^'"fifteen has been suggested here, but, if the Local Authority consider
this too high, the Minister will agree to ** ten " or some intermediate figure.
two means of access extending to the level of the ground, one
at least of which shall be approached by a door opening out-
wards from within on to a proper landing ;
{c) cause all means of access (including any stairs and landings) to
be substantially constructed
Penalties
4. Every person who shall offend against any of the foregoing byelaws
shall be liable on summary conviction to a tine not exceeding five pounds,
and in the case of a continuing offence to a further fine not exceeding
forty shilllings for each day during which the offence continues after
conviction therefor.
Repeal of Byelaws.^
^ If there are no byelaws in force, this should be stated and the clause struck
out.
5. The byelaws for securing the decent lodging and accommodation of
persons engaged in hop-picking, or in the picking of fruit and vegetables,
which were made by the on the
day of and were confirmed by the [Local Govern-
ment Board] [Minister of Health] on the day
are hereby repealed.
271
JUNE ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College, Newcaslle-itpon-Tyne.
The present month is one driring which some indication
of the abundance of the harvest and winter keep is usually
obtained. It is perhaps the month during which, in normal
seasons, the greatest growth takes place.
As far as cereal crops are concerned it may be that cleaning,
rolling and all cultural operations are finished, but much may
be learnt from frequent and careful observation of the crop
during the month. Lime and other plant food deficiencies
are often revealed in unevenness of growth, lack of vigour
and reaction to adverse weather conditions. Faulty drainage
is usually evidenced in the crop. While it may be too late
to do anything for the present season, the information should
be duly noted and acted on at the most suitable time.
In the April notes reference was made to the value of
mechanization in helping forward cultivation w'ork, especially
in a late spring. The prices realized at recent farm sales for
tractors and farm horses with the necessary equipment
indicate how the law of supply and demand very quickly
affects prices. The concentration oi a large amount of spring
work in a short rush period has put prices to a high level.
At one farm sale in the north of England during May a tractor
eighteen months old realized over lo per cent, more than
present new price, while horses suitable for farm work have
been in ver>' keen demand.
Pasture. The adjustment of the stocking to the particular
grazing areas is one of the important questions to be decided
by the farmer. Numbers, periods of stocking and intensity
of grazing are all factors involved. In this month the farmer
should be able to foim a fairly accurate judgment as to
whether his fields are adequately stocked. The saying
“ What is grown in May should be eaten in May,” indicates
amongst other things that grass should not be allowed to
run to stem. Recent knowledge has confirmed the desirability
of keeping grass leafy as long as p>ossible and efficient grazing
stimulates the tillering properties of pasture plants. At the
same time overgrazing at this time of the year may be
definitely harmful, and greatly increase the risk of considerable
272
June on the Farm
difficulty should drought ensue in mid-season. This is
especially the problem of the south country grazier.
The tendency on many farms to overstock with sheep is
not only harmful from the point of view of the health of the
sheep, but also tends to reduce the productivity of the pasture.
Sheep alone are not good grazing stock, particularly on
permanent pasture, as they have powers of discrimination in
grazing and take out the finer bottom leaves, leaving the
flowering stems to produce flowers and seed. The result
of a pasture plant being allowed to produce seed is that the
plant is reduced in vitality and production is not so great in
the following year. Sufficient cattle stock to keep the pasture
plants from ninning to seed should be aimed at.
Cake Feeding on Grass. The advisability of feeding cake
on grass land is frequently under discussion. The results of
cake feeding on grass land at Cockle Park on both Tree Field
and Hanging Leaves fields indicates that cake feeding is not
an economic means of improving grass land. The returns
from dressings of basic slag have given much more economic
live-weight gains in both cattle and sheep. It should be
borne in mind that the Cockle Park experiments were designed
to test the value of cake feeding as a means of improving
grass land. The cattle used in the experiments have always
been young growing animals.
Where the object of cake feeding is beef j>roduction the
feeding of concentrates in addition to pasture may be quite
profitable. The results of trials carried out at Auchincruive
and reported by Principal Paterson indicate that a very
satisfactory return may be obtained from judicious cake
feeding — in fact, the cake feeding gave more economic returns
than manuring. The cattle were better finished and
commanded a higher price per cwt. In reporting on this
experiment Principal Paterson states that " As compared with
the improvement effected by manuring, the feeding of concen-
trates contributes to more rapid as well as to more economic
beef production.”
As with most other questions in farming, it is difficult to
generalize, each farm or district having to be considered in
the light of its own particular circumstances and its particular
grazing conditions. The now famous East Northumberland
grass feeding areas are practically entirely maintained by the
use of phosphates, and cake feeding is not the general rule.
273
June on the Farm
The indications from the Cockle Park results are that, under
certain conditions, a better balance between expenditure on
cake and that on fertilizers would lead to better returns.
Hay Making. There can be no doubt that good hay is the
basis of successful winter feeding with most classes of farm
stock. Soil, climate, manuring and management all play an
important part in determining quality. Management and
weather conditions are the factors that may be considered
here. Time of cutting is an important factor as affecting
quality. It has been stated that there is as much food value
in the plant just before it comes into flower as at any stage of
its growth, and as maturity proceeds the food value deterior-
ates. The practical difficulty of “ winning ” or making into
hay immature grass or clover is well known. Air cannot get
through the cut swath; it takes longer to make; and, as a nile,
the product is not so palatable. On the other hand, if cutting
is delayed until the plants have become too mature there is
loss due to seed falling out and the stems have become
woody and less digestible. Very late-mown hay in .some
instances corresponds to a partially threshed corn crop. Two
advantages are obtained from cutting the crop before it
reaches an over-mature stage: (i) the hay produced is of
better feeding value, and (2) the plants retain vigour and give
a more abundant aftermath. In permanent meadows it will
be found that early cutting results in more vigorous growth
in the following spring.
It might be noted that with newly-laid-down permanent or
temporary grass land it is particularly important that cutting
should be done early when a hay crop is taken in the first
year as it greatly helps in the grasses and clovers becoming
established.
Weather is a determining factor. No matter how good a
hay crop may be, its value can be greatly reduced by an
unfavourable harvest. In this connexion there are now
many implements and appliances that greatly help the farmer
to make the most use of any favourable spells of weather w'hen
they occur.
Sheep. During June the chief operation with the sheep
flock is the clipping of the ewes and young sheep on lowland
farms. Before clipping there is constant need for shepherding
on account of the risk of ewes getting on their backs. With
flie advent of warmer weather the enemies of the sheep
274
June on the Farm
become active and great care needs to be exercised in order
to keep sheep clean and free from dirt, which encourages
the attack of the sheep maggot. Observations in Australia
have shown that dirty sheep are more prone to attack than
clean sheep. At the first suggestion of trouble by the appear-
ance of maggots, dipping should be carried out — ^prevention
is always better than cure. All shepherds know how very
quickly an animal becomes badly mutilated if a maggoted
sheep is overlooked.
It is of interest to note that in different parts of the country
the ravages of stomach worms in sheep vary in seasonal
activity. For example, in the south-west the chief trouble
from parasitic disease is noted mainly in the autumn months,
and in these counties very heavy losses have been recorded
during the last few years.
In many northern counties, however, the menace of
internal parasites is evident very much earlier, and farmers
commonly adopt preventive measures some time in June.
The symptoms of worm infestation are that some of the
lambs cease to thrive, and diarrhoea may or may not appear.
Where diarrhoea does occur some lambs become very weak
and the worst may actually die before the trouble is diagnosed.
In other instances, where no diarrhoea occurs, the unthriftiness
is accompanied by dryness of the skin, and it is important
for the farmer to realize that the trouble is parasitic, even in
the absence of other apparent symptoms like diarrhoea.
In all probability the varying symptoms are produced by
the presence of different species of worm parasites. Where
parasitic troubles are suspected it is best to obtain the advice
of a veterinary surgeon. An accurate diagnosis may be made
by examining the faeces, or more simply by opening a dead
lamb. The recognized treatment is to use a solution of copper
sulphate, and excellent results have been obtained in the
Northern Province from the use of nicotine mixture. What-
ever method of treatment is adopted it is wise to be guided by
the veterinarian.
Root Crops. The singling of root crops will occupy a good
deal of time during this month. This operation is still mainly
carried out by hand labour and is therefore costly. Too much
emphasis cannot be laid on the importance of careful and
efficient work. Trials with sugar-beet have demonstrated in
a striking manner the difference in results between good and
275
June on the Farm
indifferent singling. The difficulty of obtaining a plant, owing
to “fly" and other troubles, makes the root crop a speculative
one. It is therefore most desirable not to lose an5dhing by
carelessness in singling.
Root crops are usually regarded as cleaning crops, but it
should always be borne in mind that they only facilitate
cleaning operations. The weeds have to be got rid of if the
land is to be cleaner as a result, and horse and hand hoeing
should be well and efficiently carried out. With hand hoeing
particularly, there is need for efficiency. How often can the
differences in the work of individual workers be seen in the
growing crop later in the season !
The after-cultivation of the potato crop may exercise a
marked influence upon the development of the crop.
Frequent and thorough drill cultivation as time and weather
permit will usually repay the farmer. The drill cxiltivation
should not only take into consideration the control of weeds
but also the promotion of favourable soil conditions for the
crop. It is desirable that drill cultivation should be carried
out in the early stages of growth, as when the plants become
well grown there is danger of damage of the young roots
with a resultant check. It is always well to bear in mind
that cultivations may have an adverse effect on the soil
if they are not carried out under favourabk' conditions.
An examination of the crop will reveal the vigour and
purity of stock. Growers should be prepared to discard weak
or impure stocks. Lack of vigour or evidence of disease
should guide the grower as to whether a stock should be saved
for another year. During the month application should be
sent in to the Ministry of Agriculture for the inspection of
growing crops for purity. Official certificates are issued to
those growers whose crops fulfil the conditions of inspection,
and such certificates are a useful guarantee, helpful to both
purchaser and seller alike.
276
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Average prices per ton (2,240 Ib.]
during week ended May 5.
Description.
!
Costs
Bristol
Hull
1 L’pool
London
per
UnitH
£
5 .
1
5
£
5.
£
5 .
5 .
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 15^%)
7
12c
7
lie
: 7
12 C
7
I2C
9
10
,, ,, Granulated (N. 16%)
7
12c
7
12c
7
lie
7
12c
9
6
Nitrate of Lime (N. 13%)
7
oc
7
OC
7
OC
7
OC
10
9
Nitro-Chalk (N. 15!%) . .
Sulphate of Ammonia ; — f
7
7
7
7
5 C
9
4
Neutral (N. 20*6%) . . . .
7
5 C
7
7
50
7
5 ^
7
0
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20-6%) }
7
7
Sfl
7
5 d
7
5 d
7
0
Kainite (Pot 14%) . . . . v
2
18
2
15
i 2
15
2
15
3
II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5
0
4
17
4
15
4
17
3
3
,. ,. (Pot 20%)
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8
3
8
I
7
17
8
I
3
3
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48*^0)
9
15
9
13
; 9
9
9
13
4
0
Basic Slag (P A. 15!%)
2
12b
2
5^
2
106
3
2
„ (P.A. 14 %).. .. S
2
86
2
ob
2
*06
2
66
3
3
Cird Rock Phosphate (P A 26-
1
27 i%)
2
12a
2
loa
2
5 «
I
8
Superphosphate (S P.A. 16%) . .
3
4
1
' 3
3<5
3
of
3
9
(S.P.A I 3 J%)..
3
I
» 2
17
' 2
2
16/
4
I
Bone Meal (N. 3!%, P.A. 20 J%)
Steamed Bone Flour (N j%.
' 6
!
10
7
5S
7
0
I’.A. 27 i%- 29 i%) ..
1 5
5h
i 5
10
5
og
5
0
Abbreviations : N. —Nitrogen ; P.A —Phosphoric Acid :
S P.A. = Soluble Pho.sphonc Acid , Pot.— Potash.
* Prices are for not less than 6- ton lots, at purchaser's nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values arc calculated on carriage-paid prices.
S Prices are for not less than 2 -ton lots, net cash for prompt delivery f o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a I'rices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverj>ool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is 15 per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 105. per ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton, 155. extra, and
for lots of less than 10 cwt. but not less than 2 cwt., 205. extra.
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails 15. 3<f. ^xtra.
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
% These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 “ units ** (equal parts
of 22*4 lb ) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen contains
t6 such “ units ’* in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a ** unit " of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,” obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
277
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Principal, Harper Adams Agricultural College.
The Assessment of Productivity of Grassland. It has
long been recognized that the weight of produce obtainable
from an area of grassland is not a reliable measure of its
productive capacity, since the nutritive value of the produce
may vary between wide limits. Even when supplemented
by determinations of chemical composition and digestibility
a considerable element of uncertainty still remains, since the
nutritive efficiency of the digestible matter can only be roughly
assessed unless elaborate metabolism experiments can be
carried out.
This patent weakness of analytical methods to furnish the
desired information has led grassland investigators to
attempt direct measurement by way of liveweight increase,
milk production, etc., recorded by stock grazed on the area.
The classic example of this method is furnished by the Cockle
Park experiments in whch the effects of different manurings
were assessed by comparisons of the liveweight gains recorded
by grazing stock, and it has been followed by others here
and elsewhere. Apart from the obvious difficulties of closely
adjusting the density of stocking to the variable amount of
grazing available, the method suffers from the serious defects
that liveweights are difficult to measure accurately, and the
nature of the liveweight increase tends to vary as the animal
grows, so that liveweight alone is an unreliable measure of
nutritive effect. In the young animal the liveweight increase
put on is much richer in water and protein, and poorer in
fat, and therefore less concentrated in energy, than the
material deposited in the body at later stages when the animal
is approaching maturity. One and the same food supply, if
equally suitable for both classes of animals, may ffius be
expected to give a greater liveweight increase with young
animals than with older animals.
A similar, though smaller, variation in the nature of ffie
liveweight increase may also arise, especially in the young
animal, through variations in the protein content of the
fodder.
The difficulties occasioned by these factors are not peculiar
278
Notes on Feeding
to grassland feeding experiments, but apply to all feeding
experiments with growing animals in which results are
assessed in terms of liveweight increase. The problem
received much attention from the late Professor Wood, whose
conclusions with cattle, sheep and pigs are embodied in his
feeding standards. In its application to grassland studies
it came under discussion at the third International Grass Land
Congress held at Zurich in 1934, and inspired the late Professor
Wiegner to an attempt to devise a more satisfactory basis
for the interpretation of the results of feeding experiments,
the results of which for growing cattle were published shortly
after his death last year.
In arriving at the method set out in his paper he started
out by examining the question as to how much energy
(expressed as “ starch equivalent ”) is required to produce
in the bodies of growing cattle one kilogram of body protein
and of body tat respectively, and arrived at the conclusion
that each kg. of fat stored in the body requires 4 kg. of starch
equivalent in the food, whilst each kg. of protein stored in
the body requires 1-36 kg. of starch equivalent in the food (in
the form of protein).
If, then, wc know how much fat and protein respectively
are present in the liveweight increase put on by the animal
at each particular stage of growth we can calculate the
amount of production food (expressed as starch equivalent)
that must have been consumed to produce this increase.
When to this is added the maintenance requirement we arrive
at an estimate of the total food consumption.
For guidance as to the body composition of young cattle
at different liveweights Wiegner devised an equation based
upon the American data from Haecker’s experiments, which
led to the results summarized, with slight approximations, in
the following table (i kg. =2 2 lb.) : —
Total Weight
Total Weight
Total Production of
Liveweight
of Fat
of Protein
Food (expressed as
in Body
in Body
Starch equivalent)
stored in Body
- m
kg. ^
(lb.)
.50
(no) ..
2-0
lo- 1
21-8
(48)
100
(220) ..
7-2
19-4
55-0
(121)
200
(440) ..
^ 5*4
37*3
152-3
(335)
300
(660) ..
53*3
54-6
287-5
(633)
400
(880) ..
90*2
71-7
458-1
(1,008)
500
(1,100) ..
135-6
88-4
662-5
(1,458)
600
(1,320) ..
189-2
105-0
899-4
( 1 , 979 )
700
(1,540)
.. 250-7
T 2 I -4
I 167-6
(2,569)
279
Notes on Feeding
From the weights of fat it is clear that in the earliest stages,
up to about 500 kg. , the animals from which these data were
derived were growing with only a moderate degree of fattening.
The data in the last column are arrived at by multipl5dng
the weights of body-fat by 4 0, and those of body-protein by
1-36 (see above), and adding the two products together.
They represent, in terms of " production starch equivalent,”
the estimated amounts of “ production food ” (i.e. food over
and above maintenance requirement) that must have been
consumed in order to produce the amounts of fat and protein
present in the animal’s body at each liveweight.
From these data it is simple to calculate the average amounts
of starch equivalent required for each i kg. (or i lb.) of live-
weight increase put on in the separate 100 kg. (or 220 lb.)
intervals of liveweight, which work out as follows: —
Liveweight
>>g-
under loo
100-200
200-300
300-400
400-500
500-600
600-700
Kg Starch Equivalent
required as Production
Pood for I kg.
Liveweight Increase
0*66
0- ()7
1- 36
1- 71
2- 04
^•37
2-68
These results are appreciably lower than the ‘ ' standards ’ ’
drawn up by Kellner, Armsby and others, but this is to be
expected, since the method used in arriving at them must
tend to give minimum figures that could only be attained in
practice under the most favourable conditions of nutrition.
They must certainly be raised somewhat for application to
the determination of the productivity of grassland. It is
hardly worth while therefore to go into as much detail
as the above table suggests, requiring a new factor for each
100 kg. increase of liveweight. Wiegner proposed therefore
that for practical purposes the appended simplified table
should be used : —
Liveweight
under 250
250-450
over 450
Production Starch
Equivalent required per
I kg, Liveweight Gain
1-5
2-0
2-5
280
Notes on Feeding
Thus if a group of young cattle grazing an area increased
in average liveweight from 250 kg. (550 lb.) to 400 kg. (880
lb.) in 200 days, the average liveweight gain per head would
be 150 kg. (330 lb.) and the food (starch equivalent)
consumed (apart from maintenance) to produce this would be
estimated at 150x20 = 300 kg. (6(^3 lb.). If now we take
the maintenance requirement at 06 kg. starch equivalent per
100 kg. liveweight per day, then since the average liveweight
over the 200 days is 325 kg. (715 lb.) the average daily
maintenance requirement per head will be 3-25 x 0 6 kg. , or
1 95 kg. , and the total starch equivalent consumed for
maintenance will work out at 195x200 = 390 kg. We thus
arrive at an estimate of 690 kg., as the average food
consumption (in terms of starch equivalent) per head for
production and maintenance combined.
In order to turn this figure for starch equivalent into weight
of actual produce* we require to know the average starch
equivalent value of the produce. If we assume, for example,
that in this case the dry matter of the grass had a starch
equivalent of 40 per cent. , then the 690 kg. of starch equivalent
would correspond to , or 1725 kg. of grass dry
matter, or about four times this weight of fresh grass, since
this usually contains 20-30 pt;r cent, of dry matter.
The method is perhaps cumbrous, and based as yet upon
inadequate data, but it represents at least an advance upon
the comparison of grazing results merely upon liveweight
changes, since these give no guidance as to the weights of
food that have been required to give the changes recorded.
Food Requirements of Sheep. The discussion of this
subject in last month’s Notes requires now to be supplemented
by reference to a further report from Oxford subsequently
issued in the current number of the Empire Journal of
Experimental Agriculture. In this report Professor J. A.
Scott Watson and his colleagues summarize the results of six
further feeding trials carried out in the years 1934-36. In
each series the sheep were divided into three or four lots, and
used for comparisons of different levels of food supply. In
the various lots the food supply ranged from an estimated
starch equivalent per head per week of 6-55 lb, to 13-51 lb.,
and the average liveweight increases per week recorded from
0-66 lb. to 327 lb. As the food supply was increased the
281
Notes on Feeding
ratio of additional starch equivalent consumed to additional
liveweight gain produced remained relatively steady at an
average of i : 0227 or 44 : i. In other words, the
deduction may be drawn that a sheep, supposing that its
energy requirements for maintenance, body-growth, and wool
production are already met, requires about 4^ lb. of starch
equivalent for each pound of additional gain, and that this
figure remains much the same as the level of nutrition is
raised. It is interesting to note how closely this ratio
approximates to the 4 : i ratio for the conversion of starch
equivalent into pure body fat.
The data obtained in these experiments furnish further
evidence in support of the Oxford contention that Wood’s
standard of 9 lb. starch equivalent per 100 lb. liveweight per
week for the maintenance energy-requirement of the sheep
is too high. In seven lots of sheep in the Oxford experiments
here reported average liveweight increases of o-66 lb. to 177 lb.
were obtained, although the estimated starch equivalent
consumed per 100 lb. liveweight was in no instance over 9-2
lb. and in one was as low as 69 lb. The conclusion is
drawn, therefore, that, “ at a rough guess ” or 7 lb. of
starch equivalent per 100 lb. liveweight per week provided
not only for maintenance but for normal growth, and 9 lb.
per week provided for maintenance, growth, and the storage
of fully half a pound of fat.
In view of the Cambridge pronouncement confirming
the 9 lb. standard, there is clearly need for further and more
precise investigation of this point.
In further discussion of the general formulation of food
requirements the Oxford authors suggest that with growing
animals the requirements for growth should be incorporated
with the maintenance figure, rather than with the production
figure as is customary.
On this basis, and from their experimental data, they suggest
standards as given below for the fattening teg, 9 to 12 months
old: —
Per 100 lb. Liveweight
Starch Equivalent
per Week
Maintenance plus normal growth (f lb. live-
weight weekly) . . . . . . . . 6-7 lb.
Fat-production, per pound additional liveweight
increase 4-4* lb.
The standards are also set out in the appended alternative
282
Notes on Feeding
form which will perhaps be more convenient for practical
application : —
Tegs, 9-12 Months, per loo lb Liveweight
Starch Equivalent
per Week
Normal growth ( f lb. per week) . . 6*5 lb.
Slow fattening (li lb. ,, ) .. .. 9*7 lb.
Full fattening (2^ lb. ) •• *• 12-9 lb.
Intensive fattening (2i lb. ,, ) •• •• 15*0 lb.
It is pointed out that if the low Oxford maintenance
standards, “ or anything like them, can be confirmed by
further work, they will put a different complexion upon one
of the sheepfeeders’ problems, viz. that of the relative
economy of the fattening sheep at different levels of nutrition.”
The standards hitherto used lead to the conclusion that a
satisfactory efficiency of utilization of food can only be
attained by intensive feeding, but if the lower Oxford
standards are correct the level of nutrition would appear to be
relatively unimportant in this respect.
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Manu-
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
per
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
equiv.
unit
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
per
starch
starch
equiv.
ton
ton
TOO lb.
equiv.
equiv.
,9.
£
5.
£
5.
5.
d.
/()
Wheat, British . .
10
0
0
8
9
12
7^
2
8
1*43
9-6
Barley, British Feeding
8
15
0
8
8
7
7i
2
4
T-23
6*2
,, Argentine
9
0
0
8
8
12
71
2
3
1-29
6-2
,, Persian . .
8
13
0
8
8
5
71
2
4
1*^5
6*2
Oats, English, white
9
3
0
9
8
60
2
II
I 56
7-6
,, ,, black
and grey
9
3
0
9
8
M
60
2
II
1-56
7-0
,, Scotch, white
,, Canadian
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1-65
7*6
mixed feed
9
2
0
9
8
13
60
2
II
1*56
7-6
Maize, Argentine
6
15
0
7
6
8
78
I
8
0-89
7-6
,, Gal. Fox.
6
i 7 t
0
7
6
10
78
T
8
0-89
7*6
,, South African
No. 3, White Flat
7
8t
0
7
7
1
78
I
10
0 • 98
7*6
Beans, English, Winter
6
15 §
0
17
5
18
66
I
9
0-94
19 - 7
Peas, English Blue
1 1
5 §
0
15
10
10
69
3
I
1*65
i8'i
„ Japanese . .
22
i 7 t
0
15
22
2
69
6
5
3'44
i8*i
Dari
Milling Offals :
8
I 5 t
0
8
8
7
74
2
3
I • 20
7*2
Bran, British . .
7
12
0
16
6
16
43
3
2
I '70
9*0
,, broad . .
8
2
0
t6
7
6
43
3
5
1-83
JO'O
WeatingsJ
8
7
0
14
7
13
5h
2
9
I -.17
10*7
,, Superfine^ . .
8
17
0
13
8
4
69
2
3
1 *29
12 ' I
Pollards, imported . .
7
7
0
14
6
^3
2
8
1*43
I I 'Q
Meal, barley
10
0
0
8
9
12
71
2
8
1*43
6' 2
„ ,, grade 11 ..
9
5
0
8
8
17
V
2
6
1*34
6' 2
,, maize
7
7
0
7
7
0
78 i
1
10
0-98
7-6
„ „ germ
7
10
0
IT
6
19
84
I
8
0*89
10'3
,, locust bean
7
15
0
.5
7
TO
71 '
2
1
T • 12
3*f>
,, bean
8
12
0
17
7
15
66
2
4 1
1*^3
19-7
,, fish (white)
,, Soya bean
2
2
12
13
59 1
4
3
2-28
53*0
(extracted) J
8
17
J
9
7
8
64
2
4
1*^3
38*3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .|
Linseed cake- j
7
0
7
7
TO
84 :
I
9
0*94
9-2
English, 12% oil
10
.5
I
0
9
5
74
2
6
1*34
24*6
9%
9
1
1
0
8
12
74
2
4
T'25
24-6
1. .1
‘ 9
7 i
1
0
8
7
74 1
2
3
1 • 20
24*6
Cottonseed cake.
1
1
j
English, Egyptian
1
' 1
seed, 4j% oil
6
2
0
18
5
4
1 1
4- 1
2
6
1*34
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
1
1
1 1
Egyptian 4 J% oil
Cottonseed cake.
5
10
0
18
4
12
4 ^ i
2
2
I *16
17*3
decorticated, 7% oil . .
Cottonseed meal,
8
I 5 t
I
1
8
7
7
68 I
2
2
116
34*7
decorticated, 7% oil .
8
12t
1
I
8
7
4
70
2
T
1 • 12
36*8
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
n
/
5
0
18
6
7
77 1
I
8
0-89
i6'4
Ground nut cake.
decorticated, 6-7% oil
3
1 1
8
._7
9
73
' 2
0
6
VI
41*3
PRICES
OP FEEDINC
5 STUFFS (continued)
Description
Manu-
IMcc rial
per value
ton per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
I 100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
1
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated,
£ £ s. !
1
1
1
/ ..
1
1
i‘. d.
d.
0/
. 0
6-7% oil ..
Palm-kernel meal,
8 2 1 1 8
!
1 M
1
' 73
1 10
0*98
41*3
1-2% oil
8 2 ' 0 12
i 7 10
: 71
2 I
I • 12
i6-5
F ceding treacle . .
5 0 0 8
i 4 12
1 10
; o*g8
2-7
Brewers’ grains, dried ale
Brewers’ grains, dried
6 5 i 0 II
i 5 M
]
48
2 4
1-25
12 *5
porter . .
1 5 17 : 0 11
’ 5
48
2 2
1 • 16
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . ,
1 From £s ys.
1
1
6d to £6 2S. 6d. per tor
(according to factory)
i ex factory'
§ At Hull. t At l.iverpool
I In these instances mannnal value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are jinivisional.
Note : The pnct's cpioted alxive reprt‘sent the averap;e prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise staU‘d, and refer to the price ex null or store. The prices were
current at the end of April 1937, ^^re, as a rule, considerably lower
than the jirices at local country markets, the dilference being due to
carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding .stuhs on offer at their local market
by the method of calculation used in these notes Thus, if linseed cake
IS offered locally ut ;/rT per ton, then since its mammal value is £i per
ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is £10. Dividing
this figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the
Table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is as. Sd Dividing this
again by 22-^, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one unit,
the cost per lb of starch equivalent is 1-43^/ Similar calculations will
show the relative cost per lb of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs
on the same local market. From the results cd such calculations a
buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the
prices quoted on his own markets. 1 he figures given m the Table under
the heading rnamirial value per ton are calculated on the basis of the
following unit prices ’ — N , ys. ^d , P/),, 2 $ yl , Kfi, y bd.
285
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent
Per cent.
1
Barley (imported) . .
71
6-2
8 16
Maize
78
7*6
Decorticated ground-nut cake
73
41-3
S 9
„ cotton-seed cake
68
34-7
8 15
(Add los. per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out
at 2-15 shillings,
and
per unit protein equivalent 0*81 shillings. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The Table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
Wheat
72
9*6
8 3
Oats
60
7-6
6 15
Barley
71
6-2
7 18
Potatoes
18
0*8
I 19
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds
7
0*4
0 15
Beans . .
66
19-7
7 18
Good meadow hay . .
37
4*6
4 3
Good oat straw
20
0-9
2 4
Good clover hay
38
7-0
4 7
Vetch and oat silage
13
1*6
I 9
Barley straw
23
0-7
2 10
Vnieat straw
13
0*1
I 8
Bean straw
23
1-7
2 II
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6(f., post free 7^,
286
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for April is 140 (base 1911 - 13 = 100) or 10 points higher than
a month earlier and 17 points above that ruling for April, 1936.
(If allowance be made for payments under the Wheat Act,
1932, and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act,
1934, the revised index is 143.) Prices of wheat, barley, oats,
fat cattle and sheep, potatoes and wool showed a rise, but
those of fat pigs, eggs, butter and milk moved downwards.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. (Corresponding
months of 1911-13 -- 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
114
117
119
130
Februarv''
II7
106
II 2
118
129
March
113
102
108
II 2
116
130
April
II7
105
III
119
123
140
May . .
1 15
102
II 2
III
—
June
III
100
no
in
116
—
July
106
lOI
114
—
August
. . 105
^05
119
113
119
—
September . .
104
107
119
120
127
- —
October
100
107
114
113
125
—
November . .
lOI
109
114
113
125
—
December . .
103
no
II3 ,
114
126
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act (b)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
—
in
119
124
125
133
February
- —
no
117
122
123
133
March
—
106
112
118
122
134
April
—
log
116
126
128
143
May . .
__
105
116
117
120
—
June , . . . ;
—
104
114
117
121
—
July
1 —
104
117
120
121
—
August . . - . j
108 1
1 108 j
122
120
124
—
September . . . . 1
108
1 in ,
125
128
133
—
October . . , .
104
' 112 ;
i ^21
119
129
—
November . ,
105
113 :
! 120
119
129
—
December . .
107
; 114
120
120
130
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (b) Commenced September, 1934.
Grain. Wheat, at an average of gs. iid. per cwt., was
higher by iid. per cwt. than in March, and the index moves
287
Miscellaneous Notes
upwards from 121 points to 131. Prices of both barley and
oats rose by ^d. per cwt., the former averaging los. id. per
cwt. and the latter 9 >s. $d.. while the respective indices rise
from 124 to 132 and 115 to iig. In April, 1936, wheat
averaged 6s. 5^. per cwt., barley 7s. ^d. and oats 6s. od.,
the relative indices being 85, 96 and 85.
Livestock. During the month under review, quotations
for fat cattle continued to rise, the average for second quality
at 38s. ()d. per live cwt. showing an increase on that of March
of 2s. ()d . : the index at 106 is higher by 4 points. The effect
of adding the subsidy under the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act, 1934, brings the index up to 120. At an
average of is. oJ<i. per lb. for second quality, the price of
fat sheep rose by per lb. ; a reverse movement of a similar
amount during the base period accentuates the rise in the
index, which at 153 is 8 points above that recorded for
March. Baconers at iis. iid. and porkers at 12s. ^d. per
score (20 lb.) declined by .^d. and c)d. respectively, the relative
indices at 119 and 117 being lower by 3 and 7 points.
Compared with March, dairy cows and store cattle were
dearer; the index for the former rises from iii to 112 points,
and that for store cattle from 105 to 109. Store sheep also
realised higher prices, the index moving from 117 to 128. On
the other hand, store pigs were reduced in price and index',
the latter showing a fall of 3 points to 126.
Dairy and Potdtry Produce. The regional contract price
of liquid milk was reduced by id. per gallon in April, but owing
to the seasonal fall between March and April of the base years
having been considerably larger than this amount, the latest
index rises to 215 points.
Butter averaged is. i^d. per lb., a reduction of ^d. per
lb., but here again, the decline which took place during the
corresponding period of 1911-13 was heavier, and the index,
as a consequence, rises from 100 to T04. Eggs at 8s. td. per
120 compared with los. 2d. per 120 in March; the index at
112 falls by 9 points. Quotations for cheese were not quite
so high as a month earlier, and the average at £4 2s. od. per
cwt. was reduced by 6d. per cwt. ; the index falls by i point
to 109. The combined index for poultry at 113 compares
with 123 in March.
Other Commodities. At £8 13s. 6d. per ton, prices of
potatoes were higher by 16s. 6d. per ton, but as a proportion-
ately larger increase took place during the base years, the
288
Miscellaneous Notes
index at 191 shows a reduction of 9 points. Quotations for
both descriptions of hay remained unchanged, although the
combined index falls from 101 to 100 in consequence of a
slight rise in the base prices. Wool averaged is. per lb.
or xd. more than in March and the index advances by 8 points
to 138.
Monthly index numbers of prices of indicidiial commodities {Corre-
sponding months 0/1011-13 - 100 )
Commodity
1935
! »93<>
T937
Apr.
i Apr.
Jail.
Feb.
Mar
Apr.
Wheat
64
85
133
122
121
131
Barley
93
9^
125
124
124
132
Oats
08
: «5
120
1 16
115
119
Fat cattle . .
86
! <)2
97
99
102
106
,, sheep . .
141
, 128
140
T37
M5
T53
Bacon pigs
108
T I 1
126
T 22
119
Pork ....
”3
1 12
^31
125
124
117
Eggs
96
. 107
95
115
121
112
Poultry
1 lO
115
120
121
123
^^3
Milk . '
^15
-JI 3
^71 ;
171
I7I
215
Butter
89
96 ,
93
97
100
104
Cheese
91
100
107
107
I 10
109
Potatoes
95
164
205
1 201
200
191
Hay
<)9
79
98
I q 8
lOI
1 100
Wool
«3
97
131 :
! >3^
139
138
Dairy cows .
99
1 TOO
111 1
111 j
1 12
Store cattle
85
94
09
1 101
105 1
1 09
,, sheep
107
109
118
113
II7 1
128
pigs ..
122
1 22
' 5 - I
139
129 i
126
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and the
Cattle Industry (Plmergency Provisions) Act
Wheat
114
120* 1
• 3 . 3 * i
134* :
* i
1.34* ;
131
Fat cattle . .
100
l of) ;
112 ,
114
117
120
General I ndex
1 26
128 '
1
133 '
T 33
^34 '
143
* SupcTseding figtirt* previously piiblislied
Arrangements for Demonstrations to Parties of Farmers
and others at Rothamsted and Woburn Experimental
Stations
Farmers and all interested in agriculture in its practical,
technical, or educational aspects are cordially invited to visit
the Rothamsted and Woburn plots at any convenient time
from now to the end of October. Mr. H. V. Garner, M.A.
289
Miscellaneous Notes
(Camb.), and Capt. E. H. Gregory will be in charge of the
demonstrations, and there is ample material at either of the
farms to occupy a full day.
The soil at Rothamsted is a heavy loam. The classical
fields, laid down from 1843 onwards, form an unequalled
demonstration of the effects of fertilizers on wheat, barley,
mangolds and meadow hay. The continuous growing of
wheat on Broadbalk field is of special interest to those who
are now faced with the manurial and cultivation problems
arising out of mechanized cereal farming. Modern fertilizer
and cultivation problems are being investigated by the new
field technique developed at the Station.
These modern experiments are concerned with the manuring
of potatoes, sugar-beet, wheat, barley, beans, mangolds, kale,
clover and temporary grass. Rotation experiments test
various alternative methods of returning cereal straw to the
soil; and suitable equipment for the production of these
manures is provided. In addition the effect of green
manuring is being examined.
Additional experiments deal with poultry manure and other
organic fertilizers, the effects of bare fallowing, and rotary
cultivation. Tests of soil fumigants against insect and other
pests are in progress. Experiments on various points of pig
management are carried out from time to time. Good types
of implements are on view at the farm and a complete electrical
installation has been added. Growing trials on the effect of
cake feeding on pasture are being started. If the weather
turns out too bad to permit of inspection of the fields the
results can be examined in the Demonstration Room.
The Woburn farm is on light soil. In addition to the
classical fields, modern experiments are in progress on
potatoes, barley, sugar-beet, kale, lucerne, pyrethrum and
straw and green manure crop)s. It is not possible to see both
Rothamsted and Woburn in one day.
The Director, Sir John Russell, will be happy to arrange
full details with organizations of farmers, farm workers and
Others wishing to accept this invitation; small groups of
farmers are specially welcomed.
All communications and requests to visit the Stations should
be addressed to the Secretary, Rothamsted Experimental
Station, Harpenden. It would be a convenience if ample
notice could be given so as to avoid the possibility of dates
clashing. j
290
Miscellaneous Notes
Export of Breeding Stock
Number and declared value of animals, living, for breeding
exported from the United Kingdom during 1936, with
comparative figures for 1935- (From returns supplied by
H.M. Customs and Excise.)
Country to which
Consigned
1936
1935 1
Number
Declared
Value
Number
Declared
Value
Cattle.
£
£
Australia . .
121
13.633
52
10.365
Canada
172
16,040
29
3.722
Irish Free State . .
210
7.548
216
5.683
Kenya
53
i,8ii
24
1,117
New Zealand
4
1,169
5
1.033
Union of South Africa . .
96
8.369
70
5.409
Southern Rhodesia
6
727
4
327
Newfoundland and Coast
of Labrador
13
1,460
—
Other British Countries . .
34
1.859
20
1.235
Argentina
230
75.802
199
38.140
Brazil
30
1.657
47
2,225
Chile
I
118
8
524
Egypt
—
—
7
310
United States of America
51
3.860
32
2,935
Uruguay . .
23
5.356
1.788
Sweden
6
489
—
Denmark . .
5
95
—
Other Foreign Countries
7
150
7
275
Total
1,062
I40>i43
731
75.088
Sheep and Lambs.
1
!
Australia . .
75
i 2,533
53
2,332
Canada
163 1
! 2,648
74 1
1.822
Irish Free State . .
228 i
i 1,222
129
859
Kenya
: 27 1
389
6
109
Jamaica . .
—
12 1
82
Union of South Africa . .
69
904 1
148 i
2.171
New Zealand
M
286 1
2
120
Other British Countries . .
1 II
26l
—
—
Argentina
1 387
10,928
393
13.815
Brazil
7
93
63
801
Chile
24
782
31
958
United States of America
20
207
—
—
Uruguay
15
386
97
3.470
Soviet Union
2,491
25.746
—
—
Finland
365
4.325
—
—
Poland
22
265
—
—
France
47
634
9
146
Madagascar and
Dependencies
30
415
—
—
Other Foreign Countries
55
805
51
598
Total
4^050
52.829
1,068
27.283
291
Miscellaneous Notes
Export of Breeding Stock — continued.
Country to w hich
Consigned
1936
1935
Number
Declared
Value
Number
Declared
Value
Swine.
i
i
Australia . .
^7
784
13
449
Canada
17
280
1
20
Channel Islands . .
130
240
56
108
Irish Free State . .
17
371
17
336
Malta and Gozo . .
20
300
32
686
Newfoundland and Coast
of Labrador
—
—
13
55
Kenya . . . . i
12
128
I
25
Union of South Africa . .
6
174
14
415
Other British Countries
II
192
10
150
Brazil . . . .
6 :
05 !
54
920
France , . j
^7 ;
272 1
9
87
Germany . . . , j
— 1
j
II
308
Japan . . . |
15
746 !
5 !
345
Switzerland . j
14 1
!
—
—
Hungary . . . i
1
— 1
39
834
Other Foreign Countries
39 ,
1.105 j
30
698
Total . . . . |
1
321 !
1
5>2I3 j
305
5.436
Farm Workers’ Minimum Rates of Wages. — A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at King’s Buildings, Smith Square,
London, S.W.i, on Tuesday, April 27, 1937, Mr. W. B. Yates, C.B.E., J.P.,
presiding.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees,
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Beds and Hunts, — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor, to come
into force on May 2, 1937, to continue in operation until October 30,
1937. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and over
are unchanged at 325. 6d. per week of 50 hours, except (i) in the vveek
in which Coronation Day falls when the hours are 41, with in addition
not more than three hours in connexion with milking and the care of
and attention to stock on that day, and (2) in the week in which Whit
Monday falls when the hours are 41, with overtime throughout the
period unchanged at per hour on weekdays, lo^d. per hour on Whit
Monday, and ii\d, per hour on Sundays and in addition 10^^. per
hour on Coronation Day. The minimum rates for female workers of
18 years of age and over are unchanged at 6\d., with overtime at 'J^d.
per hour on weekdays, per hour on Whit Monday, and g\d. per
hour on Sundays and in addition S\d. per hour is payable for employment
on Coronation Day.
Cumberland and Westmorland. — An Order fixing minimum and overtime
rates of wages to come into operation on May 16, 1937 the day
following that on which the existing rates arc due to expire), and to
continue in force until June 4, 1938. The minimum rates are as follows :
292
Miscellaneous Notes
(a) for male workers of 21 years of age and over hired by the month
or longer period, 41$. (instead of 40s. as formerly) per week of customary
hours (which is defined as meaning a week of 62 hours) ; (b) for other
whole-time male workers of similar age, 33s. (instead of 32s. as formerly)
per week of 48 hours in winter and 34s. 6d. (instead of 33s. 6d, as
formerly) per week of 54 hours in summer ; (c) for casual male workers
of 18 years of age and over, S^d. per hour (instead of Sd. per hour as
formerly) ; with overtime for all male workers of 18 years of age and
over at gd. per hour (instead of 8 id. per hour as formerly) ; and (d) for
all female workers of 18 years of age and over Gd. per hour (instead
of ^id. per hour as formerly) for all time worked.
Durham. — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on May 14, i<)37 (the day following that on which the
existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation until
May 13, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are as follows : (a) horsemen who are householders, 34s.
(instead of 335. as formerly) per week of 50 hours, with, in addition,
75. per week to cover all time spent in attention to horses ; (6) horsemen
who are not householders and are not boarded and/or lodged by their
employers, 335. (instead of 32s. as formerly) per week of 50 hours,
with, in addition, 35. Gd to cover all time spent m attention to horses ;
(r) horsemen who are boarded and/or lodged by their employers, 33s.
(instead of 325. as formerly) per week of 50 hours and all time spent in
attention to horses ; (d) stockmen and shepherds, per week of the hours
customarily spent in attention to stock, householders, 45s. (instead of
445. as formerly), non-householders who are not boardeci and/or lodged
by their employers, 38.') loid (instead of 375. loj^f. as formerly), w'orkers
board<‘d aiid/or lodged by their employers, 375. (instead of 365. as
formerly) ; (e) casual workers unchanged at Gd. per hour , and (/) for
male workers, 325. (instead of 315. as formerly) per week of 30 hours,
'rhe overtime rates lor all classes of male workers of 21 years of age
and over (other than casual workers) remain at gd. ])er hour, except
for overtime employment on Saturday afternoon, Sunday, Christmas
Day and Good Friday, when the rate is lod. per hour. The minimum
rates for female workers of 18 years of age and over are unchanged at
25 . Gd. per day of 8 hours, with overtime at 4d. per hour.
Gloucestershire . — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor to come
into force on May 2, 1937, continue in operation until
September 25, 1937. f minimum rates for male workers of 21 years
of age and ewer are as follows : (a) heeid carters, 36s. Gd. per week of
58 hours, except in the weeks in which Coronation Day and Whit
Monday fall when the hours are 31 , (6) head shepherds and head stock-
men, 385. per w^eek of 60 hours, except in the weeks in which Coronation
Day and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 32^ ; (^:) under-carters.
34s. Gd. per wec‘k of 34 hours, except in the weeks in which Coronation
Day and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 48 , (d) under-shepherds
ancl under-stockmen, 365. Gd per w^eek of 37 hours, except in the w’eeks
in which Coronation Day and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 30J ;
and (e) other male workers, 32s. per w'cek of 30 hours, except in the
weeks in which Coronation Day and Whit Monday fall w'hen the hours
are 41. Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of
which the minimum rate is payable in Coronation week to meet cases
where a holiday is given in lieu of a holiday in the w'eek in w^hich Whit
Monday falls. The overtime rates for all male w'orkers of 21 years of
age and over are unchanged at 9^- per f^our on w’eekdays, and iiif. per
hour on Sundays, Coronation Day and Whit Monday.
293
Miscellaneous Notes
Hertfordshire , — An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages, the rates as varied to come into force on May 2, i937»
and to continue in operation until further notice. The minimum rates
for male workers of 21 years of age and over are 34s. (instead of 32s.
as formerly) per week of 48 hours, except (i) in the weeks in which
Easter Monday and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 39J ; (2) in
the week in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall together when
the hours are 31 ; and (3) in the weeks in which Christmas Day and
Boxing Day fall when those days fall in separate weeks when the hours
are 39J, with overtime at SJd. per hour (instead of M, as formerly) for
all employment on Easter Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day and
Boxing Day, and in excess of the above-mentioned numbers of hours,
and lid. per hour (instead of lod. as formerly) for all employment in
excess of 5^ hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly short day. The
minimum rates for female workers of 19 years of age and over are 28s.
(instead of 255. as formerly) per week of the numbers of hours mentioned
above in the case of male workers, with overtime at yd. per hour (instead
of 6 \d. as formerly) for all employment on Easter Monday, Whit
Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day, and in excess of the above-
mentioned numbers of hours, and 8|([i. (instead of y\d. as formerly) for
all employment in excess of 5^ hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly
short day. Special rates for overtime employment on the hay harvest
are not fixed as formerly, but the rates for overtime employment on the
com harvest are for male workers of 21 years of age and over, iid. per
hour, and for female workers of 19 years of age and over, 8|(/. per hour
for all employment on harvest work during the corn harvest (after
5.30 p.m. legal summer time) on any day and in excess of 48 hours in
any week,
Lancashire . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on May i, 1937 following that on which
the existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation until
April 30, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are (i) in the Southern area, workers employed wholly
or mainly with animals (i.e., horses, cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry'),
385. (instead of 37s. for stockmen or teamsmen as formerly) per week of
52^ hours, and other workers, 34s. 6 d. (instead of 335. 6 d. as formerly)
per week of 50 hours ; and (2) in the remainder of the area of the
Committee, workers of the special classes mentioned above, 41s. (instead
of 40s. for stockmen or teamsmen as formerly), and other w'orkers,
38s 6 d. (instead of 37s. Od. as formerly) per week of 60 hours in each
case. The overtime rates for all classes of adult male workers are gd.
per hour on weekdays and is. i^d. per hour on employment (other
than time necessarily spent in the immediate care of and attention to
animals) on Sundays. Overtime at gd. per hour is also payable for
employment (other than the immediate care of and attention to animals)
on Christmas Day and Good Friday. For female workers of 18 years of
age and over the minimum rate remains unchanged at 6 d. per hour for
all time worked.
Leicester and Rutland . — An Order varying the existing minimum and
overtime rates of wages, the rates as varied to come into operation on
May 2, 1937. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age
and over are (a) in Leicestershire, unchanged at 34s. per week of
54 hours, except (i) in the weeks in which Coronation Day, Whit
Monday and Easter Monday fall when the hours are 48 ; (2) in the
weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall when those days
fall in separate weeks when the hours are 48 ; and (3) in the week in
which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall together when the hours
294
Miscellaneous Notes
are 42 (instead of 54 hours per week throughout the year as formerly) ,
and (b) in Rutland, unchanged at 325. 6d, per week of 54 hours in summer,
except in the weeks in which Coronation Day, Whit Monday and Easter
Monday fall when the hours are 48, and 50 in winter, except (i) in the
weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall when those days
fall in separate weeks when the hours are 44, and (2) in the week in
which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall together when the hours are
38 (instead of 54 hours per week throughout summer, and 50 hours per
week throughout winter as formerly). The overtime rates in both
counties remain unchanged at gd, per hour on weekdays and iid, per
hour on Sundays. The minimum rates for female workers of 18 year^
of age and over remain unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime at
Sd. per hour for Sunday work.
Norfolk. — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime rates
of wages and fixing fresh rates m substitution therefor, to come into
force on May 2, 1937, 21*^^ continue in operation until December 25,
1937- The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and over
are unchanged at 335. 6d. per week of 50 hours in summer, except in
the week in which Coronation Day falls when the hours are 42, and
48 in winter, except in the week in which Christmas Day falls when
the hours are 40, with, in addition in the case of workers employed
as teamsmen, cowmen, shepherds or yardmen, 5s. (>d. per week, and
in the case of sheep tenders and bullock tenders 4s. 6d. per week in
lieu of overtime in respect of work in connexion with animals other
than : (i) such work on Christmas Day, in respect of which an additional
sum of 5s. is payable, except where a day's holiday with full pay is
giv’en in the week in which that holiday falls or in the week immediately
following ; and (2) such work in excess of three hours on Coronation
Day, in respect of which excess overtime is payable. The overtime
rates for all male workers of 21 years of age and over are gd. per hour
on weekdays (including Coronation Day), and iid. per hour on Sundays.
The minimum rates for female workers of 18 years of age and over are
unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime at 6^d. per hour on weekdays
and y^d. per hour on Sundays.
Northamptonshire and Soke of Peterborough. — An Order cancelling the
existing minimum and overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates
in substitution therefor to come into force on May 2, 1937, and to
continue in operation until October 30, 1937. The minimum rates for
male workers of 21 years of age and over are unchanged at 32s. (yd.
per w^eek of 50 hours, except : (1) in the weeks in which Easter Monday
and Whit Monday fall when the hours are 41 ; and (2) in the w^eek in
which Coronation Day falls when the hours are 41, w'lth, m addition,
not more than 3J hours in connection with milking and the care of and
attention to stock on that day. The overtime rates are unchanged at
lod. per hour on weekdays, is. per hour on Sundays, Easter Monday and
Whit Monday, and in addition is. per hour is payable for employment
on Coronation Day. The minimum rates for female wwkers of 18 years
of age and over are unchanged at 6Jcf. per hour, with overtime of y\d.
per hour on weekdays and gd. per hour on Sundays, Easter Monday
and Whit Monday, in addition gd. per hour is payable for employment
on Coronation Day.
Oxfordshire. — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor to come
into force on May 2, 1937, to continue in operation until October 3,
1937. The minimum rate^ for male wwkers of 21 years of age and over
are unchanged at 325. 6d. per week of 50 hours, except : (i) in the week
295
Miscellaneous Notes
in which Coronation Day falls when the hours are 41, with, in addition,
not more than three hours employment in milking and the care of and
attention to stock on that day ; and (2) in the weeks in which Whit
Monday and August Bank Holiday fall when the hours are 41. The
overtime rates arc unchanged at lod. per hour on weekdays, is. per hour
on Sundays, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday, and in addition
15. per hour is payable for employment on Coronation Da3^ The
minimum rates for female workers of 18 years of age and over are
per hour, with overtime at Sd. per hour on weekdays, and g^d. per hour
on Sundays, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday, and gld. per
hour on Coronation Day.
Suffolk . — An Order cancelling tlie existing minimum and overtime rates
lor male workers and fixing fresh rates 111 substitution therefor to come
into force on May 2, 1937, continue m operation until August 28,
1937. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and
over are unchanged at 315. 6 d. per w^eek of 50 hours, except in the week
in which Coronation Day falls w'hcn the hours are 41 with, in addition,
m the case of horsemen, cowmen and .shepherds of 18 years of age and
over, a sum of 6s. per week to cover employment up to 10 hours per
w^ek in connexion with the immediate care of animals. The overtime
rate for all male workers of 21 years of age and over remains at gd.
per hour.
Warwickshire — An Order \arying the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages, tin* rates as varied to come into force on May 2, 1937.
The minimum rates for male w'orktrs of 21 }ears of age and over are
325. (instead of 315. as formerly) per week of 50 hours in summer, except
in the weeks in which Good Friday and Coronation Day fall when the
hours are 41, and 48 hours m wdnter, except in the week when Christmas
Day falls, when the hours are 39 J. The overtime rates are gd. per hour
on weekdays and icd. ]K'r hour on Sundays, (iood Friday, Christmas'
Day and Coronation Day (instead of ^\d. per hour as formerly).
Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of which the
minimum weekly wage is payable in the weeks in which Easter Monday
and Boxing Day fall to meet cases where holidays are given in those
wrecks instead of in the wet*ks in which Good Friday and Christmas
Day fall. For female workers of 18 years of age and over the minimum
rates are unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime at (>d. per hour on
weekdays and per hour on Sundays, Good Friday and Christmas
Day, in addition 'j\d. j^er hour is payable for employment on Coronation
Da}.
Merioneth and Montf^omery . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime
rates of wages to come into force on May i, 1937 "tbe day following
that on which the existing rates are due to expire), and to continue
in operation until April 30, 1938. The minimum rate for male workers
of 21 years of age and over employed wholly or mainly as stockmen,
teamsters, carters, or shepherds, is 34s. per week of 60 hours (instead
of 325. C>d. per week of 58 hours as formerly), and that for other male
w^orkers of 21 years of age and over is 30s. per week of 54 hours (instead
of 285. (>d. per week of 52 hours as formerly), with overtime in each case
unchanged at gd. per hour. For female workers of 18 years of age
and over the minimum rate remains unchanged at ^d. for all time
worked.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
May 10, 1937, proceedings w^ere taken against six employers for
296
Wireless Talks
failure to pay the nimimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow
Committee
Fines
Costs
Arrears of
No. of
Area
Court
Imposed
Allowed
Wages
workers
ordered
involved
/ .S' (/.
i
£ s. d
(.'ornwall
Helston
4 0 0
I 1 0
1.5 i<> 5
2
Lines. (Kest-
Market
4 3
60 0 0
even and
Rasen
Lindsey)
1
1
1
]
Monmouth . . i
Raglan
018 0
!
(> 0 0 j
J
Norfolk . . 1
Down ham
1 0 13 0
0 7 0
5 ^ 9 3
3
!
Market
Suffolk
Stow market
1 (^0
420
.50 4 4 '
2
Radnor
New Radnor
oil 0
20 0 0
1
1
10 7 0
5 10 6
184 10 2 j
18
(a) Dismissed under Probation of OlTenders Act
WIRELESS TALKS, JUNE, 1937
AGRICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time
: p m
Speaker
Subject
National :
June 7
t) 20
1 Mr J it Stewart
■ Haymaking
14
' 0.20
Messrs [ ('» Stew.irt
The Law relating to Bonn-
and Ross Woodley
(lanes and Trespass
,, 21
() . 20
Mr j, G Stewart
Weeds.
,, 28
0 . 20
Messrs W S Manstiild
and J (i vSteuart
I'.irm Horses
West :
Junt* 2
5 • 30
Mr A W Ling
Down on the Farm (Chil-
dren's Hour )
(>.40
Mr A W Ling
h'or Western h'armers m
particular
North :
June 17
Messrs. T. Taylor, J A
A Discussion about Sheep
Willis, F. Barker and
H IL Lamb
Welsh :
i
1
June 4
; 7*53
Professor Isaac Jones
j How a Welsh Farm Insti-
and Mr W H. Jones
: tute Works
.. 3
1 7 30
Mr. David Thomas
j Farm and Animal Calls
18
Discussion between
1 Rural Industries in Wales
Messrs, W H Jones,
Percy Cieorge, and K
G. Bowen
j To-day (in Fmglish)
Scottish :
June 3
730
Mr J, P. Ross Taylor
Rural Housing.
10
0.25
Not yet arranged
i Prospects of the Highland
Show.
- 17
6.0
Lord Cochrane of Cults
New Methods at Cults.
interviewed by Mr.
A. D. Buchanan Smith
«> 22
8.50
Mr. J, B. Douglas
At the Highland Show (i).
23
10.25
Mr. J. B. Douglas
At the Highland Show (2).
297
Notices of Books
HORTICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speaker and Subject
National :
Fridays .
June 4
7. 10
Interesting Plants: Messrs. C. H. Middleton and
N. K. Gould.
,, II
7.10
Seasonal Topics : Mr. C. H. Middleton.
i«
7.10
Roses : Messrs. C. H. Middleton and Courtney Page.
.. 25
7. 10
Mr C. H. Middleton discusses gardening problems
with an amateur
West:
June 20
For Western Gardeners : Plant hybridization for
amateurs : Messrs. D. Harris and C. F. Langdon.
Scottish :
June I
^•15 1
June in the Garden (i) : Mr Alexander Keith.
- 14
9.0
.. (2)
North :
1
June 4
i
... 1
Mr W. E. Shewell-Cooper will describe his corre-
spondence bag, pick out typical letters from readers
in all parts of the North and give his replies.
1
,, is 1
" 1
Messrs. W. L. Steer and W. E. Shewell-Cooper will
I
1
1
give a talk on " Winter Produce for the Vegetable
Garden."
Northern |
Ireland : j
J une <1 (
_ 1
Ulster Garden : Mr. H. G Fleet
.. 23 1
i
“ ■ 1
Foot-and-Mouth Disease. — No outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth Diseast?
has been confirmed since February 5. At the time this issue of the
Journal went to press, no part of Great Britain was subject to any
restriction in connexion with this disease.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS: ENGLAND
Cheshire ; Mr. W. L Steer has been appointed Horticultural Superin-
tendent, vice Mr. H Fairbank, N.D.H.
Derbyshire : Mr. B. K. Randall, N.D.H. , has been appointed Assistant
Horticultural Instructor.
NOTICES OF BOOKS
The National Farmers* Union Year Book, 1937. Edited by Cleveland
Fyfe Pp. 522. (London : National Farmers' Union. Price 55.)
The sixteenth issue of this well-known annual publication as usual
contains a large number of useful facts and figures for farmers and others
who are interested in agricultural matters. An article by Sir John Orr
deals with “ The Science of Nutrition and Agricultural Policy," a subject
that has aroused great interest in recent years. A chapter entitled
" Legislation Affecting Agriculture in 193b/* summarizes the Tithe Act,
the Education Act, the Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, the Unem-
ployment Insurance (Agriculture) Act and other important additions to
298
Notices of Books
the Statute Book during last year. Other chapters are entitled ** The
Marketing Schemes of 1936/* The Farmers* Statistical Abstract *' —
compendious and up-to-date, “ A Transport Miscellany *' and ** Fertilizers
and Feeding Stuffs.** All the information in this useful annual is made
readily accessible by means of a comprehensive index.
Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society. Vol. XI,
1936-37. Pp. ciii -f 148. Illustrated. (London : Edward Stanford,
Ltd. Price 6s. 6 d.)
Agriculture in the West Country is well represented by this long-
established annual, the present issue of which covers a wide and varied
range of interests. Grass drying, which is engaging much attention at
the moment, forms the subject of an article by the Earl Waldegrave and
Mr. W. T. Mce. Mr. J. F. H. Thomas writes on “ Causes of Loss in
Sheep,** and Mr. R. W. Marsh contributes “ Notes on Apple Canker.**
Other articles deal with pit props, forestry, a survey of soils and fruit in
the Vale of Evesham, dormant roots and buds of the cricket-bat willow,
the effects of the removal and retention of lateral branches in the production
of sets of the cricket-bat willow, Angmllulina Dipsaci as a cause of parsnip
canker, experiments on the control of lichen on apple trees by means of
tar-oil washes, control of insect pests of nursery fruit stock, the effect of
nitrogenous fertilizers on potatoes affected with potato sickness, and fruit
spraying. In addition there are reports and full information regarding
the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society, now in its i6ist year.
Agricultural Progress. Vol. XIV (Part. I) : 1937. Pp. 94. (Cambridge :
W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd. Price 25.)
The publication of the official organ of the Agricultural Education
Association in parts is a new departure. The opening article in this
part is an interesting account by Sir E. John Russell of the origin and
development of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, the first of a
series dealing with the history of the agricultural educational and research
institutions of the United Kingdom. This is followed by papers on land
reclamation in Scotland, the agriculture of South-Western Scotland, the
Ayrshire early potato industry, bracken eradication, mastitis, milk in
cheese- making, cacao shell as a foodstuff for cattle, ice-cream, insects
associated with bracken, and chicken rearing for egg production, each by
well-known writers on their respective subjects. The issue concludes with
a record of recent activities, book review's and information concerning the
Association.
The Feeding of Crops and Stock ; Part I — The Plant. 2nd edition. By
Sir A. Daniel Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S. Pp. ix -j- 120 and 18 Figs.
(London : John Murray. 1937. Price 3s. 6 d.)
This is an old friend in a new guise ! In its original form it was published
in 1911. It acquired immediate and widespread popularity, and frequent
reprints of this edition w'cre called for in the years that followed. The
author has now deemed it desirable, in view of the great strides made by
biological science during the last twenty-five years, to revise and re-write
a considerable part of the subject-matter and to divide the treatise into
three distinct parts. The volume under review constitutes Part I and
deals with plant growth generally, the functions of the leaf and the roots,
the changes of composition that take place within the plant throughout
growth, and the subject of reproduction in the plant world. A particular
feature of this new ^ition, compared with the former version, is that the
arguments and illustrations have been drawn as freely from horticulture
as from agriculture, and the work gains thereby in interest and usefulness.
299
Notices of Books
Sir Daniel Hall needs no introduction to agricultural readers. His
attractive style of writing, and the ease with which he brings the most
difficult subject within the range of understanding of all classes of readers,
have placed him .securely in the foremost rank of writers on agriculture.
The present volume will be read wdth pleasure and profit by all who are
interested in the growth of crops on the farm or in the routine of the
garden. It calls for no special scientific training in the reader. Indeed,
Sir Daniel expresses the hope that the complete treatise will find its way
into the schools and furnish to the youthful mind a guide to the appre-
ciation of the major processes by which life is carried on and our food
is produced.
“ What 1 have tried to do,” writes the author, ” is to provide the non-
technical reader with a scientific approach to the understanding of how
life is carried on.” Those who are familiar with his long record of literary
and scientific achievement will agree that no one is more competent than
Sir Daniel Hall to undertake this difficult and fascinating task *
Grass- Drying : A Study of Production Costs in 1936. liy R. N. Dixey
and R. P, Askew. Pp. 45. (Oxford : Agricultural Economics
Research Institute. 1937. Price 15.)
This small book is another addition to the rapidly-growing literature
of grass-drying. Its appearance is one further proof of the general interest
aroused by this new farm process. Whether grass-drying has come to .stay
or not, it cannot be denied that the investigations of Woodman and his
colleagues have stimulated agricultural inquiry on a scale that can scarcely
be paralleled by any other discovery of recent times.
The authors rightly point out that the commercial success of the process
must depend on whether the dried young grass can be produced at a co.st
to compete with the feeding stuffs it is designed to replace. With the
object of gaining an insight into the economics of the problem, they
selected, in the South Midlands, five farms, on which costings investi-^
gations could conveniently be earned out. Large Biilingham driers
had been installed on three of these farms, while on the remaining two
were Ransome and C'urtis-Hatherop driers respectively.
The wTiters give exceedingly interesting and readable accounts of the
season's experiences on these five farms. It is, in the main, a story of
difficulties encountered and only partly overcome. The treatment of the
grass, the cutting and delivering of the grass to the drier, the processes of
drying, baling and storing are all dealt with in detail. It is shown that the
inclusive cost per ton of dried grass produced on the selected farms
averaged 185. ( yd .
It may be observed that if the dried grass produced on these farms
was the genuine ” concentrate ” product, then the cost w^as not really
uneconomic, since on the basis of the present prices of feeding stuffs,
dried young grass is w^orth at least £6 per ton for its digestible protein and
starch equivalent, without taking into account the unassessable factors
of minerals, pigments and vitamins. Reference to the figures given for
protein content, however, shows that the product obtained was not of
the highest grade, 'this was due to the circumstance that the herbage,
under the influence of the heavy summer rainfall, was usually ” ahead ”
of the drier. The area of grass to be cut must clearly be adjusted to the
rate of output of the drying appliance.
It is perhaps futile to speculate about the costings of grass-drying until
the right machine has been designed and the correct field technique
developed. For this reason the authors may agree that the findings from
their 193b investigation should not be taken too seriously. It is sincerely
to be hoped, how ever, that their researches in this direction will be continued.
300
Notices of Books
Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. By H. C. Sherman, Ph.D., Sc.D.
5th edition. Pp. x + 640. 38 Figs, and 64 Tables. (London :
Macmillan & Co. 1937. Price 12s. 6 d.)
This American textbook, which is well known to British students of
the biochemical aspects of human nutrition, was first published in 1911.
For the purposes of this, the fifth edition, it has been completely revised
and re-written, a course that was dictated by the great advances that
have been made in the chemistry of food and nutrition during the last
quarter of a century. The result has been to provide teacher and student
with a textbook embodying the findings of all the main nutritional
researches of recent times. In its pages are expounded the most modern
views of the relation of nutrition to the general well-being of the human
organism.
The keynote to the significance of this treatise is furnished by the
author m the preface. “The present work/' he writes, “is published
primarily to meet the needs of college classes. It is hoped that the book
may also be of service to other readers who appreciate the importance
of food and nutrition as factors m health." It follows, therefore, that
the v<jlume may be perused with profit by those authorities in this country
who are advocating an improved general standard of nutrition as a basis
for a higher standard of health and physique among the British races.
The author rightly emphasizes the importance of a well-balanced kne^w-
ledge of all the four main factors ot nutritive requirement —energy,
protein, mineral elements and vitamins, iiis treatment of the subject is
indeed built up around this central idea. The chapters dealing with
these factors leave little to be desired, and taken together, they form a
comprehensive and satisfying picture of the* present .state of knowdedge
in this crucial branch of biological lucpiiry.
Not the lea.st v^aluable features of the book are the lists ol references
at the ends of the chapters, and the tables in the appendix giving the
organic and mineral composition, together wuth details ol vitamin content,
of all the common foods that make up the human dietary. Although
the volume deals specifically wuth the science ol human nutrition, an
understanding of the principles belonging to this branch of nutrition
makes possible a fuller appreciation of the lactors underlying the successful
teeding of farm animals. 'I'lic discerning student of animal nutrition,
therefore, will not hesitate to acquire this admirable new' edition of
Ih-ofessor Sherman’s w'ork.
A Practical Course in Agricultural Chemistry. By F. Knowles, F.I.C.,
and J. E. VVatkia, B.Sc , Ph.D., A I C. Intioduction by Sir John
Russell. Pp. X -f 188, and 21 Figs. (London: Macmillan & Co.,
Ltd. 1937. 106’)
This volume can truly be said to have filled a long-felt want. This is at
once the pleasantest and the rarest compliment that can be paid to the
author of a new textbook in these days of busy printing-presses.
For one reason or another, the claims of the agricultural chemist to a
concise and systematic account of analytical methods have in the past
received but scant recognition. Who, among old students of the subject,
docs not remember the typed sheets of instructions that used to be issued
as a guide to chemical work in the laboratory ? How' impermanent were
these sheets, their life being scarcely longer than the few short terms
during which the laboratory exercises were being carried out !
Gone is now the need for the laboratory typescript, lor 111 the volume
under review we have a practical textbook that will be welcomed by all
teachers of practical agricultural chemistr>^ In the words of the authors,
it has been produced to meet the requirements of students preparing for
301
Notices of Books
the B.Sc. degrees in agriculture, horticulture and dairying, for the national
and college diplomas in these subjects and in poultry husbandry. It
brings together a considerable amount of material at present only accessible
in scientific journals, specialized books and miscellaneous publications.
By virtue of their long experience in the teaching of the subject, the
authors have been able to use their discretion in discarding obsolete methods
and views. They have set out to write a thoroughly up-to-date and
reliable textbook, and in this object they have succeeded in the fullest
.sense. The wide scope of the treatment is revealed in the titles of the
main chapters, which deal with the analytical methods employed in the
chemical examination of soils, fertilizers, feeding stuffs, dairy j^roducts,
water, insecticides and fungicides.
In an admirable foreword. Sir John Russell calls attention to a specially
valuable feature, namely, that explanations are given not merely of the
processes performed, but of the relation of the experiment to the whole
subject, so that the student may be able to appreciate the bearing ol his
laboratory exercises on farm practice. No student ot agricultural science
should be without this textbook.
Second International Congress for Microbiology, London, 1936. Report
of Proceedings, Edited by R. St. John-Brooks. xiii - 1 - 579.
Illustrated. (London : Harrison & Sons, Ltd. 1937. Price 205.)
This volume, as its title indicates, gives a full account, in not far short
of 600 pages, of the activities of, and the scientific work presented to, the
Congress for Microbiology held in London from July 25 to August i,
1936, under the Patronage of H.R.H. The Duke of Kent and the Presidency
of Professor J. C. G. Ledingham, of the Lister Institute. Abstracts of the
proceedings of the eight Sections in which the work of the Congress was
carried on make up the greater part of the volume The Ih-esidential
Address and those by the Ptesidents of Honour are also included. That ot
Sir John MacFadyean may perhaps be specially mentioned here since it
deals with the progress that has been made in our knowledge of, and
power to control, contagious diseases of dome.stic animals during a period
of nearly half a centur>^ Whilst in nearly all the Sections papers on
matters of fundamental biological importance having some relation to
agricultural science were read and discussed, yet the accounts of the
proceedings in Section 2 (Viruses and Virus Diseases in Animals and
Plants), Sub-section i ol Section 4 (Dairy Microbiology), and Section 5
(Medical, Veterinary and Agricultural Zoology and l^arasitology), will
perhaps be of more immediate interest to those engaged in research in
agriculture. Virus workers will be interested in Dr. P. R White's method
of cultivating plant viruses indefinitely in vitro on isolated plant organs
under controlled conditions (p. 71), as also in Dr. W. M. Stanley's cry.stal-
line Tobacco Mosaic protein (p. 82), a specimen of which was exhibited.
The dairy bacteriologist will read with interest the reports of the
discussions on the significance of the number and types of bacteria in milk
(p. 183), and on the factors that determine the behaviour of micro-
organisms in milk and milk products (p. 194). Other papers and dis-
cussions. e.g. those on the decomposition of plant-remains in soil, manure
and compost heaps (p. 223), on the microbiology of silage production
(p. 231), and on the physiology of nitrogen-fixing organisms and the
biochemistry of nitrogen fixation (p. 261) are of special interest to soil
research workers. To plant physiologists the papers and discussion on
bacterial photo-synthesis (p. 465) will appeal, whilst those on the prophy-
laxis and serum treatment of human and animal diseases caused by
anaerobic bacteria will be of particular interest to the veterinarian. The
above are meiely a few selections from the vast amount of scientific work
302
Notices of Books
on microbiology, in all its varied aspects, which was brought before the
Congress and is so successfully garnered into the present volume. The
Editor is to be congratulated on having produced with commendable
promptitude a worthy record of this important Congress, for permanent
reference.
Journal of the British Dairy Farmers* Association. Vol. XLIX. Pp. 442.
(London : British Dairy Farmers' Association. 1937. Price 6 s.)
A glance at the names of the contributors to this well-known annual
assures us that we shall find in it reliable and up-to-date information on
the subjects with which they deal The first paper, by Messrs. Edgar
Thomas and F. H. Villiers of Reading, provides some useful practical
lessons from “ Grassland Dairying in the Blackmore Vale " and has been
reprinted in pamphlet form. Evidence is pre.sented concerning the
financial results on ten dairy farms during a four-year period, the general
conclusion being that the most important single factor in the success or
failure of these dairy farmers is their ability to make economical use of
their chief raw material, viz., their grasslands. Mr. H. G. Robinson
(Principal, Midland Agricultural College, Sutton Bonington) wites on
“ Dairying in Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire,”
Dr. A. T. R. Mattick (National Institute for Research in Dairying) on
“ Applied Bacteriology in Dairying ” and Mr E. Walker on ” Dairy
Changes in Village Life,” and Mr. E. E. F. Colam contributes ” Some
Remarks on Ice-Cream.” In addition to the usual reports and information
concerning the Association, there are papers on butter tests, poultry and
pigeons, and a detailed review bv Mr. T. W. Palmer on milking trials
for goats in 1936
The Social History of American Agriculture. By Joseph Schafer, Ph.D.,
LL.If Pp. viii -f 302, and 9 Maps. (London : Macmillan & Co.,
Ltd , 1936. Price los. 6d.)
fhe essays that comprise this study were first delivered at University
('ollege, London, in the early part of last year. In preparation for
publication they have been extended, and documentary evidence has
been provided. The de^’elopment of agriculture since the coming of the
white man to America has successively taken on very varied phases,
with consequent reactions upon the lives of the people engaged in
the farming. In the short space of three hundred years a continent
has been subdued, and it has, in some respects, reached the highest point
of development in agriculture of any country in the world. Many and
varied are the lessons that the countries of the older civilization in Europe
have learned from their young relation.
Schafer’s book tells the story clearly and concisely. Beginning with
the planting of Virginia and the settling of the Pilgrim Fathers at New
Plymouth, he brings the .story down to modem times, when farming in
America has become as disastrous for many people as it has in the older
countries .since the Great War, The gradual spread westward of the white
man, the assimilation of the public domain, the varieties of farming
that became necessary as each new strip of territory was occupied, will
be not only fascinating to the farmer, but instructive to the layman,
since they show how methods of exploiting land are restricted by its
configuration, soil, and climate. There is no such similar .study of British
conditions, although there are many books that touch upon the subject.
For this reason students of the history of agriculture should read this
work, which they will find suggestive of new and interesting lines of
inquiry.
303
Notices of Books
“ The Feathered World ” Yearbook, 1937 . Pp. 300. Ulus. (London :
The Feathered World, g, Arundel Street, W.C.2. Price 2s.)
This issue of a useful annual well maintains its normal standard. It
contains articles dealing with all breeds of poultry, pigeons, ducks, geese
and cage-birds, and there is an attractive illustrated supplement showing
prize-winning birds of the year. The section on poultry organization
provides information concerning the poultry press, poultry personalities
and societies, and lists of county poultry instructors for England, Scotland,
Wales and the Irish Free State, but, strangely enough, no mention is made
of the very capable group of instructors who serve the industry in Northern
Ireland.
Great Farmers. By Professor J. A. Scott Watson and May Elliot Hobbs.
Foreword by the Rt. Hon. Walter Elliot. Pp. 287, Ulus, (London :
Selwyn & Blount. 1937. Price 125. 6d.)
It is not too much to say that the land of England has been made in
the past two centuries, and many of those eminent men who led in the
task lived and died in comparative obscurity, except amongst the
agricultural community, which took example from their activities and
precepts. Professor Scott Watson and Miss Hobbs have rescued many
of them from this undeserved obscurity in what is a fascinating tale of
endeavour and achievement. The moral to be drawn from this enter-
taining book is that the course of farming improvement is necessarily slow%
and that a final outstanding result can only be secured by a tenacity of
purpose that is often condemned by the urban population as the stubborn-
ness of the farmer.
Growth processes are slow and the making of new varieties of plants
needs years to bring them to maturity. With animals the creation of a
great herd or an outstanding flock is a matter of an even longer period.
In one or two of the instances described in this book it took three genera-
tions of men to bring intractable areas of land into a state of high cultiva-
tion and prosperity. In others, one man’s lifetime was sufficient to secure
fame and financial recompense for years of striving. The book should
be widely read and should undoubtedly lead our predominantly urban
population to a better understanding of the problems that farming and
rural life present.
The Production of Field Crops : A Textbook of Agronomy. By T. B.
Hutcheson, T. K. Wolfe and M. S. Kipps. Pp. xvii + 445, and 1 10 figs
(London : McGraw'-Hill Publishing Co., Ltd. 1936. Mce 21s.)
The writer of a text-book on the field crops (of North America) must be
under the same disadvantage as one who proposed to perform the same
task for the continent of Europe. Clearly what is given to breadth of
treatment takes away from depth. This is a text-book in the sense that
it provides an arrangement of the subject and lecture lieadings for the
instructor, who is left to select material according to his territory and
supplement it from his local knowledge ; and that is the extent of its
claim. It is apparently suitable for North American conditions and
cropping, and may be regarded as having reached a high standard. The
work may have an interest for British readers, but has little or no bearing
on British agriculture.
Printed under the authority of Ills Majesty’s Stationery Office,
By William Clowes Sons, T.td., Duke Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 4 July, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Research on Foot-and-Mouth Disease
The following note has been contributed by Sir Joseph
Arkwright, F.R.S., of the Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine, who is Chairman of the Foot-and-Mouth Disease
R(!search Committee of the Ministry : —
The fifth Progress Report of the Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Research Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, recently issued, covers the work of about five years.
It contains a brief review of the past work and aims of
the Committee and a general summary of the more recent
results from the experiments recorded in detail in Appendices
to the Report. The research has been carried out at the
Pirbright Experimental Station where farm animals have been
used, at the National Institute for Medical Research,
Hampstead, the Lister Institute, Chelsea, and for a part of
the time at Manchester University and at the Oxford Bureau
of Animal Population.
Numerous lines of research have been followed, but they
can be grouped under three main headings : — (a) inquiry
into the properties and behaviour of the virus, (b) the means
whereby infection is introduced and spread, and (c) problems
connected with resistance to the disease.
These subjects have been investigated from many different
aspects and considerable progress has been made.
A close examination of the infective agent or virus and the
minute particles of which it is composed shows that these
latter are smaller than almost any other known microbes and
arc about two-millionths of an inch in diameter. Their size
and the very large number present in infective material
probably account for the very high infectivity of this disease.
After many trials of different disinfectants it has been found
that washing soda is the most efficient means of destroying the
virus outside the animal body, besides being cheap and easily
obtained. Study of the properties of the virus has shown its
A 305
Notks for the Month
general resemblance to the viruses of other infective diseases
and has also provided means of distinguishing between Foot-
and-Mouth disease and certain other diseases, such as vesicular
stomatitis of the horse.
Many kinds of animals, including rats, rabbits, mice, dogs
and cats, can be infected artificially, but there is little evidence
that most of them acquire the disease naturally and pass it
on to others, though no doubt they can act as mechanical
carriers. Hedgehogs alone besides cattle and other hooved
animals are readily infected by contact and able to transmit
the disease to other susceptible individuals. There is no
proof, however, that in nature wild hedgehogs contract the
disease and transmit it to farm animals. Since the hedgehog
so nearly resembles cattle in relation to this disease, it is
hoped that further use can be made of this animal to advance
knowledge of the natural methods of infection and of procuring
inununity.
One of the chief aims of the Committee’s work has been
to discover any means by which farm animals can be made
more resistant to Foot-and-Mouth disease, and during the last
few years experiments with cattle have been made on a larger
scale than before; the experimental work has previously been
largely carried out with guinea pigs and rats, which, though'
cheap, easily handled, and invaluable for many purposes, do
not quite reproduce the disease as seen in farm animals. The
ease with which animals can be infected and the severity of
the attack vary very much with the age and state of nutrition,
and under some circumstances ill-fed and old animals suffer
less than those in better condition; moreover, this observation
seems to be applicable to several different species.
Experiments on the protection afforded by vaccine or
serum have been very much complicated by the discovery
that there are several types of virus, all causing apparently
identical forms of illness; but an attack due to one type does
not protect against the other types. It has been found that
one attack gives a more lasting immunity against infection
with the same type than was formerly supposed.
These experiences encourage the hope tiiat in spite of the
great difficulties encountered a practical vaccine may
eventually be obtained. One of the chief hindrances to
preparing a vaccine consists in the difficulty in obtaining a
sufficient supply of highly active virus. If a good and easy
method of protective vaccination were discovered perhaps the
306
Notes for the Month
chief value for this country would be the reduction of disease
in those other countries with which the British Isles are
connected through the meat trade. *
The means whereby the disease is introduced into this
country can seldom be ascertained, but it is known that
chilled and frozen meat and bones may remain infective for
many weeks. The Ministry has therefore ordered that un-
cooked meat, bones and offals must not come in contact with
farm animals, and an Order also prohibits the use of wrappers
from imported carcasses in connexion with farm animals or
for making bags to contain fodder for animals. These very
important regulations, in addition to the other means of
administrative control, are calculated further to diminish the
risks of outbreaks.
The Animal Diseases Research Association.
The following note has been received from the Agricultural
Research Council : —
An extensive programme of investigation into the cause and
prevention of disease in farm animals confronts the Animal
Diseases Research Association, whose Institute, situated at
Moredun, near Edinburgh, is under the direction of Dr. J.
Ru-ssell Greig, M.R.C.V.S.
It has for some time become apparent that the existing
laboratories and animal accommodation at Moredun were in-
sufficient for the Research Association’s rapidly extending
work, and Treasurj' sanction has recently been given to the
recommendation of the Agricultural Research Council and the
Department of Agriculture for Scotland that a grant not exceed-
ing £9,800 should be made available (after taking into account
any receipts from other sources) from the Development Fund
to enable necessary building extensions to be undertaken.
Further, the permanent staff of the Institute will be strengthened
by the additional appointment of a senior and a junior research
officer, with a full complement of laboratory assistants.
In view of the economic importance of grass sickness, it
became clear to the Department of Agriculture for Scotland and
the Agricultural Research Council that further extension and
intensification of the research into the cause and prevention
of this disease were necessary. Besides the capital sum already
mentioned, which was approved on exceptional terms in order
that the needs of the grass sickness investigations might be met
immediately, the Treasury have sanctioned an appropriation
Aa 307
Notes for the Month
from the Development Fund to the Department of Agriculture
for Scotland of such sum not exceeding £ 2,, 200 as, after taking
into account any funds provided from other sources, might be
required by Moredun Institute to meet the expenditure for
extended work on this disease during the current financial year.
Several contributions towards the cost of grass sickness investi-
gation have been received from outside sources, notably that
from the Racecourse Betting Control Board, who have granted
^1,000 for the work on grass sickness at Moredun during 1937.
The granting of these additional sums will make it possible
to test on a large scale in the field the value of vaccination of
horses against infection with grass sickness. For this purpose
additional temporary veterinary appointments have been made.
It should be clearly realized, however, that while the cause of
this fatal disease which is reported to have killed some 1,200 to
1,500 horses last summer and is by no means confined to
Scotland, is suspected to be due to poisoning developed in the
intestine by certain bacteria, taken in on grass or in some other
way during feeding, this theory, though promising, is not yet
proved. The vaccination trial, which is being made after
careful preliminary experiment, is intended as a further test of
this theory.
Meat
The Imperial Economic Committee has recently published
a useful summary of the figures relating to world production
of and trade in meat.* The figures relate to the period 1929-
1935, but there are appendices on “ Regulation of Meat
Imports into the United Kingdom ” and on “ Meat Duties
and Quantitative Restrictions in Foreign Importing Coun-
tries,” in which the information, in some instances, also relates
to 1936.
Perhaps the most interesting section of the publication is
that dealing with the increasing share of home production in
the total meat supplies of the United Kingdom. In the 7
years under review, the output of beef and veal in the United
Kingdom increased by over i million cwt. and comprised
52 per cent, of the imports requirements in 1935, as against
48 per cent, in 1929. The home production of mutton and
lamb declined from 46 per cent, to 43 per cent, of total
* Meat : A Summary of Figures of Production and Trade relating to Beef,
Mutton and Lamb, Bacon and Hams, Pork, Cattle, Sheep, Pigs and Canned
Meat. Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kings-
way, London, W.C. 2 . lYice 2s. 6d., post free 25. 9 ^.
308
Notes for the Month
supplies. In the same period, the output of pig meat is
estimated to have increased by no less than 2| million cwt.,
and to have accounted for almost exactly one-half of the
United Kingdom consumption of pig meat in 1935, compared
with 39 per cent, in 1929.
In addition to the expansion in home production, Empire
countries are providing an increasing share of United Kingdom
meat requirements. The Empire, as a whole, is a net importer
of all meats, owing to the large import demand of the United
Kingdom, but the import balance has diminished appreciably
in recent years. Of the imports in the United Kingdom in
1935, Empire countries furnished 24 per cent, of the beef
and veal as against only 10 per cent, in 1929, and 81 per
cent, of the mutton and lamb, compared with 59 per cent.
With regard to bacon and hams, the Empire share of total
imports rose from under 9 per cent, in 1929 to 21 per cent,
in 1935-
The world trade in meat as a whole declined by about 12
per cent, between 1929 and 1935. The increase in world
trade in beef during the immediate post-war period was
followed by a downward trend up to 1932. Supplies were
maintained at this reduced level in the two succeeding years,
and an upward movement occurred in 1935. International
trade in mutton and lamb experienced a marked increase in
the post-war years to a peak in 1931. A declining tendency
was in evidence in the three succeeding years, but was
apparently checked in 1935. International trade in pig meat,
which is dominated by the movement of bacon and hams to
the United Kingdom, showed a marked rise to a peak in 1932,
but was substantially reduced between 1932 and 1935 owing
to the regulation of imports into the United Kingdom.
Fruit
The Imperial Economic Committee has also published its
annual summary of the world production of, and trade in, the
chief kinds of fresh, canned and dried fruit.* It will be useful
alike to those who are interested in the fruit supplies of the
United Kingdom and to those interested in a growing Empire
industiy.
The review, which covers the period 1929-1935, shows that,
* Fruit : A Summary of Figures of Production and Trade relating to
Apples, Pears, Bananas, Citrus Fruit, Grapes, Wine, Raisins and Currants
and Canned Fruit. Obtainable from H,M. Stationery Olftce, Adastral
House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2. Price 2s. 6d., post free 2s, Sd,
309
Notes for the Month
although the world export trade in apples, pears, oranges
and lemons during 1934 and 1935 was, with each commodity,
on the average on a somewhat smaller scale than in the 5
preceding years, the quantities of these fruits exported from
Empire countries were substantially heavier. Further,
exports of certain other fruits, including grapes, grapefruit
and canned fruits from Empire countries, have continued to
increase.
Changes in the world output of the different kinds of fruit
are difficult to measure over short periods, but there is little
doubt that since the War the general tendency has been one
of expansion, more especially in those countries growing fruit
largely for export; and trade has develop)ed considerably,
particularly in citrus fruits, bananas and the various kinds
of canned fruits. In fact, exports of canned fruit increased
steadily from 1930 to 1935, in which year they easily attained
a new high level.
A distinctive feature of the United Kingdom trade has been
the marked growth of the imports from Empire countries,
which in 1935, ^ record year, were over seven times greater
than in the years before the War. The Empire is a net
importer of all the principal fruits, with the one exception,
in normal years, of bananas. Expanding imports from the
Dominions are, however, reducing the import balance
considerably.
Interesting Birds: (5) The Song-Thrush
As well-known as the blackbird and as often seen in
gardens and orchards, the song-thrush is with us all the year
round. It is an accomplished singer, although inferior in
this respect to the blackbird, and may be heard at seasons
of the year when most other birds are silent. Its food is
much the same as that of the blackbird. It is, however, less
prone to take cultivated fruit, and has an especial liking for
snails. Its good work in the destruction of these and other pests
should be enough to commend it to the gardener. “ Thnish-
stones " are common objects of the countryside. An indi-
vidual song-thnish will regularly use one particular stone on
which to crack snails, and the ground around the stone
will, in time, become littered with fragments of shell. The song-
thrush’s mud-lined nest, with its four or five beautiful blue,
black-spotted eggs, is well-known to most country-folk. Like
the blackbird, the song-thrush, when nesting, makes little
310
^onj;-thru'.h bnii^in" food ti
Notes for the Month
or no attempt at concealment, and sometimes rears two or
even more broods of young in a season. It has always been
one of our commonest birds, and is undoubtedly a beneficial
species.
Quick Drying of Hay
The following note has been communicated by Mr. J. St.
Bodfan-Griffith : —
Some method for the quick drying of hay has been evolved
in most parts of Scandinavia and North Germany, where the
summers are either short or inclined to be wet. With the
tripod method from North Germany many British farmers
are acquainted. In Scandinavia, however, an even quicker
method is practised, whereby the crop may be set up to dry
at once. In Norway, where the rainfall is heavy, it is mostly
grass that is dealt with, chiefly, no doubt, on account of the
fact that grass grows relatively well and also owing to the
difficulties of cultivating such mountainous country.
In Sweden, however, a special crop is usually grown for
the purpose, made up of approximate!}' :
17 lb. Swedish Red ('lover j
II lb. Timothy, and [ per acre,
() lb. Alsikc '
and included in the regular rotation of : fallow — winter wheat
— mixed com — clover hay, for several seasons — and mixed
com again (Ultuna Rotation). The grass and clover seeds
311
Notes for the Month
are sown down under mixed corn. Farmyard manure is
applied in the fallow, phosphoric acid with the wheat and
nitrogen and phosphoric acid with mixed corn again;
sufficient potash being present in this district. The seeds crop
is grown primarily for fodder, the first cut for hay, and the
second (in August or September) for Silage (A.I.V.), and
eventually grazed before ploughing in.
The hay crop is cut when the first signs of colour are visible
on the clover hud, and is dried on “ Hassjor.” These
" hassjor ” or hay racks vary in construction and material,
being modified to suit local conditions, but the principle on
which they are designed is always the same. In the north,
for example, where wood is plentiful and cheap, the racks
are made entirely of wood (Figs, i and 2), whereas further
south wire or cord is used instead of wood for horizontals,
and we may take the latter as being more typically interesting.
Wooden stakes, 7-9 ft. long and pointed at both ends, are
used for uprights; q of these are set up, 3-4 ft. apart, using
a stout crowbar for making holes, and arc best set on either
side of a straight line for strength (Fig. 3), the end stakes
being set at a slight slant away from the others, for the same
reason. Pliable wire or tarred hemp line is then stretched
across by securing it to the first stake and giving it a turn
Fig. 2. — ^Wooden rack covered with hay.
around each of the others in succession. On this the green
crop is hung to dry.
Green clover may be hung up at once, but grass should lie
for a few hours after cutting. The racks can be set up in
the hay field as soon as a sufficient area has been cut to allow
312
Notes for the Month
room for them. The hay is then brought up to the racks,
as for cocking. A small horse-drawn sweep is most useful
and practical for this purpose. The hay is then hung over
the bottom line, using a hay fork. It is surprising how easy
this is to do and how well the hay hangs in its green state.
When the first line is covered, wire is stretched across, as
before, leaving a space of from 2-4 in. above the covered
line beneath, and more hay hung on that. It is then often
advisable to make a support to prevent sagging in the middle,
and this may be done quickly by securing a stake diagonally
inwards from the end stakes of the rack. Hanging is then
continued.
Fig. 3 — Rack with wire horizontals and end stakes sloping outward.s The plan
show's position of stakes on eithtT .side of central line
Once on the rack, the crop is safe for weeks and wall be
practically unaffected by rain or storm. This allows
harvesting operations to go on steadily, uninterrupted, for
example, by the necessity of carrying one field before cutting
another in a wet season. The result is that all the crop may
be cut in prime condition.
In good weather, the crop on the racks w'ill dry in 2
or 3 days, but in wet seasons it may be necessary to leave
it for a week to ten days before it is safe to carry it to stack.
The more quickly it dries, the better the quality of the hay
will be, and, of course, it should be carried as soon as
possible after it is dry. Beyond this the possibilities of damage
are infinitely less than with cocking.
A four-line rack of this kind, covered with clover hay,
holds from 77-110 lb. of dry hay, per running yard, depending
on the amount of moisture in the crop at the time of racking,
and one man usually makes and covers 8 racks per day. At
this rate 5 men would just about keep pace with a mowing
machine.
The racks are made without difficulty, and it will be found
313
Notes for the Month
no more trouble to hang up the crop than to make a cock —
in fact, less skill is required than in good cockmaking, and it
is certainly far less tedious and much quicker than all the
turning so often necessary before cocking.
Jordhrukstekniska Foreningen, Uppsala, through whoso
courtesy the diagrams arc reproduced, have worked out costs;
those of two methods are given for comparison : —
Q)sts of drying i ton of hay, all costs of labour, material and trans-
portation from the field included. Costs, calculated to the nearest
represent averages from 4 farms in 1928 :
Method of
drying
Labour Horse labour !
, valued at valued at ^d.
\(yid, per hour per hour |
Cost
of
materials
Tf)TAL
s. d.
s. d.
—
Cocks . .
\ ^ 5 h
T 5
Wire Racks
2 ll
i 61
It will be noticed that the difference in the cost of making
hay on racks and in cocks is only one shilling per ton, or
approximately 1-3 per cent, of its value, which is insignificant
when the far higher feeding value of rack hay is taken into
consideration. Even in wet seasons, drying hay on racks
assures at least an average quality crop, whereas that
dried in cocks under similar conditions, may often be so poor
as to be of practically no value at all ! In excessively hot
or dry seasons, it has been found that hay dried on racks
sustains less loss through withering and scorching of the leaves.
In fact, rack hay made from a crop that is mainly clover is
the sort most farmers long to produce ; one has only to touch
or smell it to be filled with envy, while for dairy cows, it is,
in itself, almost a balanced ration. With 11-14 lb. of it,
some silage or roots and a little home-grown crushed corn, in
our dairy rations, we could wave goodbye to concentrates, as
usually understood, for the rest of our lives !
Sampling Observations on Wheat 1936>37: Report for
Second Quarter
The observations from appearance above ground to
tillering date are summarized in the accompanying Table,
which shows the date of tillering (defined as the moment
when the number of shoots is double the number of plants),
the rate of tillering and the plant number at tillering date.
314
SAMPLING. OBSERV ATKINS ON WHEAT. Kj.V-i/ SECOND QUARTER
Notes for the Month
315
Squarehead’s Master t 1933-3O. X O*' March 5.
Notes for the Month
The values for the present season may be compared with the
averages for the four previous seasons, shown in adjacent
columns.
The weather of the past quarter has been marked by un-
precedented rainfall, deficiency of sunshine, and absence
of frosts in January and February. The rate of progress of
wheat in growth has, however, in most cases been normal up
to tillering date, except that the three northerly stations,
Newport, Boghall and Carlisle, were rather late. There was
no exceptionally early tillering, the first date recorded being
for the local variety at Seale-Hayne on January 22. Tillering
took place during February at three stations. At Cirencester,
Yeoman and Little Joss tillered towards the end of February,
but Squarehead’s Master lagged behind, and has not yet
reached the 2 to i ratio, though the plant has now begun to
increase its height. Of the remaining stations, Sprowston
and Wye tillered during March and Newport, Boghall and
Carlisle in April. It is interesting to note that at Boghall
tillering is on the average three months later than at Seale-
Hayne. By ear emergence, the average interval between the
two stations has dropped to 16 days.
Squarehead’s Master generally tilleis slightly later than
Yeoman, as the averages show, but this year there was no
consistent difference between the two varieties. Squarehead’s
Master being much later at Cirencester and Wye, but con-
siderably earlier at Newport and Plumpton.
The rate of tillering was slightly slower this season than
usual, low values occurring at Rothamsted, Wye and Seale-
Hayne, which are among the stations where tillering took
place early. The highest rates occurred as usual at the late
stations.
At most stations, plant elimination since the first count
has been fairly small this year, presumably owing to the
absence of severe frosts, and plant numbers arc generally
somewhat higher than usual. Exceptions are Plumpton and
Newport, the two stations with the lowest average plant
numbers. At Newport, indeed. Yeoman has almost failed,
the plant numbers having dropped by about half since the
first count on December 23. It will be interesting to see to
what extent the plant recovers later. Last year, it will be
remembered, Newport had a very sparse plant, yet produced
the highest yield of all stations at harvest.
316
IMMATURE GRASS AND YOUNG SWARDS-I.
Professor R. G. Stapledon, C.B.E., M.A.,
Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Aberystwyth.
The (flying of grass, like all innovations, serves to em-
phasize a number of facts which have a significance reaching
much farther than the ends immediately in view. The dry-
ing of grass is desirable, and when all the processes are per-
fected will be of immense importance, for the sole reason
that it affords a means of storing immature grass.
We are perhaps inclined to forget that the product must
always come before the means of putting it to some new
purpose. Nor must we forget that immature grass is always
valuable, whether dried or not; indeed, it is probably most
valuable when it is on the field, still alive and growing. Facts
are being accumulated as to technique and costs of drying
grass to be used primarily as a concentrated winter and off-
season feed. It is therefore certainly logical that inquiries
should be set on foot to ascertain whether it might not be
more satisfactory, and cheaper, to produce at least some
proportion of the immature grass required for the winter and
for other difficult times of the year.
The grazing year divides itself naturally as follows; —
(i) January to oml of March (m late and hilly districts, to end of April),
(j) April to end of June
(3) Ji'b' August.
( 4 ) Septeinhor to early-muldle October.
(5) Karly-niiddle t)ctober to January.
In most districts, and in most years, the only comparatively
safe grazing periods are April to June and September to
early-middle October. Frequently during both of these
periods properly-managed swards will produce more imma-
ture grass than the farmer can contrive to convert there and
then, and on the spot. In some years the period July- August
is highly critical, while in most years it is a period that
presents considerable anxieties to ffie grazier. In practically
all districts the period January-March is much more critical
than the period mid-October to December. It would probably
be no exaggeration to say that at least 70 per cent, of the
grassland problem centres on the three difficult periods,
317
Immature Grass and Young Swards
July- August, mid-October to December, and January-
March, and in this rising scale of importance. In cold fact
it is quite impossible to work out a rational technique of
grassland management before and until the economist will
be obliging enough to inform the agronomist as to the precise
value of the dry matter in a ton of immature grass (a) dried and
nicely stored away in the barn, and (6) out on the field and
still alive at each of the five periods of the year above
mentioned.
It is not the intention of this pa}x?r to attempt to assist the
economist to do his own job, and the question of costs of
production will not be once mentioned: the intention is to
discuss some of the more important aspects of the problems
involved, and to show that immature grass in considerable
quantities can be produced on the field at each of the most
critical periods. It will also be shown that animals thrive
on such grass.
The Characteristics of Immature Grass. Although the
chief facts about immature grass are now generally known,
a brief statement will not be out of place, while certain
characteristics of such grass deserve more consideration than
they have anywhere received.
Immature grass is in a state of active growth: it consists
of a high proportion of leaf, and leaf is more nutritious than
stem: it is highly concentrated in propnjrtion to its
immaturity.* the ultimate chemical proi)erties of immature
grass show considerable seasonal variation, and it would
appear from the results of the resc'arches condiu ted at the
Hannah Dairy Research Institutcf that the biological values
of the proteins themselves show marked seasonal differences.
Thus it has been shown that the biological value of autumn
immature grass is not as high as that of spring immature
grass for milk production, the proteins of the latter being
richer in lysine. This is not to say that the proteins of
autumn, or indeed of winter, grass are not valuable, or that
* The range of chemical ditfcrciiccs as between hay and pasinre grass,
leaf and stem, and herbages of different periods of growth, burned herbage
and green herbage, and other details are concisely shown by Fagan.
See Fagan, T. W., The nutritive value of grasses, Jour. Univ. Coll. Wales,
Agricultural Department, Vol. XVI, 1927 ; and Fagan, T. W., The
influence of management on the nutritive value of herbage plants, Agric.
Progress, Vol. VIII, 1931.
f See Morris, S., Wright, N. C., and Fowler, A. H., The nutritive value
of proteins for milk production, Jour. Dairy Res., Vol. VIl, No. 2, May,
193^.
318
Immature Grass and Young Swards
they may not be of particular value to particular classes of
stock; nor is it to say that by the adoption of appropriate
methods it may not be possible to grow grass capable of
producing “ spring ” proteins in the autumn. These are
matters to which reference will again be made at a later
stage.
A very important property of immature grass is its suc-
culency. We know all too little as to what constitutes
" succulency,” but we do know that succulent herbage is
palatable and that it contains a higher percentage of water
of constitution than does less palatable and more mature
herbage. In this connection it is important to emphasize
that the water content of herbage is high in proportion as
it is growing rapidly, and there is strong presumptive
evidence in support of the view that herbage is nutritious
(or, if not “ nutritious ” in the nutrient or ingredient sense,
at least serviceable to the animal) in proportion to the accen-
tuation of these properties. An animal thrives well accord-
ing as it can make for itself long rests between its periods
of grazing and of chewing the cud. The point about a suc-
culent herbage is that an animal will eat more per unit of
time than it will eat of a less succulent and more mature
herbage, and moreover, the animal will eat sufficiently more
to have taken in more dry matter (and therefore, proportion-
ately, considerably more nutrients, for the dry matter of
succulent herbage is richer than that of less succulent herbage)
from the succulent (and watery) herbage than from
mature (less watery) herbage.*
The time factor is one of great importance as affecting the
serviceability of food-stuffs, and particularly of herbage
plants growing in situ. Properly, digestibility (which in effect
implies the usefulness of a food) should take heed of this
factor. In the chemical analysis, of e.g., “ digestible pro-
tein,” no value can of necessity be given to the time factor
as here understood. A food-stuff with a higher digestible
protein might in fact be less serviceable to the animal than
* The evidence for the views here expressed was derived from experi-
ments conducted at the Welsh Plant Breeding Station during the period
1925-1026.
See Stapledon, R. G., and Jones, Martin G., The sheep as a grazing
animal and as an instrument for estimating the productivity of pastures,
Welsh Plant Breeding Station Bulletin, Series H, No. 5, 1927 ; and Jones,
Martin G., Comparison of pastures by means of sheep, Welsh Jour. Agric.,
Vol. IV, 1928.
319
Immature Grass and Young Swards
one with a somewhat lower figure, if the former food (because
less succulent) were in a form that the animal took longer to
eat or to collect. It is interesting in this connexion to specu-
late whether i lb. of dried grass with the succulence driven
out of it is as serviceable to the animal as r lb. of dry matter
of the same grass undried. Whether moistening a dry food
is to give that food succulence (its water of constitution)
again must be open to considerable doubt.
Succulence is a matter demanding most detailed research.
Thus, if it were proved that dried grass was less serviceable
than immature grass on the field we should have a further
argument in favour of producing off-season and winter grass
in situ.
Two further facts deserve mention. Clover is not only
richer in protein than grass but richer also in water of con-
stitution. Clover is altogether more effective in fatting sheep
than is grass.* Water of constitution is a variable of varia-
bles; it is influenced not only by rapidity of growth, but
also by weather conditions as such. The herbage taken in
wet weather, however, always also carries extraneous mois-
ture, so that the animal has to deal with all this extra water
and perhaps an excess of succulence as well. Be this as it
may, in a dry year there will not be as much liveweight
increase per acre as in a wet year, but the liveweight incre-
ment per unit of dry matter will be greater.* It may be that
the serviceability of a herbage plant bears some relation to
an optimum figure of succulence; the grasses vary very con-
siderably amongst themselves in their percentage moisture,
while grasses as a class tend to be richer in dry matter than
either the legumes or the miscellaneous herbs. To adopt
percentage dry matter as a criterion for estimating the value
of a fodder plant, particularly a grass, clover or miscellaneous
herb, subjected to selective grazing, is assuredly to pin one's
faith on a standard of very questionable validity.
Factors Favouring Rapid Growth and Succulence.
Rapidity of growth in plants and animals alike is to a verj'
real extent a matter of youthfulness. This is tnie of swards;
young swards grow faster than old ones. Critical sward
trials have been conducted at Aberystwyth for the past 17
• See Jones, LI. lorwerth. The feeding value of pastures sown with
different strains of grasses and clovers, Emp. Jour. Exp. Agric., Vol. IV,
No. 15, July, 1936.
320
Immature Grass and Young Swards
years, and as a result of such trials it has been possible to
form a sound judgment upon certain aspects of the grass land
problem which the trials as such were not designed to test,
and upon which it is almost impossible to obtain reliable
statistical evidence. Thus it is impracticable to plan a satis-
factory experiment designed to test herbage yield from year
to year irrespective of weather conditions. If the same mix-
ture is repeatedly sown year after year, the weather con-
ditions at the time of sowing and establishment will never
have been twice the same. Examination of all the data col-
lected during this 17-year period, and close association with
the experiments, however, leave no doubt that sown swards
tend to fall off in both rapidity of growth (and therefore in
succulence) as the years advance, and in total yield per acre
per annum. This falling off in yield and rapidity of growth
would seem to be greater than could reasonably be accounted
for by the slower-growing invaders like Agrostis that may
have replaced the quicker-growing sown species. Yield and
rapidity of growth tend to fall away in the quicker-growing
sown species themselves in proportion as the sward increases
in age.
Such evidence as has been obtained in terms of liveweight
increase tends to confirm this view, and the only conclusion
that can be drawn is that temporary grass (leys of from one
to about six years’ duration) are heavier yielders of succulent
herbage than all but possibly the very best permanent pas-
tures. Much more important, however, is the fact that the
temporary leys yield more succulent herbage during the
critical periods mid-October to December and January to
March than do permanent swards. As bearing on this
question it is highly significant that hill sheep farmers looking
for wintering grounds for their younger ewes and lambs
always prefer farms where temporary leys contribute in fair
measure to the land under grass rather than holdings wholly
in permanent pasture.
An indication of the monetary value of winter herbage is
afforded by evidence collected by Dawe and Blundell* as
the result of an examination of records obtained on 133 dairy
herds in the Bristol Advisory Province. They put forward
at a tentative estimate that i lb. of starch equivalent is
worth o-^^d. when taken in the form of winter grazing from
* Dawe, C. V., and Blundell, J. E., Winter Feeding for Milk Production,
Univ. of Bristol {Dept, of Agric. and Hort.), Bui. No. 16.
321
Immature Grass and Young Swards
permanent pastures. On some farms the estimated cost was
as low as o-2Sd. per lb. These figures must be compared
with a cost of l ogd. per lb. of starch equivalent in the form
of concentrates. Although, taking no account of the extra
value of winter grass in terms of protein as such, and of
carotene, these data nevertheless suggest that the expendi-
ture of not inconsiderable money would be justified in the
production of winter grass and by means more intensive than
merely the conversion of low-grade permanent grass into
high-grade and long-duration temporary grass. The farmer
should aim at altogether higher yields than could be obtained
from even good, ordinary leys ordinarily managed. It is
more than probable that by the adoption of appropriate
methods he could obtain yields so much higher than those
to be had from permanent pastures or from ordinary leys,
that in addition to enormously increasing his supplies of
winter grass he would reduce the price per lb. of starch
equivalent.
The Production of Winter Grass. Four methods are
open to the farmer for the special production of winter
grass. These are: —
(1) To sow fields down to Italian rye-grass primarily for winter use. •
(2) To grow special winter-growing grasses in cultivated drills.
(3) To use special mixtures for loiig-du ration swards, to obtain the
maximum of winter grass.
(4) To accumulate foggage from leys or from drills sown with such an
object predominantly in view.
(i) Italian Rye-grass for Winter Feed. Experiments have
been conducted for many years at Aberystwyth in the pro-
duction of Italian rye-grass for winter feed. The rye-grass
has been sown (a) in an ordinary oat crop, when it grows
away fast in the stubble; (b) with an oat crop that is cut
for hay, this procedure ensuring a quicker and more robust
development of Italian rye-grass; (c) in June with rape; and
(d) as a pure crop in May, June or July. When sown with
oats (either for grain or for hay) the rye-grass sward is always
dressed with nitro-chalk immediately after harvest; when
sown pure or with rape the sward receives nitro-chalk in
late August or September.
The Italian lye-grass may be either grazed intermittently
from September to April, or it may be in the main reserved
for March and early April (lambing time). If it is required
more particularly for lambing time it should be grazed fairly
322
Immature Grass and Young Swards
close in September, and again lightly once or twice, and
rested completely from about the middle of October. This
latter procedure ensures a good yield of highly nutritious
fodder in March; higher yields, but of a less nutritious
fodder, will be obtained in March if the field is only grazed
off in September.
The point to be insisted upon is that Italian rye-grass
(properly manured) is capable of making appreciable growth
all through the winter. At Aberystwyth, samples taken from a
grazing experiment* showed a yield of never less than 200 lb.
of dry matter per month per acre, and a total yield from
monthly cuts (corresponding to monthly grazings September
to March) of 3,521 lb. of dry matter per acre. The yield in
March from plots rested since September was 944 lb. of dly
matter per acre, while that from plots again grazed in early
December was 719 lb. per acre. The yield of crude protein
per acre was 245 lb. from the former plots, and 282 lb. from
the latter, while the crude protein taken under a system of
monthly grazing (seven grazings September to March) was
456 lb. The contribution of crude protein to the dry matter
(in March) varied from 1575 per cent, on the plots grazed
monthly to 1271 on those rested since September. All
through the winter Italian rye-grass was producing a fodder
with a crude protein percentage of never less than 12 per
cent., and this was in exceedingly palatable fodder with a
high leaf to stem ratio.
These data are of particular significance; they were ob-
tained from small plots as long ago as 1927, and have been
the forenmner of a prolonged and successful use of Italian
rye-grass. Thus Griffith and Jonest have reported upon an
experiment conducted in 1929-30 in which Italian rye-grass
was rested from October i to December 27, having received
a dressing of i cwt. nitro-chalk per acre. By December 27
there was a thick sward of Italian rye-grass, 6 to 8 in. high.
Sheep were then grazed on the Italian rye-grass for two
hours a day, the remainder of the 24 hours being spent on
an adjoining block of rough pasture. The rye-grass — three
acres — cum rough grazing (which had very little feed to
* Stapledon, R. G., Fagan, T. W , Evans, R. E , and Milton, W. E. J.,
Italian rye-grass for winter and early spring keep, Welsh Plant Breeding
Station Bulletin, Series H., No. 5, 1927.
t Griffith, M., and Jones, M., Italian rye-grass for winter keep, Welsh
Jour, Agric,, Vol. XI, 1935.
323
Immature Grass and Young Swards
contribute) maintained 35 sheep from December 27 to April 5,
and this without by any means completely utilizing all the
rye-grass. Results of a similar nature have been obtained
year after year in recent years on the farm lands of the
Cahn Hill Improvement Scheme, though there we have
usually kept the grass in the main for lambing. An area of
Italian rye-grass has, however, proved invaluable all through
the winter as a temporary “ hospital ” for weakly ewes.
The inherent feeding value of Italian rye-grass has been well
illustrated by a further experiment conducted at Aberyst-
wyth.* In a period August 23 to September 13 lambs fatting
resp)ectively on rape, hardy green turnips and Italian rye-
grass actually put on more weight on the Italian rye-grass
(80 lb. liveweight per lamb) than on hardy green turnips
(6 lb.), or on rape (3.5 lb.); by September 23 the lambs on
the rape had, however, further increased in weight and gave
the maximum yield (95 lb.); those on the Italian rye-grass
had fallen from the weights attained on September 12 by
27 lb. per head. This result is of significance as showing
that grass as it matures (the ration offering was always
adequate) falls off in fatting properties more quickly than
does rape, and affords an interesting side-light on the im-
portance of rotational grazing. It also emphasizes the care
that needs to be exercised in the matter of the date at which
fields should be closed in order to provide the maximum
of nutritious grazing — bulk is not everything; but to this
aspect of the question we shall presently revert.
(2) The Growing of Special Winter Grass in Cultivated
Drills. For the purposes of seed production the larger grasses
are grown in drills, the ground being kept well cultivated
between the drills. Such drills make considerable growth
during the winter, and as Fagan has shown, produce a
fodder somewhat richer in protein than that developed from
the same species in sward.
A strain of timothy (S.48)t bred at Aberystwyth has
proved itself particularly satisfactory as a winter grass when
grown in this way. At the farm of the Cahn Hill Improve-
ment Scheme this strain has been grown in drills for wintering
lambs. A hay or a silage crop is taken from the timothy
which is subsequently rested until December, save perhaps
♦ Griffith, M., and Hutton, P. M. G., The lamb-fattening capacity of
certain crops for hill conditions, Welsh Jour. Agric., Vol, XII, 1936.
t S " denotes Welsh Plant Breeding Station pedigree strain.
324
Immature Grass and Young Swards
for one or two light grazings, then from December to April
lambs running on an adjoining old pasture are given two
hours a day on the timothy. Seven acres of timothy drills
cum ten acres of poor pasture in 1934 maintained g8 lambs
as a slightly gaining weight from December 6 to March 15.*
These lambs were wintered at about 850 ft. above sea-level ;
they were maintained by this procedure in a thriftier con-
dition than similar lambs wintered away in the lowlands.
The “ timothy ” lambs had put on about an average of
i lb. per head; the lowland lambs had droj)ped about i lb.
per head. These timothy drills have also, like the Italian
rye-grass, proved invaluable as a “ hospital " for weakly
ewes, such ewes recovering rapidly when given access to
such grass for a week or two. So much for winter protein
grown in situ.
The practical economics of winter grass grown in this
way awaits upon the correct evaluation of winter grass, and
upon devising the cheapest possible means of cultivating
drills subjected to the constant and heavy treading of animals.
The conservation of spring and summer grass by drying or
by silage costs money, while as every flockmaster knows to
his consternation, sheep have an uncanny preference for
young green grass in situ, and show a marked antipathy to
hand feed if and when there is even the minimum of green
grass to be had.
(3) The Use of Special Seeds Mixtures. The precise
species and strains that are employed for the production of
winter grass are of an importance second only to manage-
ment. From what has already been said it follows that
Italian rye-grass should form an essential ingredient in all
mixtures with the object of providing winter grass during
the first winter after sowng. If the winter grazing will be
hard as much as 10 lb. per acre of Italian rye-grass can be
added to any ordinary seeds mixture : the presence of Italian
lye-grass serves the additional purpose of protecting the
smaller and less rapidly growing species from being grazed
too hard. In respect of all species of grass the indigenous
and leafy strains are more heavily winter yielding and more
winter green than are the ordinary strains of commerce;
indeed, this is the most important characteristic of the
• Griffith, Moses, and Hutton, P. M. G , The wintering of sheep on
temporary grasses, Part I, Welsh Jour. Agric., Vol. XI, 1935 ; Part II,
ibid., Vol. XII, 1936.
325
Immature Grass and Young Swards
indigenous strains. Evidence from one of our comprehensive
experiments* has shown that in respect of four species
(perennial lye-grass, cocksfoot, meadow foxtail and red
fescue) the amount of grass produced in December and
January was 2^ times as much from the indigenous strains
as from the commercial. The amount of grass produced
in March from the same four species was in the ratio com-
mercial strains to indigenous strains as loo : 150. The
highest yielding winter grasses have been the indigenous
strains of the four species immediately under consideration.
The exceedingly high-yielding ability of indigenous red
fescue (S.59) is particularly noteworthy; this grass is also
exceptionally winter green, and although, like all the fine-
leaved fescues, relatively unpalatable, it is readily grazed by
stock during the winter. A simple mixture consisting of
indigenous meadow foxtail (S.56), indigenous red fescue
(S.59) and wild white clover has proved to be one of the
most winter green and productive of the mixtures employed
at Aberystwyth for winter grazingt. Plots and fields sown
with such a mixture have always been outstanding in
appearance during February and March, and it is then that
they are probably of their greatest relative usefulness; in-
deed, in February the yield of such plots has generally been
in excess of those sown predominantly with indigenous peren-
nial rye-grass (S.23), which latter strain must perhaps be
regarded as the most generally satisfactory of all winter
grasses for use in long-duration leys.
During the whole period of these winter grazing experi-
ments (1927 to the present time) it has been rendered patent
that winter grass is only developed in good quantity from
leys subsequent to the first winter after seeding (when Italian
rye-grass is the chief contributor) if the swards are well en-
dowed with wild white clover. Wild white clover is always
an ingredient in all our mixtures, and the basic slag at a rate
• Stapledon, R. G., and Milton, W. E. J., Yield, palatability and other
studies on strains of various grass species, Welsh Plant Breeding Station.
Bulletin, Series H, No. 13, 1932.
t A simple mixture consisting of indigenous meadow foxtail (S. 56),
indigenous red fescue (S. 59) and wild white clover is necessarily expensive,
but whether such a mixture is prohibitive awaits upon the proper evalua-
tion of winter grass. At the present time supplies of the red fescue (S. 59)
are generally available in fair quantities, but owing to lack of demand
(at a necessarily high price) seed production has not l^jen proceeded with
on a large scale with the meadow foxtail (S. 56).
326
Immature Grass and Young Swards
never less than 6 cwt. per acre is always applied at the time
of sowing.
(4) The Accumulation of Foggage from Special Leys.
Foggage has always been employed for winter keep as a
standard practice on many farms, but what is foggage, and
how should it bo produced? The art of producing winter
grass raises a great many involved questions : what is wanted
is the maximum possible amount of green and succulent
leafage of a good protein content. Two considerations follow
from this. In the first place, if too large a bulk of stuff is
allowed to grow up and stand in to the winter the whole will
become excessively burned and of relatively poor nutritive
value, while the excess of burned and over-topping material
will effectively put a stop to any further and contempo-
raneous growth of young leafage. In the second place, the
winter-green species will stand-on as nutritious foggage
better than the more readily burning species. Long foggage,
consisting of bent and sheep's fescue, will be of relatively
little value, and of altogether less value than a shorter fog-
gage consisting largely of the still green leafage of grasses
like the rye-grasses, timothy and even Yorkshire fog if this
latter grass has not been allowed to grow too long. The
figures given in Table I, which are based on data kindly
provided by Professor Fagan, illustrate this point. The
analyses arc for winter grass (February 6, 1936) grown at the
Cahn Hill Improvement Scheme by the various methods pre-
viously discussed, in comparison with over-grown foggage
from a but lightly grazed and unimproved bent-fescue
pasture.
TABLE I. — To Show thf Main Fkaturks in thk Chemical Com-
position OF Winter Grass variously Produced. Percentage of dry matter.
Timothy ;
rows !
Italian
rye-
grass
1
, Improved i Unimproved
sown i bent-fescue
sw^ard* j pasture
Crude protein (includ- j
1
ing true protein) . .
13*44 !
14*68
1 18*90
1 7*08
Phosphoric acid
I -08
1*24
j 0*85
i o* 16
Lime
0-56 1
0*72
1 0-55
i
* 0*20
♦ Consisting of Yorkshire fog, perennial rye-grass, crested dogstail, a
little cocksfoot and wild white clover.
It should be pointed out that the timothy rows had been
allowed to grow-on from hay harvest, so that a certain
327
Immature Grass and Young Swards
amount of burning had taken place, and the same was true
of the Italian rye-grass, which had not been grazed since
the covering crop of corn had been harvested for hay, yet
the protein contributions are remarkably high, notably lower,
however, than those of the improved sown sward. The latter
sward had been grazed off in the early autumn, rested for
a period and then grazed hard all through the winter; thus
treated, the protein content (in February) is seen to be
excellent, despite the fact that Yorkshire fog was one of the
chief contributing species.
Further and valuable evidence is given by the experiment
on Italian rye-grass which we first discussed. When the rye-
grass was allowed to grown-on without once being grazed
from the time the corn was harvested (August) until March,
401 lb. of green Italian rye-grass leaf per acre were available
in March; when, however, the rye-grass was grazed off in
September (and therefore a less abundant over-topping
leafage was carried into the winter), the amount of green leaf
actually available in March was 529 lb. per acre. It follows
that the foggage carrying over from September was in every
way superior to that carrying over from August; the former
“ foggage ” available in March consisted of more growth
actually made during the winter (Italian lye-grass being
capable of quite considerable winter growth) and therefore
naturally of more green leafage than the latter.
In putting fields up for foggage — or it is better to say for
winter grass, for it is emphatically not dead and burned
material that is wanted — much must depend upon the date
at which the gate is closed upon the field. The whole
question is now under detailed experiment at the Welsh Plant
Breeding Station, and a report dealing with the matter from
the point of view of chemical composition and of yield will
shortly be published. Professor Fagan’s data, however,
show that the protein content (crude protein) of the materials
analysed has been remarkably high, having in no instance
been lower than 14.83 per cent., and having reached a figure
as high as 22.10 per cent. The experimental areas were
closed to stock at different dates from August i to
November i. The most interesting fact that is emerging
from these experiments is that, provided the leafy and indi-
genous strains are employed in the seeds mixtures (the data
unmediately under discussion were from ley plots in their
second harvest year), winter grass of remarkably high protein
328
Immature Grass and Young Swards
content can be obtained from areas put up as early as the
beginning of August. The winter grass from plots thus
treated has corresponded to yields of dry matter available
in February (sampled February 26) of from 142 lb. to
1,117 lb* acre, the highest yields having been obtained
from plots put-up early in September.
The chemical analyses that have been presented denote
a very valuable winter fodder; results of a similar nature
obtained from plots on a permanent pasture, or on a field
which had in any event been down to grass for a number of
years at Cockle Park, have been reported upon by Brynmor
Thomas and Boyns.* Here the plots were put up on August 4 ,
and let grow till October 27, when winter grazing commenced.
The grass throughout the winter period (under grazing) gave
a crude protein percentage of never less than 12.91 per cent.,
with a season mean of 13.82 per cent. ; it was found, however,
that “ the digestion-coefficients fall with great consistency to
a minimum in January and rise thereafter."
An interesting feature of all these foggages, except that
derived from over-grown bent and fescue, is that in protein
content they have proved to be superior, and in many
instances vastly superior, to hay; thus, in the Cockle Park
results a more or less comparable hay gave a crude protein
content of only g.53 per cent.
* Brynmor Tliomas and Boyns, J’. M., 'J'he compo.sition of grass laid
up for winter kcej), Eniptre Jottr. Exp. .-Igric., Vol. IV, No. 16, October,
1936.
[To he concluded. 'I
329
COMPOSTS
H. V. (iARNER, M.A., B.Sc.
Kothamstcd Experimental Station.
The maintenance of a good supply of organic matter in
soil is of great importance in horticultural work. With
intensive cultivation and tender crops, this particular aspect
of soil management becomes even more vital. For those
who enjoy an abundant and cheap supply of stable manure
there is no difficulty; weeds and crop-remains can go to
the bonfire, to yield plant ash, burnt soil, and a satisfactory
feeling that diseased material has been faithfully destroyed.
In most gardens and allotments, however, there is a growing
scarcity of animal manures, and the situation has to be met
by making full use of the waste organic material produced
on the land itself. The bonfire must accordingly be reduced
to its smallest limits and confined to woody prunings, old
pea sticks, diseased material, and the roots and underground
stems of docks, bindweed, creeping thistle and the like. All
other vegetation, including vegetable trimmings and faded
flowers from the house, should find their way back to the soil.
Compost making, by rule of thumb method, is as old as
agriculture itself. In the peasant farming of the Continent
the compost heap is used as a means of rotting down waste
plant material that is too coarse and resistant to be employed
as litter for livestock. The waste is put up in alternate shallow
layers with earth, road scrapings, ditch cleanings and so
forth. A sprinkling of chalk or lime is occasionally given as
the heap is made, and the mass is watered from time to
time, liquid manure being used when available. The process
is slow, and one or two turnings are required in the course
of the i8 months that the heaps are left to mature. The final
result is a very rich calcareous soil, high in organic matter or
humus and rich in nitrate. The application of this procedure
to horticulture is limited, but the method may be used to
deal with some of the materials mentioned above as likely
constituents for the bonfire. Treated in this way and given
time, twitch, cabbage stalks, twigs, rootstocks of p)erennial
weeds, dead leaves and so forth can produce an earthy humus
330
Composts
excellent for topdressing borders and lawns. Moreover, the
labour of turning and carting material of this kind is less
exacting under garden conditions than it is on a field scale.
The treatment of vegetable refuse without the use of soil
is much more important than the process just described, and
has received detailed .scientific study. As a result a certain
precision has been conferred on the production of organic
manures from waste materials that was quite absent from
the older methods. A statement of the leading facts may
be useful.
To 1 k“ of service to the growing crop a preliminary rotting
of organic matter is quite essential; indeed, raw vegetable
material turned straight into the ground is more likely to
depress than to benefit the crop that is planted upon it.
The rotting is caused through the activity of bacteria and
fungi normally present in the original material so that no
inoculation is required. I'he organisms decompose the
sugars, starches and cellulose for their own nutrition provided
they have sufficient readily available nitrogen and minerals
to “ balance their ration ”. The cultivator is concerned
with the end jK)int : that is to say, with the humified mass
consisting largely of the cell substance of the countless
organisms that have multiplied in the heap, together with
plant constituents such as lignin, the chief components of
woody tissue, which are too resistant for them to attack.
The success of the rotting process therefore depends on the
projxntions of easily decomposable carbohydrates relative to
nitrogenous and mineral substances in the heap. If the
material is high in carbohydrates and low in nitrogen,
decomixisition will be slow, but what little nitrogen is present
will be firmly held. If the mass is poor in carbohydrates
and rich in nitrogen, decomposition will be brisk and nitrogen
will be lost. The aim is to secure a correct balance between
these two classes of substances, striking a middle course
between the above extremes. Before indicating how this
may be done in practice, the. other requirements for success-
ful decomposition may be mentioned — namely, adequate
aeration of the heap, presence of sufficient moisture, and
enough basic material (usually chalk or ground limestone) to
maintain a neutral or weakly alkaline reaction.
The control of the balance between carbohydrate and
nitrogen may be partly, but seldom entirely, controlled by
the skilful blending of different kinds of plant material. This
331
Composts
depends on the fact that young fresh green growth, such
as lawn clippings, weeds, vegetable tops and the like, are
considerably richer in nitrogen and minerals than mature
tissues such as ripened straws, woody stems of herbaceous
plants, and dead leaves. The first class also is naturally
much less lignified than the second. The behaviour of these
two grades of materials when put up into a heap is quite
different. Grass cuttings, for example, will heat in a few
hours, and in a week or two reduce themselves to a brown,
slimy mass that, judged as a manure, lacks bulk, texture
and fibre. On the other hand, straw will remain for months
or even years almost unchanged. Neither of these results
is desirable. The proper course is to use the excess nitrogen
and minerals of the young green stuff to help the poorer
and more fibrous material to decay. To do this a certain
amount of grading of garden rubbish is required. Three
grades may be distinguished: the first comprises soft green
material such as grass cuttings, weeds, flower-bed and
vegetable trimmings; the second, more fibrous material such
as mature growths from herbaceous plants and kitchen
garden; the third, woody material such as light prunings
from shrubs and hedges, dead leaves, and dried litter.
Straw or bracken, if available, will also fall in the last class.
Hard and fast rules for the blending of these cannot be laid
down, but as a working guide it may be said that the more
mature and woody material that is present the higher the
proportion of soft stuff should be, i part of grade 2 might
have an equal quantity of grade i, while i part of grade 3
might have 2 parts of grade i.
The procedure is then as follows. A site is chosen,
preferably in some out of the way spot shaded from sun and
wind, and conveniently situated for water. Since the
fermentation requires air, deep pits or even tall heaps are
to be avoided, but a low concrete retaining wall about 2 ft.
high makes a neat job. The actual size of the site will
depend on the amount of waste to be treated, but it should
be big enough to hold two heaps that will not exceed 2J ft.
in height. If two heaps are provided for, it will be possible
to start on the second while leaving the first to mature.
The raw material, blended as far as possible on the lines
suggested above, is built up in successive shallow layers
about 6 in. deep, each layer receiving a sprinkling of chalk
or powdered limestone and sufficient watering to wet the mass
.132
Composts
thoroughly. In a few days, the heap will begin to get
warm, and nothing need be done for about 6 weeks, when
the first turning may be given; a second turning after another
6 weeks may be necessary to complete the job. At each
turning additional water may be given, and in drying
weather water may also be required at other times
The Acceleration and Control of the Rotting Process.
Although the procedure outlined above will usually yield a
satisfactory end product, quicker and better results can be
obtained by adding to the heap some reagent to supply
available nitrogen and lime. Such a reagent is calcium
cyanamide, a well-known nitrogenous fertilizer with basic
properties, sold in the form of a black, rather dusty powder.
When using this material, chalk is not necessary, the dusting
being carried out layer by layer, using calcium cyanamide at
the rate of about i lb. per large barrow load of average mixed
garden refuse. From what has already been said the quantity
of cyanamide will naturally be measured according to the
state of the refuse, moist sappy green material requiring less
and hard woody material more.
The pioneering work on the rotting of straw and other
vegetable wastes by artificial means was carried out at
Rothamsted, and the chief findings have already been
mentioned. A development of this work is the well-known
Adco reagent, extensively used in the making of artificial
farmyard manure under controlled conditions. Many
vegetable wastes have been successfully employed as starting
points, but for the purposes of this article, straw, bracken,
and mixed garden refuse will be those of most direct
interest.
Those employing the Adco process will find the procedure
for various classes of refuse carefully laid down. The
reagents supply nitrogen, phosphate and a base, and two
grades are available, one for the coarser and more resistant
materials, such as herbaceous stalks, dead leaves, potato
haulm, pea and bean haulm, and cabbage stalks; the other,
less highly nitrogenous, for the softer fresh materials. A
pit 2 ft. deep with a low surrounding bank of earth is
recommended. The waste is spread in layers 6 in. deep,
each layer being thoroughly wetted with water and sprinkled
with reagent at about 2 lb. per large barrow load. At least
one turning is required after about a month. The period of
333
Composts
rotting is 2-6 months, depending on the degree of decomposi-
tion required.
A few general points applicable to all compost heaps may
be emphasized.
Rotting of the raw material is essential, and a brisk initial
heating is desirable. This denotes that conditions for decom-
position arc correct and the high temperature probably kills
many weed seeds and runners. To obtain this initial heating
good-sized heaps are necessary, and shelter from wind is
desirable. Heaps should be kept moist, and here again shelter
from wind is a great help. Soil need not be shaken from the
weeds, for a certain amount helps to compact the heap and
restricts water loss. Small green stuff, such as lawn clippings,
has the same effect, filling the open spaces in a loose heap of
woody material. Since watering is laborious, heaps should
be so shaped as to let in rather than shed the natural rainfall.
Excessive watering, although not a common mistake, has the
bad effect of washing out soluble potash, and if the heap
becomes waterlogged highly unpleasant fermentation products
arise.
Time will ultimately correct many of the faults in compost
making. If decomposition has been slow, or it is feared that
perennial rootstocks may still be alive, or woody material is
still in evidence, the remedy is to leave the heap a little longer.
334
A SURVEY OF THE GRASS LAND OF
HERTFORDSHIRE
R. G. Ferguson, M.Agr.,
Herts Institute of Agrieulture, Oaklands, St. Albans.
Hertfordshire, in the past, has been a predominantly
arable county — “ the first and best corn-growing county in
the Kingdom.” From 1885, however, the arable area has ten-
ded to decrease and during the decade 1924-1934 this change
was greatly accelerated. The area under permanent grass
increased markedly until at the present time the agricultural
land of the c-ounty is about half arable and half grass land
(Table i). ” Dairying is the most important individual
enterprise in the economy of Hertfordshire Agriculture,”^*
so that the keeping of dairy cows and young cattle, an
increase in the numbers of grassland sheep and to a lesser
extent the running of pigs and poultry on grass, reflect the
ways in which this additional grass is being utilized.
TABLE 1
STAriSriCh OF AgKICULIITKAL Land in liERTFORDSHIRK
1885
U)oy
1924
1934
Total acreage under -
(Tops and (irass . .
3 -’«.-!t 3
290,038
I’cr cent Arable . .
()«-7
(>i -o
()i *4
51 *3
,, Permanent Grass
3 ' i
' 3^ ’
38 •(>
48-7
In addition, ” hay is the second most important cash crop
grown in Hertfordshire .... the area cut for hay covers
27 5 per cent, of the total farmed land, and of this, meadows
account for almost exactly half, mixed seeds for one third,
and clovers, sainfoin and lucerne the remainder.”'
In view of this development, it is not surprising that con-
siderable attention has been paid to educational work on
grass land problems. One way in which this work has been
carried out in the county in recent years, has been to run
grass land competitions in those areas in which grass land is
♦ References arc given on p. 343.
335
Grass Land of Hertfordshire
most concentrated. Briefly, these competitions were con-
ducted as follows : —
Farmers in a given area were invited to enter all their
grass land for the competition and the number of competitors
in each competition area varied from 14 to 23. Each field
on each farm was inspected separately. Generally, two
inspections were carried out, one in May and one in Sep-
tember. Opportunity was taken to advise the farmer (where
advice was deemed necessary) on managerial and other prob-
lems on the spot. Prizes were awarded as encouragement
to entrants. When the field work was completed each farmer
was sent a confidential report on the condition of his grass-
land, and directions for improvement, better manuring, and
management given for each field. Also, a general report on
the condition of the grass land of the area was issued to each
competitor. In these ways, farmers have had the opportunity
of becoming familiar with modern methods of improving and
managing their grass land.
In the course of these inspections, certain field records have
been kept, and an analysis of these affords a fairly reliable
picture of the general condition of the grass land in each
area. Some of these records may be of wider interest,
especially in view of the emphasis that is being laid on nitro-
genous manuring of grass land, and more recently on the
possibility of grass drying in this country. They also serve
as a check on estimates (see e.g., ref. 2) of the condition and
requirements of the grass land of the country as a whole.
The data presented below concerns the condition of the
grass land in four different areas in the county, totalling
8,215 acres. Four main soil types are covered, namely,
London Clay, Boulder Clay, Glacial Gravels, and Clay with
Flints, and there was also a small area of chalky soil. The
data deals with the need of drainage, the need of lime, the
degree of mattiness, the use of fertilizers and manures, weed
flora, and some miscellaneous developments in grassland
management.
All the records were collected in the seasons 1932-1935.
In Table II, the districts and soil types, the acreages involved
and the relative amounts of new and old pastures are
tabulated. “ New pasture ” refers to land laid down during
and since 1924, “ old pasture ” to land laid down before
that time.
336
Grass Land of Hertfordshire
TABLE II
District
Chief
Soil Type
Total
Acreage
Acreage
Old
Pasture
Acreage
New
1 Pasture
Barnet
London Clay . .
2,200
1,862
338
Watton
Glacial Gravel . .
i,fi 75
756
St. Albans
Light Chalk,
Medium Loam
with flints,
Glacial Gravel.
2,284
1
1,302
ijS 2
Eastwick . . . .
Boulder Clay . .
1,300
976
Total
! 8,-115
5,815
1 ^,400
The largest increase in pasture has taken place on the
lighter, poorer soil types. As far as the London Clay area
is concerned, the bulk of the land has been under grass for
many years and now practically all of it is grass.
The figures given below do not exaggerate the state of
affairs. On the contrary, they are probably an understate-
ment, because they have been obtained from farms, the
occupiers of which are sufficiently interested in their grass-
land to enter into competitions designed to stimulate interest
in the improvement and management of grass land, and
therefore they are more likely to have done something already
towards the betterment of their grass.
Drainage. The position with regard to the need of
drainage is brought out in Table III : —
TABLE m
District
Acreage
Considered to require
Drainage
Acreage
Per cent, of
Total
Barnet
2,200
8go
40
Watton
2,431
2Q2
12
St. Albans
2,284
114
5
Eastwick . .
1,300
208
16
Total
8,215
L504
18-3
The average amount of grass land in need of drainage' is
i8 per cent. Carslaw and his colleagues® have estimated that
B 337
Gkass Land of Hfktfordshike
14 per cent, of all the land in the Eastern Counties is in
need of drainage, and arguing from this it would seem that
generally grass land is as neglected in this respect as arable
land. There is considerable variation according to soil type
(also noted by Carslaw). Thus, 40 per cent, of the grass-
land on London Clay and only 5-12 per cent, on the lighter
soil formations requires to be drained. In all these areas,
fields mole drained in the previous ten years are excluded.
It must be noted also that three of the four years in which
these data were collected were veiy dry, so that these figures
may be said to represent land “ badly " in need of drainage.
lame. Soil samples were taken at random from each field
and their pH values estimated colorimetrically. The results
of these tests are set out in Table IV : —
TABL 1 -: ]V
District
Total
Degree of Acidity, per cent, of
'j'otal Acreage
Acreage
pH
7 • 0 and
over
pH
6*9 to
6*1
pH
6*0 to
5*6
pH
5 5 to
5-0
pH
4 *9 and
under
Barnet
2,200
4*3
19*6
18 *9
35*6
21 *6
Watton
St. Albans :
^. 43 ^
29*6
10*0
i8-8
-24*5
17-1
New Pasture
981
65-0
1 1 0
16 -o
6*0
2 'O
Old Pasture j
lO-O
<>•5
220
469
14*6
Eastwick . . '
1.300
76-3
6*1
6-3 !
1
5'4
5*9
Average . . j
37
lo-O
16-4
23*7
12*3
On the average, 37 per cent, of the grass land is not
deficient in lime, 63 per cent, requires more or less lime and
36 per cent. (pH 4 9 to 5 5) is seriously acid. This condition,
however, varies according to soil type and the age of the
pasture. The percentage of sour grass land in the London
Clay (Barnet) area is extremely high — no less than 95 per
cent, of it having an acid reaction, over 57 per cent, being
seriously acid. On the other hand, in the Boulder Clay
(Eastwick) area, over 76 per cent, of the grass land is neutral
or has a reserve of chalk, and only ii per cent, is seriously
acid. These figues show that the grass land of Hertfordshire
is much more in need of lime than the agricultural land of
the Eastern Counties as a whole, for which Carslaw and his
338
Gkass Land of Hertfordshire
colleagues* estimated (without doing any chemical tests)
“ that one-fifth of the area is suspected as being deficient in
lime.”
That the newer areas are less likely to be seriously de-
ficient in lime is well shown by the figures from the St. Albans
area. Of the 2,284 acres examined in this area, 1,302 were
old pasture and 981 acres new pasture. Of the old pasture
over 61 per cent, of the acreage is seriously acid and of the
()8i acres of new pasture only 8 per cent, are in that condition.
These figures i)robably account in part for the higher palat-
ability and feeding value and the better response to fertilizers
on many new pastures compared with the old.
Another factor — and one associated with soil acidity —
contributing to lack of productivity of old pastures is the
degree of ” mattiness.” The figures given in Table V.
emphasize the piosition in this respxjct of old and new pastures
in the St. Albans area and of all pasture in the Eastwick
area.
TAHLli V
l)op(rcc t)f
Mattiness
Si. Albans Area
Old Pasture | New Pasture
I‘2astwick Area
All Pasture
Acres
% j Acres
0
,0
Acres
0 '
, 0
JtCxtremely Matted
30 i Nil
Nil
M3
2 1
Moderately Matted
(>90
53 i '<>8
533
41
Not Matted
211
>7 ! «73
89
O24
48
Total
i
100 i g8i
_j
100
1,300
2 00
The need for mechanical cultivation (or other means) to
remove this ” mat ” is great, particularly on the older
pastures. Obviously, where there is much “mat,” wild
white clover and the better sward-forming and more nutritive
species will not be able to develop. Practically no mechanical
cultivation was carried out on any of this grass land except
light harrowing and rolling — operations grossly inadequate
to deal with anything but a very light matted condition.
Use of Manures and Fertilizers. Table VI shows the
extent to which manures and fertilizers have been utilized on
the grass land. The figures refer to the manorial treatment
the fields have had during the seven years before inspection,
i.e., all fields that had no manure of any sort during this
B2 339
Grass Land ok Hertfordshire
period are regarded as having had no manure and are in-
cluded in the " nil ” column. In the same way the other
figures have been arrived at. Moreover, since the application
of any manure or fertilizer (however small the amount)
qualified for a place in the manured columns, it follows that
the figures given do not necessarily mean that the manuring
was suitable or adequate. In some instances the manuring
was reasonably good (in one instance too good!), but in
many it was quite inadequate and unsuitable, having regard
to type of manure and price per unit.
TABLE \T
Area
I Percentage of 1 a
ind Treated
Acreage
Phosphates
and I Potash
IPhosphates
Dung (or
Pigs and/or
Poultry) 1
Nil
Barnet . .
2,200
1
8
1
6t
Wat ton . .
^.431
-’7
3
1
62
St Albans
^.284
4^
3
4 :
49
East wick
1 ,300
^1
13
3 1
33
Avcrcigf; . .
1
!
^4*^5
j S • -^5
0
5^>75
The table shows that on the average 24 per cent, of the
grass land examined received phosphates and potash, 8 per
cent, some phosphate, and a further 10 per cent, dung
(either F.Y.M. or the droppings from pigs and poultry),
while 56 per cent, was given no manorial treatment whatever.
The amount and type of manure, however, varies from dis-
trict to district, e.g., in the Barnet area (almost entirely a
grassland area) little artificial fertilizer is employed and the
farmyard manure available from the cowsheds is utilized on
the grass land, usually on the hay portion. In each area
there is a tendency on a number of farms to manure in-
directly through the medium of grazing pigs and poultry,
particularly the latter, but the total influence of this is small.
There was practically no evidence of the use of lime on any
of the grass land in any area. Grass land on which sheep
were kept always looked better, i.e., greener and fresher,
than where no sheep were kept.
Weed Flora. Table VII gives a summary of the main
types of weeds found on the various grass land areas. All
pastures contain more or less weeds and reference is made
340
Grass Land of Hertfordshire
only to instances in which weeds were considered to be so
plentiful as to be harmful to the productivity and quality of
the grass. The weeds included are all non-gramineous; but
in passing it may be mentioned that the plant population of
much of the old pasture land, particularly the more acid
fields, is made up of approximately 70 per cent. Agrostis
spp. (Bents), 10 per cent. Holcus lanatus (Yorkshire Fog),
TO per cent. Festuca ovina spp. (Fine-leaved Fescue), plus
traces of about 20 other species.
The term “ broad-leaved weeds ” refers to Plantains
{Plantago sp.), Hawkweeds {Hieracium and Crepis spp.),
Dandelion {Taraxacum officinale), and Daisy {Beilis
perennis). They are grouped together as they seem to
flourish under similar conditions and were generally found
growing together. A glance at Table VII shows that these
weeds are the most prevalent of the weed flora, particularly
on the gravelly and lighter soils. Their prevalence appears
to be influenced by soil fertility, soil type, climatic conditions
and the management of the pasture. They gain access when
a pasture is too closely grazed at the critical periods in dry
seasons, and unless fertility is good and the grasses are
allowed to recover, they remain and multiply.
TABLE VIl
District
No of
iMclds
Inspected
Number of fields at each centre containing
an excess oi following weeds :
Thistle
Butter-
cup
Nettle
Dock
Broad -
leaved
Weeds
Hard-
heads
Sorrel,
Rush,
Tussock
Barnet
190
No
record
kept
Wattoii
17O
42
28
5
4
64
2
II
St . Albans . .
19(1
12
12
3
2
58
2
2
Eastwick . .
iiO
11
25
4 1
—
18
1
__
5
Total . .
678
65
^5
12 1
0
140
4
18
Thistles (mostly Carduus arvensis) and Buttercups {Ranun-
culus sp.) were the next most important weeds. The number
of times that Nettles {Urtica sp.). Docks {Rumex sp.). Hard-
heads {Centaurea nigra), Sorrels {Rumex sp.). Rushes
{J uncus sp.), and Tussocks {Air a caespitosa) were recorded
was singularly small.
The figures for the three centres for which weed records
have been kept have been further analysed in Table VIII to
341
Grass Land of Hertfordshire
show the relative prevalence of weeds in old and new
pastures. All weeds, with the exception of dock, are
much more widespread in the old pastures. This is most
notable with thistles and buttercups. Broad-leaved weeds
occur plentifully in both types of pasture, though to a lesser
extent in the new grass land. Old grass land is, on the
average, also more prone to nettles, hardheads, sorrels,
rushes and tussocks.
TABLE Vlll
District
1
' No
1
i Fields
1
Percentage of the number of fields containing
excess of following weeds :
Thistle
Butter-
cup
Nettle
1 lock
Broad -
leaved
Weeds
40*0
27*0
34-1
22*0
FV5
I5’5
Hard-
heads
Sorrel,
Rush,
Tussocks
Wation
Old Pasture
New Pasture
St. Albans
Old Pasture
New Pasture
Eastwick
Old Pasture
New Pasture
..i r3.
..| 4.
••i
..| 73
. . 1 90
26
.30-3
45
8*1
2*7
10*0
7.8 1
20-0
4*5
9*7
26-6
3*9
30
2*3
1*6
1-4
4*4
T*5
4*5
2*7
1*5
1-6
7*6
2*3
1*6
3*3
7*8
Average, three
D%stvicts
Old Pasture
1
i 8 -«
3*0
o\5
29*0
1*0
4*-2
New Pasture
'■ i
5.0 j
2-8
1*2
1
2*4
21*5 J
~~
3*4
Rotational Grazing and Early Bite. Of the 67 farms
visited in the course of these inspections, on four only was
there an active attempt made to get better control of the
grazing by dividing up the larger fields and grazing in rota-
tion. Questions of fencing and water supply are not the
only difficulties on many farms, for the taking of the animals
to and from a special part of the pasture land twice a day
involves much time and labour, unless the grass is near
the homestead. Also, on only 4 out of the 67 farms was
nitrogen used to secure an " early bite.” It is evident that
there is a considerable time-lag between the introduction
and demonstration ol new practices and their adoption on
the average farm.
Summary. An account is given of the condition of 8,215
acres of grass land in four important grass land areas in
Hertfordshire. It is shown that much of the land is in need
342
Grass Land of Hertfordshire
of drainage; large areas are seriously acid and in a
" matted ” condition. Over 56 per cent, of the pasture is
given no manurial treatment and much of the remainder is
inadequately manured. Broad-leaved weeds are the most
prevalent of the weed flora, but thistles and buttercups are
also important. All weeds with the exception of docks are
more prevalent on old pastures than new. On much of the
seriously acid pasture, the plant population is made up
chiefly of Agrostis spp., Holcus spp., and Festuca ovina
spp. Rotational grazing and the taking of an “ early bite ”
are practised on only a few farms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT. — The writer wishes to thank his colleague,
Mr. H. W. Gardner, D.A., for undertaking the ]»H tests of the soils.
References
^ An Economic Survey of HtTthirdshire Agriculture, 1031 (Farm Economics
Branch, Department of Agriculture, C'ambndge, Report No. 18).
“ Stapledou, R. G. : “ The Land Now and To-niorrow,” 1035.
’ An Economic Survey of Agriculture of the Eastern Counties of England,
1931 (Farm Economics Ifranch, Department of Agriculture, Cambridge,
Report No 19).
^ Ibid ., i()33 (Report No 22).
34.3
THE MINISTRY’S PUBLICATIONS
Readers of this Journal during the last two or three
years will be familiar with the annual reports on the work
of the Education and Research Division of the Ministry, and
will have noted that substantial sums are provided for the
maintenance of research into agricultural problems and the
provision of technical advice for farmers.
The real value of such research and experimental work
depends largely, however, on the extent to which the results
are made available to farmers and others concerned in a
readily assimilable form.
One important means of bringing available information
to the notice of farmers is the issue of various publications
by the Ministry. Apart from this Journal, these fall into
four main classes — the Bulletins (priced), the Advisory
Leaflets (single copies free), the Marketing Reports (priced)
and the Marketing Leaflets (free).
The Bulletins, which are available at prices ranging from
^d. to 6s., may be regarded as treatises adequately covering
the subjects concerned. Apart from one issue (No. 82), which
is a technical bulletin intended for manufacturers and
analysts, the Bulletins arc written in simple language, so that
the latest serviceable information on the subject dealt with
is made readily accessible to the farmer or horticulturist.
Most of the volumes are illustrated, and in some instances
coloured plates have been provided.
Since the Bulletins were started on April r, 1930, 98 have
been published, in addition to a large number of new or
revised editions and reprints. By the end of 1936 the total
number of copies sold had reached the very satisfactory
figure of 454,000 — an average of approximately 65,000
copies per annum.
A complete list of the Bulletins and other publications of
the Ministry may be obtained free of charge and post free
from the Ministry, and from the Sale Offices* of His Majesty’s
Stationery Office, and it is therefore unnecessary here to
mention all the various subjects covered.
Certain of the Bulletins, however, have proved very note-
worthy, and it may be of interest to refer briefly to them.
Rations for Live Stock (Bulletin No. 48) was originally
* Adastral House, Kingsway, IxMidon, W.C.z ; 120. George Street,
Edinburgh, 2 ; 26, York Street, Manchester, 1 ; 1 , St. Andrew’s Crescent,
Cardiff ; 80, Chichester Street, Belfast.
344
The Ministry's Publications
prepared in 1920 by the late Professor T. B. Wood. It
describes a simple general method of working out rations
for cattle, horses, sheep and pigs. The publication, which has
since been extensively revised and brought up to date by Dr.
H. E. Woodman, has proved extremely popular and has
been regarded as a standard work from the outset. Nine
editions have been necessary, and the publication is now in
its 45th thousand.
Another Bulletin that has been in great demand is
Domestic Preservation of Fruit and Vegetables (No. 21),
prepared by the staff of the Long Ashton Research Station.
The methods and recipes included can be carried out in any
ordinary household. Four editions have been needed and
over 23,000 copies have been sold.
Among the Bulletins of more recent origin. Pig Keeping
(No. 32) and Mushroom Growing (No. 34) have sold to the
extent of about 13,000 copies each, thus reflecting the
interest commanded by the subjects concerned. Tomatoes'.
Cultivation, Diseases and Pests (No. 77), by Dr. W. F.
Bewley, of the Cheshunt Experimental Station, has also been
very successful and 8,000 copies have been sold. Within
the last year or two Bulletins on Herbs (No. 76) and Allot-
ments (No. 90) have been published, and reprints of each
have already been necessary.
Every effort is made to provide advice on subjects that are
attracting attention. For example, the increased demand for
salads, and the tariffs imposed on imported produce, have
enhanced interest in the cultivation of winter salads and early
vegetables in frames. Bulletins Nos. 65 {The Cultivation
of Vegetables in Frames) and 55 (Salad Crops) were
accordingly issued.
The production of flowers for market is now an industry
of considerable importance. To supplement the earlier
Bulletins on Narcissus Culture and Commercial Bulb Pro-
duction, further volumes on Chrysanthemums and Commer-
cial Flower Production (Part i — Spring Flowers) have been
issued. A Bulletin on the production of summer flowers is
now in preparation.
The important subject of poultry keeping has not been
overlooked. The work of the National Poultry Institute at
Reaseheath and Wye, on inbreeding poultry and on table
poultry production respectively, is summarized in Bulletins
Nos. 83 and 91. Other Bulletins deal with Diseases of
345
The Ministry's Publications
Poultry (No. 6), Scientific Principles of Poultry Breeding
(No. 7), Housing (No. 56) and Culling (No. 59). The whole
range of poultry keeping, including turkeys, ducks and geese,
is covered by one or other of the Bulletins.
Although not in the Bulletin series, mention may be made
here of the “Land Drainage Act, 1930, Handbook.” This
collection in convenient form of the provisions of the Act is
intended for the use of members and officers of Catchment
Boards and other local authorities, but it should also be useful
to the many landowners, land agents and farmers who may
be concerned in drainage schemes. Over 2,500 copies of the
Handbook have been sold to date.
Advisory Leaflets are brief, simply-written statements on
subjects treated. Up to four copies in any one main group
(e.g.. Diseases of Animals, Manures, Insect Pests of Fruit
Trees, etc.), with a maximum of 20 in all, are supplied free
and post free by the Ministry. Copies of leaflets required in
excess of these limits are obtainable from the Sale Offices'*' of
His Majesty’s Stationery Office — price id. each {i\d. post
free) or 9<i. net per dozen (lod. post free).
During the past seven years about 280 Advisory Leaflets
on a wide range of subjects have been issued, and total free
distribution has been in the neighbourhood of 1,200,000
copies. In addition, large numbers have been sold by His
Majesty’s Stationery Office.
To meet the wishes of readers who desire to have, in a
convenient form, all the available leaflets on insect pests and
diseases of plants, four collections have been issued in loose-
leaf covers at a uniform price of is. 6 d. per volume. New
or revised leaflets may be obtained and inserted in these
covers at any time. A similar collection, at the same price,
includes all the leaflets on birds of agricultural importance.
Publications on Marketing. The main items of propa-
ganda have been recipe books for housewives. The first
of these publications — ^the National Mark Recipe Book — ^was
published in 1934 and in all 400,000 copies were issued. This
book was succeeded in January, 1936, by the National Mark
Calendar of Cooking, issued free by the Ministry. This pmb-
lication contains numerous recipes for each month, and each
monthly section is prefaced by a list of National Mark
♦ Adastral House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2 ; 120, George Street,
Edinburgh, 2 ; 26, York Street, Manchester, i ; x, St. Andrew's Crescent,
Cardiff ; 80, Chichester Street, Belfast.
346
The Ministry's Publications
products in season; 480,000 copies of the Calendar have been
issued to date.
In addition to publications for producers and consumers,
the Ministry has arranged during the past eight years for
the designing of numerous posters and cards advertising
National Mark products for display in retail shops. There has
been a large and continuous demand for this display material.
Marketing Leaflets. These, which are supplied free of
charge, are published in two distinct categories : (i) leaflets
for the guidance of producers, and (2) leaflets of a propa-
ganda nature and intended mainly for consumers. The
former deal mainly with the National Mark Schemes and are
of special interest to producers and distributors. The dis-
tribution of these leaflets is approximately 50,000 per annum.
The second series is distributed chiefly to housewives, and
the leaflets are therefore couched in non-technical language.
They set out briefly the object of the National Mark move-
ment, and give details of the measures taken to maintain the
national standards of quality required by the regulations.
Apart from the National Mark Calendar of Cooking (men-
tioned above) the distribution of the marketing propaganda
leaflets during the past twelve months has been as follows: —
Copies
H.S. I. What the National Mark Means .. .. 357,000
H.S. 2. National Mark Beef . . . . . . 306,000
H.S. 3. ,, Creamer^’ Butter . . . . 371,000
H.S. 4. Canned and Bottled Fruit and
Vegetables , . . . . . 552,000
H.S. 5. Cheese . . . . 335, 000
H.S. 6. Eggs . . . . . . . . 417,000
H.S. 7. .. Flour .. . 401,000
H.S. 8. ,, Fruit Juice Syrups . . . . 240,000
“ Orange Books.” The Economic Series of Reports,
popularly known as the Ministry’s “ Orange Books,” is
mainly devoted to a study, commodity by commodity, of the
technique of marketing of agricultural products. It also
includes reports issued by Commissions appointed by the
Minister to inquire into the possibilities of reorganizing the
marketing of certain of the more important agricultural
products, e.g. milk, pigs, eggs and poultry.
Up to the present 41 volumes have been published in the
series. There has been a wide public demand for these books
and 18 of the earlier volumes are now out of print. The
total sales up to the end of December, 1936, amounted to
nearly 238,500 copies.
347
COUNTY COUNCIL SMALL-HOLDINGS IN DORSET
AND HAMPSHIRE*:
IV. POULTRY SMALL HOLDINGS
Edgar Thomas, B.Litt., B.Sc.,
Agricultural Economics Department, Reading University.
In view of the supposed adaptability of poultry for small-
scale farming it is rather surprising that the number of
specialist poultry smallholders in the two counties is not
greater. The information here given is from 21 poultry
holdings, all of which were in Hampshire. They were more
or less concentrated in two groups, one in the neighbourhood
of Fareham and the other at Pitt Corner some three miles
west of Winchester.
The 21 holdings covered a total area of 150 acres; ii
holdings were less than 5 acres, 5 holdings were between 5
and 10 acres, and 5 holdings wore over 10 acres.
Management. Each of the 21 holdings was predominantly
concerned with poultry, and on 14 holdings there was no
other enterprise. Of the other 7 holdings, 3 kept pigs, 2 had
some market-garden crops, i had pigs and market-garden
cro|)s and i had a fruit orchard.
The total number of all kinds of poultry on the 21 holdings
at the time of the survey was 14,675 made up as follows : —
6,942 hens and sttick biids
6,110 pullets
1,513 chickens
70 ducks
40 turkeys.
The following classification of the holdings according to the
size of the poultry flocks gives a good indication of the size
of the undertaking: —
Size of Flock
No 0] Holdings
Under 200
. . . . 1
1
0
6
400-800
6
Over 800
8
The most popular breed of poultry kept was the Rhode
Island Red and its various crosses, but the following figures
show that various breeds were kept: —
♦ Previous articles in this series appeared in the issues of this Journal
for April, May and June, 1937.
348
County Council Small-Holdings
Breed
No. of Holdings
Rhode Island Red
1
Rhode Island x White Leghorns . .
5
Rhode Island x White Wyandotte
4
Game Cross , .
i
Sussex ('ross . .
2
Rhode Island Light Sussex
I
21
'J'hc production of eggs was the main and almost only
concern on 20 of the holdings; but, on i holding, the
rearing ot table birds was as important as the sale of eggs.
All the smallholders reared their own birds, buying in new
stock cockerels at regular intervals. Blood testing was done
on 3 holdings. On most holdings the houses and runs were
moved as regularly as possible on to fresh ground. The
produce of 17 holdings was sold wholesale and that of 4
holdings retailed.
The greater proportion of the eggs sold wholesale were
graded. Seven smallholders sent their eggs into Fareham
market, where, for a small charge, the eggs were candled and
graded and were subsequently sold by auction. As regards
the other eggs wholesaled, the grading was done by the small-
holders themselves, and the eggs were either collected by
dealers or sold direct to shopkeepers. Grading was done by
only one retailer, and he mixed his “ specials " and
“ standards ” because he found the housewife reluctant to
pay the higher price for the better grade.
Capital Invested. Only 14 poultry smallholders were able
to give financial data about their businesses. These data
are presented in the following tables on a per acre basis in
order to make them comparable with those already given for
the dairy and horticultural holdings, but they are also given
on the basis of “ per layer ” for purposes of illustrating the
specific conditions of the poultry-keeper.
The average capital invested on all 14 holdings was
^£48 10.S'. od. per acre. This is a much higher figure than for
either the dairying or the horticultural holdings, and may
partly account for the different type of smallholder who seems
to have been attracted to poultry keeping. The figure of
£48 10s. od. per acre is equivalent to an investment of
I2S. 3^/. per layer, which is lower than the ;^i per layer often
given as typical of poultry farming. This lower figure is
partly explained by the low valuation put on their buildings
349
County Council Small-Holdings
by the smallholders, most of whom had constructed their own
poultry houses. Of the total investment 56 per cent, was
for poultry houses and 44 per cent, for poultry livestock.
Expenses. The average expenses per acre, per layer and
per cent, arc shown in Table XI.
TABLE XI
IlM’EN.SES ok T.4 Pori.TKV Smai.liioldkhs
Expenses
Per acre
Per layer
I'er cent.
L
vS.
d
£
.V. d.
Kent and rates
5
6
9
0
T 5
10-0
Family labour . .
,12
1
10
0
3 *2
22'()
Hired labour . .
3
4
«
t)
0 1 1
(>•0
Feeding stufts . .
27
2
3
0
b 1 1
50 • b
J.,ivestock bought
. . I
14
0
0 5
ITpkeep of buildings, etc.
(>
0
0
0 ()J
4*3
Other expenses
. . J
15
0
0
0 5
3*3
Total . .
• * 53
11
0
13 9
100*0
This table of expanses contrasts with the corresponding
tables for the dairying and horticultural holdings in that
labour does not appear as the biggest item of expense. On
the contrary the purchase of feeding stuffs is easily the most
important item, accounting for 506 per cent, of total ex-
penses. Labour accounted for a further 28-6 per cent, of
the total expenditure, but the bulk of this represents an
estimated charge for family labour and, as such, did not
involve an actual cash expenditure by the smallholders. The
other items in order of importance were rent and rates, up-
keep and repairs of buildings, straw, transport charges, oil
and lighting, and disinfectants.
Receipts. Table XII shows the distribution of the receipts.
TABLE XU
RL( KIP1S of J 4 I’OULTKY SMALLHOLDERS
KcceijUs
I’er acre
Per layer
Per cent.
Eggs
£ s. d.
45 8 8
£ s. d.
on 8
74*7
Birds . . . . . . . .
13 .4 0
« 3 .5
Zl-J
Miscellaneous . .
^34
007
Total
60 16 0
0 15 8
100*0
350
County Council Small-Holuings
The average total receipts of £6o i6s. od. per acre include
the value of eggs and poultry consumed by the smallholders'
families. This amounted to an average of ;^9 6s. 4d. per
holding, the average consumption per family being approxi-
mately 85 dozen eggs and 34 birds. In addition, 8 small-
holders stated that they produced all their own vegetables
and a further 2 a part of their own vegetables, but it was
not possible to put an estimated value on these.
Receipts from the sale of eggs formed 75 per cent, of the
total, and on all holdings, except i, this was the major
source of income. The over-all average egg yield per layer
was approximately ()-5 dozens per annum. Of the total eggs
sold 81 per cent, were sold wholesale and ig per cent, sold
retail.
Receipts from sale of birds were made up as follows: —
64 per cent, table birds, 28 pt^r cent, culled hens, 5 per cent,
day-old chicks and 3 per cent, cockerels. The sale of table-
birds was important on 8 holdings, sale of day-old chicks
on 3 holdings and of cockerels (to table-bird producers) on
2 holdings.
The unclassified receijrts represent the sale of market-
garden and fruit crops from 3 holdings, of jjoultry manure
from 5 holdings and of pigs from i holding.
Profits and Losses. The average profit (i.e. excess of
receipts and closing valuations over expenses and opening
valuations) of the 14 smallholders amounted to £54 14s. lod.
per holding, or £6 12.'?. 8d. per acre or £0 is. gd. per layer.
Of the 14 smallholders 8 showed a profit and 6 showed a
loss, the exact position being as follows: —
IVo, oj Holding
Profit of over ;fioo per holding . . . . 3
.. ;^50-£loo 4
.. £^5-£5o .. • • ■ • i
Loss of less than £25 per holding . . . . 2
„ from £ 25-£50 i
,, of over £50 3
When no charge was made for family labour all the
smallholders, except i, showed a surplus, the average
“ family " income being £154 los. od. and the average
income per person employed being £112 13s. 3<i.
An examination of the individual results indicated that the
most important influencing factor was the size of the flock,
the chances of success being reduced as the size of the flock
351
County Council Small-Holdings
was reduced. Thus of the 8 holdings having flocks of under
800 birds, 3 only made a profit, while 5 of the 6 holdings
with over 800 birds appeared in the profit group. Again
the average “ family income ” of the 8 holdings having
under 800 birds was £75 14s. od., but for the 6 holdings
with over 800 birds it was £268 15.V. od.
V. MISCELLANEOUS HOLDINGS
Of the 28 miscellaneous holdings included in the inquiry,
24 were in Hampshire and 4 in Dorset. It is not possible
to give very full details for these holdings, largely because
of their heterogeneous nature. Thej'^ may roughly be divided
into 2 groups on the basis of acreage.
In the first group come 13 holdings under 20 acres each.
On these market-gardening, fruit-growing or poultry-keeping
play a more or less important part; but other enterprises
such as pig-keeping or dairying were also of considerable
importance and the holdings could not rightly have been
included with any of the 3 main types already described.
In the second group come 15 holdings all over 20 acres.
On most of these dairying was important, but other enter-
prises such as market-garden crops or pigs or sheep were
of almost equal importance and the holdings could not
rightly have been grouped with the dairying holdings.
Information about the systems of farming was obtained
for all 28 holdings, but only for 9 holdings were financial
data obtained. In view of the very mixed nature of the
group it would be largely meaningless to present these data
in the usual tabular form. It can be stated, however, that
when family labour was charged for, 7 of the 9 hold-
ings showed a profit, the average profit being £150 per
holding or £6 13.'?. ^d. per acre. When no charge was made
for family labour all 9 holdings showed a surplus income;
the average “ family income ” was £262 and the average
income per person employed was £166. These figures cor-
roborate the impression formed at the time of the survey
that this group of mixed holdings compared favourably with
the more specialized types.
{Concluded)
352
CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE 18 th CENTURY:
BEDFORD, CAMBRIDGE AND HUNTINGDON
G. E. Eussell,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
Writing at the end of the seventeenth century, Meager
was able to say of the group of three counties, Huntingdon,
Cambridge and Bedford, that " in stiff clays, of which all
the fruitful Valleys of the Kingdom arc composed, as also
in (these counties) and many others, all manner of Arable
business must be begun early in the Year, and the Ploughs
and Instruments to be used, made ot the largest size, the
Timber strong, and the Labour great and painful.”’* The
soil of Bedfordshire is reported by Herman Moll not very
much later, as being ‘‘ ge-nerally fertil, producing all sorts
of Grain in great Plenty, especially Wheat and Barley,
which are not e.xceeded by any one County in England ; and
their Pastures feed very good Cattle, and they have great
Dairies, but their Sheep deserve no veiy great commen-
dations.”’* The wheat produced in the county was said to
be the finest in the world in 1760, and it was much sought
for as seed by farmers in other counties,” one in particular
being Northampton.^ The rotations changed from the con-
ventional three-course open-field system even before in-
closure, and Young reports courses of five crops at Wooburn
in 1770, even longer courses elsewhc're, and wheat, barley
and turnips as fine as he had ever seen, in the Vale of Bed-
ford, although he did not approve of the slow-moving, heavy
ploughs drawn by three horses at length and the over-heavy
sowing of beans.® Owing, perhaps, to the backward state
of inclosure in the county, Ernie complains that the county
shared with Cambridgeshire ” the reputation of being the
Boetia of agriculture ” at the end of the century,® but on
the open light lands the Norfolk course was followed in
1794 as well as in the enclosures, and in the open fields on
the heavy lands a six- or seven-year course, including two
fallows and some pulse was customary.'* It is true that the
* The list of references is given on p. 357.
353
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
heavy land was ridged up in the old curved ridges, seven
yards wide, with deep furrows, but wheat was sown on two-
thirds of the fallows, after they had been folded or treated
with farmyard manure, and the ploughing was only 4 or 5 in.
deep, but the farming was not entirely unimproved. Marl,
chalk and lime were used as manure, and peat ashes and
dust on the chalk lands, while the waste of London was also
imported for the purpose.®
The farms in the county were not very large. Batchelar
estimated that they were about 150 acres on the average.
He thinks the number had diminished in the last 50 years
of the century, but does not suggest consolidation as the
cause of this. The system of tenure was generally from year
to year, or for the three years’ rotation on unenclosed land.
There were, however, a few short-term leases.® The
implements had not changed much. Half the county still
used the old flat wooden mouldboard plough, although an
improved implement was used near Wooburn, and some
gentlemen used the light Norfolk plough. The Duke of
Bedford’s bailiff used a plough with an iron mouldboard con-
structed on the principles set out by Bailey.^® Harrows were
of the ordinary type, scufflers were not much used, there
was little drilling and few machines, and Batchelar had never
known a horse hoe used. There were, however, some rollers
and a few threshing machines." Some of the barley land
round Dunstable was more turned to the cultivation of wheat
at the end of the century.^® Many of the modern implements
had, however, their genesis in the county, owing to the
Woobum sheep shearings held by the Dukes of Bedford, for
their surveyor from 1790 to 1821 seems to have been par-
ticularly fecund in this direction.^®
Cambridge laboured under physical difficulties, particu-
larly as regards the low-lying lands of the Isle of Ely, but
as early as 1701, the south of the county was said to be
fertile and well tilled, and to yield an abundance of barley,
although the fertility of the soil was labelled “ pretty fruit-
ful ” only, by the same writer at a later date. At the same
time he says that the Isle had been improved by draining
and the planting of sainfoin, while the county seems to have
been as well known for saffron as Essex"; moreover, on the
lands in the fens reclaimed by the process known as bum-
baking, lucerne was grown, and one of Tull’s pronounced
protagonists was of the opinion that this must “ certainly
354
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
take effect if the Drill and Horsehough Ploughs succeed;
the first of which will plant and cover the seed well, the
second will help to keep the weeds down whilst the grass is
young and tender, and in danger of being spoil’d.”’® Some
of the barley grown was Bigg or Sprat barley, similar to
that grown in Norfolk and Northampton.’®
In 1739 Trowell suggested that there was a great deal of
land in the Isle of Ely, Wisbech, Bedford, Lindsey Levels
and parts of Lincoln of very little use for anything else, that
might be devoted to producing hemp in order to avoid the
necessity for importation,’^ and this suggestion seems to
have been acted upon, because hemp was “ largely grown ”
in 1813, as was flax.’® The sheep of the county were fed on
rape, which was grown in the Isle as well as in the lower
parts of Cambridge and Huntingdon, and, if harvested for
the seed, the edish was used for feeding.’”
The process known as bumbaking was intimately bound
up with the cultivation of rape. The soil was pared off
I in. thick with a paring plough, stacked till dry and then
burnt, the ashes being scattered as manure. Oats were then
sown after one ploughing, followed by wheat, and then cole
seed for oil or fatting sheep.”® A great deal of the land on
which this was practised had been made available for cul-
tivation by draining operations. Young reckoned as much
as 500,000 acres in the two counties of Cambridge and
Lincoln,”’ but the Cambridge fens”” were not esteemed so
good nor so well drained as those of Lincoln, although the
uplands, which seem to have been in large farms, were
suited for turnips, and lime and dung were used as manure.”®
The farms in the county were, however, of a great diversity
in size, varying from 20 acres to 100 acres, and although
there were a few over 1,000 acres, yet many were between
TOO and 1,000 acres.”’ Few leases were granted, and the
feeling of insecurity this induced may have had something
to do with any lack of progress there was in the farming.”®
The position as reported by Gooch, while showing that the
old system of three courses, including a fallow, was general
in the open fields, admits that the Norfolk system had been
adopted in the enclosures, while heavy manuring was
common in the higher land. There was no lack of forage
crops, and some parts of the county had evolved a system
that suited the type of land. Cambridge was one of the
counties where potatoes were grown, if possible for the
355
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
market, if not, for feeding. The implements were not greatly
improved, the common foot plough being used in the Fens
and the half or three-quarter Dutch plough, introduced into
Yorkshire in the early part of the century, being used else-
where in the county. Threshing machines were becoming
general in 1813.“
Huntingdon is another county, the cultivation of which
was still in open field, in the main, at the end of the century,
and it accordingly comes in for its share of blame from Ernie ;
and the lens were .still some 44,000 acres in extent.’^'^ The
higher land was arable and the highest sheep walk at the
beginning of the century, the pasture then being spoken of
well.®® The arable was still in the high crooked ridges so
often condemned by Young and other writers, and these were
often a yard high. It was recommended that they should be
ploughed from east to west to get the sun, and if the furrows
were not deep enough the earth should be cleared out with
a spade.®® Young, however, speaks of the county in 1774
as one of those in which much open field land under the
three-field system, " that vile course,” had been inclosed
and laid down within the previous 30 years. The other
counties where this had happened were, he says, Northamp-
ton, Leicester, and parts of Warwick and Buckingham. St.
Neots was, however, a great corn market and the ” vile
course ” must, therefore, in some circumstances, have been
capable of producing a net gain that was saleable.®* In
travelling from Harford to Branton and Huntingdon to
Thrapston he found a long line of new enclosures, where the
land was broken up for beans, followed by wheat, barley
and clover.®® Again, 10,000 acres of the fens were under the
alternate system in 1793, coleseed being sown after paring
and burning with a breast plough or a paring plough from
Holland, and followed by oats, wheat, and oats with seeds,
and the ploughmen of the county were said to be the best
in the world.®® There were some parts under a four-course
rotation, though the three-course was common. Moreover,
the common swing and Dutch ploughs were giving way to a
double-furrow plough, which had originally come from
^alop, but was then generally obtained from Northampton.®*
A similar description of the county is given in the first
report.®® Parkinson goes into the matter in much greater
detail, l)ut does not add materially to our knowledge, though
he does say that turnips were fairly general, and mentions
356
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
hemp and flax. The sheep fold and farmyard manure were
the mainstay of manuring.®® He is not, however, so em-
phatic about the double-furrow plough, having the general
idea that types of the Dutch were mainly used, although
others had been tried. Drills were used in several parishes
and there were six threshing mills in the county.®^ There
were some large farms, as we would expect from Young’s
statement that enclosure had led to depopulation in some
parts,®® but the small preponderated, and there were but few
leases granted, those that were being only for short terms.®®
^Mystery of Husbandry, 1697, P- ^ New Description . . . 17-24,
p. 106 — see also other topographers ; ^ The Farmer s Compleat Guide,
1760, p 21 ; * John Laurence, New System . . . 1726, p. 64 ; ^Northern
Tour, 2nd ed., 1770, 1 , pp. 21-50 — see also Museum Rusticum, 1 (i'/ 66 ),
p. 187 ; ^English farming past and present, 4th ed , p. 241 , ’ T. Stone,
County Report, 1794, pp. 14, 21 ; ® Thos. Hatchclar, County Report, 1808,
pp. 276, 27g, 337, 358, 363, 388, 394, 308, 404, 41 1, 421, 427, 431, 434, 494,
495, 504. 510, 518 ; • tbid., pp. 25, 27, 40, 41 , James Bailey, Essay on
the construction of the Plough, 1795 ; Op. cit , pp. 161, 162, 163, 165, 174,
177, 179, 190, 195, 196, 198, 211, 215 , J Baker, The Imperial Guide,
1892, p. 4 , Sij. p; Clarke, Agriculture and the House of Russell, Jour.
R A S L , 1891, p. 132 ; Herman Moll, System of Geography, 170T, p. 25,
ibid , New Description . . . 1724, p. 161 (sec also Samuel Simpson,
Agreeable Historian, 1746, p 78 Malachy Posthethwayt. Universal
Dictionary of Trade . . . 1751, 1 , p 436 Cantabngia Depicta, 1763,
pp. 2, 16. Stebbing Shaw, A Tour in 17H7, p. 6) , Stephen Switzer,
A dissertation on the true Cythisus of the ancients, 1731, p 38 ; W. Ellis,
New Experiments , . . for . . . April, 1736, p. 6 0 ; Samuel Trowell,
New Treatise of Husbandry, 1739, p 24 , W. Gooch, Cambridge, 1813,
pp 160, 167, ^’Trowell, op. cit., p. 29, \V. Ellis, Modern Husbandry,
July, p 34, also Gooch, op. cit., p. 104 , Political Essays, 1772, p. 130 ;
.see Ernie, p, 245; Charles Varlo, New System . . . 1770, p 130,
also Thomas Stone, An Essay on AgricuUuye, 1785, p. 119; Gooch,
County Report, 1813, p. 32 , ibid., p. 38, Henry C. Taylor, An Introduction
. . . 1905, p. 294 ; Gooch, op. cit., pp. 47, 50, 95, 96, 98, 100, 119, 123,
133. L36, 138. 13^. 14L 15L 153. 274 ; ^U)p. cit , pp 238, 244 ;
James Beeverell, op. cit., p. 142, and other topograjilu is , John
Mortimer, op. cit., p. 47 ; Political Arithmetic, p. 148 ; Annals, XVI
(1791), p. 482; Annals, VI (1786), pp. 454-455; Annals, XXI
(1793), pp. 155, 156 ; ibid., pp. 163-108 , Tliomas Stone, Huntingdon,
1793, pp. 9-13 (it is, of course, repeated by George Maxwell in his Report,
1794, pp. 8, 10, 17) ; Report, 1813, j)p. 100-103, 116 0 ., 122, 133, 136,
140, 150, 204, 211, 2510.; ibid., pp. 32-35, Annals, VI (1786),
P* 454 P.arkinson, Report, 1813, pp> 41, 45.
357
COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURE FOR ENGLAND
The 48th meeting of the Council of Agriculture for England
was held at the Middlesex Guildhall, Westminster, on
Thursday, June 3, 1937- Mr. Robert Bruford, J.P. {Somerset),
was elected Chairman for the year, in succession to Alderman
G. E. Hewitt. The Minister, the Rt. Hon. W. S. Morrison, M.C..
K.C., M.P., and the Second Secretary of the Ministry, Mr.
Arthur W. Street, C.B., C.M.G., M.C., attended on behalf of
the Ministry.
The McCreagh Estate. Mr. H. W. Thomas {Hants.)
asked whether anything had yet been done by way of acquiring
the derelict estate in Hampshire. Mr. George Dallas, for the
standing Committee, said that the matter was still before that
Committee and had not been overlooked. It raised a very
difficult and complicated problem and the Committee would
ask the Minister to look at it again. At a time like the present,
when we wanted to grow as much food as possible in the
country, it was a public scandal that the estate should be left
as it was. Lord Selborne agreed and said he had never been
able to understand why the Ministry had been unable to deal
with the matter.
Standing Committee. The Standing Committee of the
Council for 1937 was elected as folows : —
For Landowners. — Lt.-Col. Sir Merrik l^urrell, Bart., C.B.k!. ; I.ord
Craiiworth, M C. ; Lord Fdtisley, K.B.E. ; Sir Arthur Hazlcrip;^?, Hart ,
and Mr. Charles H. Roberts.
For Tenant Farmers — Mr. Robert Bruford, J.P. ; Mr. W. J. Cumber ;
Mr. Cecil Robinson, J.P. ; Mr. Clement C. Smith, f.P. , and Alderman
R. L. Walker.
For Workmen -—Professor A. W. Ashby, M.A. ; Mr. George Dallas ;
Alderman G. K. Hewitt, J.P. ; Mr. W. R. Smith, J.T\ ; and Mr. Denton
Woodhead
The Minister’s Address. The Minister said he recognized the
value of the Council in passing on to him and to those who
assisted him experienced knowledge about agriculture. Agri-
culture was a vastly varied subject and it was very hard for
one small head to contain all the requisite knowledge, and thus
the Council and its Committee had been of great value to him.
He would this morning say something in explanation of the
statement he had made in the House of Commons recently on
the instalment of agricultural policy then announced. Since 1931
the Government had been attempting to deal with agriculture
according to its most pressing needs caused by the collapse of
prices in various commodities. Marketing schemes had been
338
Council of Agriculture for England
launched in rapid succession for such articles as pigs, milk,
potatoes and hops. The work had been urgent and could not
wait for a comprehensive policy. At the last meeting of the
Council , he had been asked when he would produce a ‘ ‘balanced
policy” for agriculture. That was a phrase w'hich had been in
many people’s mouths and to which different people attached
different meanings. What he meant by a “balanced” agricul-
ture was the use of the land to the best advantage, having regard
to the two limiting factors of soil and climate. If the land was not
in good health and fertility, sufficient to yield its produce to the
labour of the farmer, then any superstructure raised on such
a foundation was bound to be defective. The proposals he had
made the other day were intended to place a solid foundation
under the schemes for individual commodities. He would make
a few observations in fuller explanation of certain items of the
policy.
Taking drainage first, since 1930 the Catchment Boards had
been discharging their duties in the Catchment Areas with a
marked measure of success. Works estimated to cost more than
£6,000,000 had been approved and the situation had, no doubt,
been bettered. The first step was to improve outfalls, after
which, drainage could be carried further up the hills without
fear that the extra water discharged into the valleys would prove
a danger to agriculture and to life instead of a benefit. The
present proposal was to extend the system of grants to internal
drainage boards, and to local authorities where no drainage
boards existed, in order that the streams which carry the water
from the fields to the river might be cleaned out and improved.
They would then be able also to carry the water which later
improved field drainage might discharge into them.
This was not subsidizing field drainage, though it should help its
efficacy.
The next proposal was of a more novel character. It was the
improvement of the fertility of the soil by restoring the ancient
practice of applying lime to it. He was convinced that there
was no one thing that could be done of more general benefit
to fertility than liming. Much land was in a sour and acid condi-
tion and, if expensive fertilizers and manures were applied,
it could not realize their full benefit because of the absence
of lime. The Government, then, would offer a very substantial
inducement, namely half the cost of the lime, to all those who
knew their land was deficient in this respect and used that
article for its improvement. As regards grass-land, the Govem-
359
Council of Agriculture for England
ment would similarly assist the application of basic slag, but the
contribution. would be one-quarter the cost of the fertilizer. It
might be asked why the Government were assisting these two
operations and not the application of superphosphate,
sulphate of ammonia, etc., to the soil. The two reasons were
that he was s(H'king (i) some lasting benefit to the land, and in
this lime and slag had an advantage over other artificial ferti-
lizers— though the valu(‘ of the use of slag might not be so lasting
as that of lime; and (2) that in spending public money it
was necessary to see that it should be devoted to the purpose
for which it had been approved. Both lime and slag were
home-produced, and by co-operation with the home suppliers
rises in price because of increased demand could be prevented.
With superphosphate and other substances, however, we should
have no control over the foreign e.xporter, who would dictate the
price.
The Minister added that the other question upon which he
would remark to-day was the last of the proposals included
in his recent statement. It was the question of making a
resolute attack upon disease in livestock. The losses from this
cause were estimated at about ;£[i4,ooo,ooo a year. Not only
did disease afflict agriculture in actual casualties in animals,
but it diminished their productivity and lessened their
usefulness as wealth-producing elements. Strong measures had
been taken in the past against disease and the great change
now proposed was the centralization of the veterinary services.
Complaint had been made that while some Local Authorities
exercised their functions under the Diseases of Animals Acts
and Acts relating to milk with great thoroughness, skill and
enthusiasm, tht'y were not invariably copied by their neigh-
bours. It was a discouraging thing to a man who lived in one
county where there was a high standard of efficiency to be
asked to co-operate in regulations burdensome to himself in
order to achieve* eradication of disease, when the same burdens
were not being placed on other farmers in the next county,
the continuance of whose state was a frustration to his own
improvement.
In order that the plan might succeed, the eradication of disease
had to be tackled upon a nation-wide scale. The cost to the State
of the present proposal would be £660,000 a year. Local
Authorities would be relieved of about £170,000 a year by
their officers being taken over, but there was no question that
certain public health and allied functions would still require
360
Council of Agriculture for England
Local Authorities to maintain their committees. The Minister
then gave some particulars of the negotiations that were going
on with Local Authorities, the County Councils’ Association
and the Association of Veterinary Officers, adding that
it was his intention to ask all whole-time Veterinary Inspectors
of Local Authorities to join the new central service, subject to an
age limit which, subject to Treasury sanction, would be
interpreted as liberally as possible. The interests of
Local Authorities and their staffs would be consulted
and he was confident that willing co-operation between
them would be forthcoming. The goal was worth striving
towards, because, if only half the incidence of disease could be
removed, it would be a very great boon to agriculture, which
really could not afford the appalling wastage of stock now
going on.
The Minister then mentioned the extension of the Wheat
Act provision from 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 quarters a year, and
the Government’s aim at bringing in oats and barley where
either of them and not wheat was the chief crop under cultiva-
tion. With regard to these other crops, what was wanted was
rather an insurance against such disastrously low prices as they
had suffered in recent years. It would be an acreage subsidy,
limited to ;£i per acre at the most, and the cost to the Exchequer
could not be more than £1,750,000 a year.
In conclusion, the Minister said that these were very simple
proposals. Their effect would be understood by the ordinary
man who should be stimulated and encouraged by the belief
that the Government desired to see an improvement in agri-
culture and its increased prosperity. Other problems at which
he was working hard were milk and bacon and other items. He
would not go through the whole list now but he hoped later
in the session to announce details of other proposals.
Sir Merrik Burrell {West Sussex) congratulated the Minister
on his proposals and on the clarity of his explanations. He was
sure that already the farming world was perfectly confident
that in our present Minister of Agriculture it had a real friend.
Soil-health and animal-health were the two things chiefly aimed
at, and, as the Minister said, they were the underlying funda-
mental things. In addition, it was necessary, where grass-land
was concerned, to have it adequately grazed. That was where
it was necessary to have a sufficiency of good animals to put on
it. One of the difficulties to-day was to get sufficient well-bred
stores.
361
Council ok Agriculture for England
As regards the absorption of the county veterinary services
by the State, he thought the County Agricultural Committees
should back the Minister up in the wide policy he had adopted.
He urged that no exception to the plan should be taken until
Committees knew exactly what was intended. That would be
known when the necessary legislation appeared.
Mr. W. R. Smith seconded the vote of thanks to the Minister.
He referred to the “ balanced ” policy and called attention to
the apparent lack of balance in the treatment of the labourer.
It was necessary to keep the labourer on the land in a happy
and contented position. To-day, the housing problem of the
countryside made that very difficult. The labourer should be
given housing conditions that would not only make him happy
and contented, but would establish in his mind a desire to
remain on the countryside rather than to drift to the town.
The Chairman here intimated that, before the vote of thanks
was put, he would allow members to ask the Minister questions
on his statement. Several were asked, the chief being on the
use of chalk, the agricultural wage, the special schemes for
barley and oats, lime, land settlement from distressed areas,
housing and electricity for rural areas, the method of fixing the
basic figures for wheat, barley, and oats, varying prices with
the cost of production, and the fear that the subsidy on oats
might reduce the market price for general sellers of oats.
The Minister, in replying, said he was grateful to Sir Merrik
Burrell for mentioning the point that fertility of the land
depended largely upon the livestock population. Liming and
slagging were no substitute for livestock, and, as to the latter,
the Livestock Industry Bill would do much to improve
conditions. The Bill aimed at controlling the market and pre-
venting the bottom being knocked out of it. The International
Beef Conference had already met and had had a successful and
auspicious beginning. The improvement in prices of livestock
that had taken place recently was encouraging, and the
farmers were paying good prices for store cattle
to-day, which meant they had a certain confidence in
the future. As regards housing conditions in rural areas,
he regarded it as vital that these should be such as to attract
young men to marry and settle down and live on the land.
As agriculture improved, so the prosperity of the worker
would tend to increase, and there had been some improve-
ment in recent years. The wages were not tiie whole matter
by any means, as many people preferred to live in the
362
Council of Agriculture for England
country on less money than in the town on more. He beheved
and hoped that something could be done to improve rural
housing conditions. There was an Advisory Committee set up
by the Minister of Health especially to consider rural housing,
and there already existed the Rural Housing Act of 1926,
under which much had been done in some counties and very
little in others. He hoped that those counties that had hitherto
done little would now see their way to use the facilities
provided.
As regards electricity, the McGowan Report was still under
consideration and the rural aspect of it would not be over-
looked. Costs of production of cereals were variable things,
depending on the weather, yield, and so on. He believed that
the present proposals for wheat would make it remunerative
under most conditions, and that those for oats and barley
would provide insurance against disastrous disparity between
costs and prices. Chalk would be regarded as within the scope
of the liming proposals.
As regards the criticism that the subsidies for wheat, barley
and oats ought to be available to the same man at
the same time, the intention was that anyone who grew both
oats and barley, or only one of them, and wheat should each
year be able to elect which scheme of assistance he desired
to use. He could choose between wheat and the other two
crops each year. Consideration would make the justice of
the proposals apparent. For example, barley was grown very
largely in East Anglia, and, for a decent sample, the price was
well above the range of the insurance proposals. It was the
grower of feeding-barley who required the insurance against
slump prices. The Wheat Act provided assistance for the grow-
ing of wheat, much more valuable to the wheat grower than the
insurance against slump prices to the barley man. He would put
the matter this way, that a greater output of wheat was desired
and the Government framed the Wheat Act Scheme to insure
it, but there were districts where farmers, through climatic
conditions, were cut off from any participation in that
national scheme. If, then, a man came under the Wheat Act,
the Minister did not think he need complain too much because
his brother farmer — ^higher up the hill under worse conditions
— ^had the benefits provided for oats and barley.
Another point as to market prices; the Government intended
to do its best to make sure that stable market conditions
existed, but it was not the market price so much as the relation
363
Council of Agriculture for England
between costs and prices that was important. The Government
intended to persevere along the line of making ample supplies
of food available consistent with a reasonable return to the
producer.
The vote of thanks was carried unanimously.
Marking of Imported Eggs: Mr. W. B. Pinching
{Middlesex) moved: —
" That the Minister of Agriculture he urged to take immediate steps
to secure the effective marking of all imported eggs/’
Mr. Pinching stated that from 1930 to 1933 there was a
considerable increase in egg production, though, since the last-
named year, it had dropped back. He gave particulars of the
production of eggs in this country and of the importation from
foreign sources, showing how the latter had increased in recent
years at the expense of the former. The law required eggs
to be marked as “ Foreign ” or “ Empire ” or, alternatively,
with the name of the country of origin. What happened to-day
was that many imported eggs were ticketed “New laid ” and
were really preserved eggs, because one could not differentiate
between preserved and fresh eggs in the case of importations.
He had never seen a Chinese egg in this country sold as such,
and was told that only dried eggs and eggs not in shell came
from China. He did not find this borne out by the trade return,
which showed that about 140,000,000 eggs per annum were
imported from China in shells. He asked that the intention
of the Merchandise Marks Act should be carried out and that
eggs coming from foreign countries, if pre.served, should be
marked “ Preserved.”
Mr. Graves {Middlesex) seconded the Resolution, which was
put to the Meeting and carried.
Wheat Act, 1932. Mr. H. W. Thomas {Hants.) moved: —
" That in the opinion of this Council there should be no limit to the
amount of home-grown wheat entitled to the full deficiency payment
and that the standard price should be raised to 50s. per quarter."
Mr. Thomas said he was glad to see the limit under the Act
raised from six to eight million quarters, but he would better
like to see the limit removed altogether and the standard price
raised to 50s. a quarter. His reason was that there had been
a large increase in the cost of production since 1932. The
world price of wheat was high, and, if his proposals were
carried out, there would be a greater run on wheat production,
364
Council of Agriculture for England
so that some of our worn-out pasture which had been let down
could be ploughed up and returned to a useful purpose. Much
of it might be got into condition to plant next autumn, and he
thought the wheat would certainly be required, since the
world wheat situation was none too promising. He also
thought that this improvement of worn-out pasture and its
return to grass after two or three years would bring an
improvement to the cattle industry by the resulting ability to
carry more and healthier stock.
Major Nelson Rooke seconded the Resolution on the ground
that for national defence we should not limit our wheat acreage,
and also because, if 45s. was the correct figure in 1932, then
50s. was a fairer figure now, having regard to the increased
costs of production.
Lord Hastings pointed out the difficulty of dealing with this
Resolution in proper perspective, apart from the requirements
of barley and oats. He thought that if the prospect to the
wheat grower was improved, it would be necessary to make
that to the oat and barley grower also sufficiently attractive or
the latter would be drivem into wheat cultivation, which he
gathered was not desired. Indeed, the argument for a balanced
agriculture was lost the more one particular kind of crop was
subsidized. He thought this point should be borne in mind, but
he supported the Resolution. Alderman T. Byass agreed with
the last speaker and said for that reason he could not support
50S. a quarter.
The Minister said there was no limit of acreage for wheat
growing under the Act, but the yield, which was limited for sub-
sidy purposes, was being raised by one-third, i.e., from
6,000,000 to 8,000,000 quarters, and in none of the years since
the passing of the Wheat Act had this figure been reached.
The question of an alteration of the standard price was foreseen
in the Wheat Act, which required a committee to be set up not
later than 1935 to consider it. This committee, under the
chairmanship of the late Sir John Beale, had been set up and
had reported in 1933 that there should be no alteration in the
standard price It would not now be desirable to
undertake the responsibility of raising the price without
another such investigation as the Act itself foresaw as
necessary. He thought that farmers would agree that the
additional insurance of getting 45s. for their wheat was a very
good inducement in these days when prices were so apt to vary.
He did not, however, wish to oppose the motion, but thought
365
Council ok Agriculture for England
the Council should have these observations in order to see that
the question of raising the standard price was not so simple
as it looked.
Mr. Charles Roberts asked whether this question had been
considered from the point of view of requirements for national
defence. Sir Arthur Hazlerigg suggested that the matter should
be referred to the Standing Committee for consideration and
Mr. D. C. Watkins seconded that. The Minister said that the
matter had been considered from the point of view of national
defence and what the Govc'niment wanted to .see was
that such wheat as could pro|Xirly be grown should be grown,
and he thought that the projxjsal he had made would ensure
that result. It was then put to the Meeting and agreed that
the resolution be referred to the Standing Committee,
Beef Prices. Sir Arthur Hazlerigg presented the Ki'port
of the Standing Committee on the question of Beef Prices and
the Subsidy (sec Ap{x;ndix I, j). 360). He said that the Report
was a very restrained one, and confined itself almost entirely to
a statement of actual facts. He commented on various state-
ments in the Report, adding that the Minister was “flirting”
with a standard price for oats and he (Sir Arthur) hoped that it
would come to a standard price for beef in the end.
Mr. T. C. Ward (Salop) said that the Report was merely a
recital of facts and there was not a single recommendation in
it. He would move that it be referred back to the Standing
Committee. Mr. J. V. Wheeler (Salop) seconded. Alderman
E. Peat (Derby) asked whether anything could be done to
remove the taxation on the importation of Irish steers. Mr.
Hewitf said that he agreed with Sir Arthur Hazlerigg that
stabilization of prices for steer beef was required. He would
not have it applied to cow beef. Under the pressure towards
greater milk production there were more fat cows brought to
market than formerly. Fattening steer beef meant more
manure for the land. Mr. John Beard asked if sometiiing
could not be done to give a guarantee to steer beef. He thought
that Londoners to-day got mainly cow beef. Mr. J. O. Adams
(Northanis.) asked about encouraging the rearing of young
stock. Milk, at the manufacturing price, ought to be used to
feed calves, and he hoped that people rearing young stock
would be able to retain some of their milk for that purpose at
the manufacturing price. Sir Arthur Hazlerigg here suggested
that, if the mover and seconder of the amendment agreed, the
366
Council of Agriculture for England
Report might be received as it stood, and a rider added that
the Standing Committee be instructed to consider further the
question of a satisfactory policy for beef. That was agreed,
and the Report adopted.
Cheaper Milk Schemes. Mr. George Dallas moved the
adoption of the Standing Committee’s Report on the subject of
increasing the consumption of milk by the extension of the
Cheaper Milk Schemes already operating (sec; Appendix II,
}). J70). Mr. C. H. Roberts said that the object was eminently
desirable, but not so easy as it looked. Milk-producers did not
like the idea of a retail price of is. qd. per gallon for their milk.
He did not think they realized that it was better for them to get
8d. a gallon for milk on a cheap scheme than 5d. a gallon for
manufacturing milk. The milk-producer was rather afraid that
the schemes would lower the total amount coming to him, but
Mr. Roberts did not agree. He held that, from the national point
of view, it was vitally necessaiy that the price of milk to the con-
sumer should come down. At prestmt prices, for three children
in a family to get the recommended amount of milk it would cost
the family about qs. a week on milk alone. That was far too
much. He desired also to emphasize the sentence in the Report
which invited the co-operation of Local Authorities, because
some of them were inclined to feel that they should not take
the trouble. These said “ It is the Milk Marketing Board’s
job ; that Board would apparently make something out of it,
and why should we have to fill up complicated forms, &c.” He
thought, therefore, that, if these schemes came into force, the
simpler they were and the less burden that was thrown upon
the Local Authorities, the better. The Report was adopted.
Expenses of Worker Members on County Agricultural
Committees. Mr. W. R. Smith moved the adoption of the
Report on payment by Counties, etc. , of the expenses of worker
members on County Agricultural Committees (see Appendix
III, p. 373). The Report was adopted.
Field and Tile Drainage. Mr. R. Anderson {Northumber-
land) moved : —
“ That the Council of Agriculture considers that as a means of
alleviating unemployment and improving agricultural land, the Ministry
of Agriculture and Fisheries be urged to rcston^ the grants which ceased
to be made in respect of field and tile drainage schemes in England in
1931 ; and that it be pointed out to the Ministry that grants are still
being made in respect of similar schemes in Scotland."
367
Council of Agriculture for England
Mr. Anderson said that there were hundreds of acres in
Northumberland and thousands of acres in the countiy
that required proper arterial drainage. Tile drainage
was the most effective and lasting if the drains
were put in at suitable depths, but it was expensive, costing
anything from ;^I 5 to ^20 per acre. The Minister had men-
tioned the health of stock. Many of our sheep diseases were
attributable to grazing on wet land. He considered that public
money spent on field drainage would safeguard a vital asset.
It would give plenty of work during the winter months. The
Minister’s proposals as regards drainage would appear to be
made only in respect of the drainage schemes which would be
carried out by drainage authorities. There were no such
authorities functioning in Northumberland and grants for
field drainage were being made over the border, in Scotland,
and none in his own county. Mr. Briggs {Soke of Peterborough)
seconded. He welcomed the words of the Minister that his
scheme included the clearing out of dykes and sewers in an
effort to get rid of surplus water. That would obviate, in many
instances, the complaints now being made by County Agri-
cultural Committees that water was being held up. The people
in his district had realized that dykes had to be cleaned out.
Everybody knew that potatoes standing in water for twenty-
four hours were finished.
Mr. Roberts asked whether the announcement was that local
authorities would have grants for cleaning out dykes and
streams in areas where there were no internal drainage boards.
An answer was given in the affirmative. Mr. Roberts then
asked whether it was not possible to go further and restore the
grants for field and tile drainage so that there would be no
discrimination between the farmers of Northumberland and
Cumberland and those of South Scotland. Mr. T. C. Goodwin
{Cheshire) and Mr. E. F. Brewis {Northumberland) spoke in
favour of outfall drains being cleaned.
The Minister said that, inasmuch as the problem of drainage
in Scotland was different from that in England and there was
very little arterial drainage in Scotland owing to the generally
high level of the country, Scotland had received grants for
field and pipe drainage, while England had had the
benefit of the money for the drainage of the main rivers by
Catchment Boards. It was not proposed to give grants for field
drainage in England and Wales, but to extend grants to Internal
Drainage Boards and to Local Authorities for the purpose of
368
Council of Agriculture for England
clearing out the lesser streams and thus making field drains
effective. The grants would also cover boundary dykes or minor
water-courses. The grants would be available to County
Councils where no internal drainage boards existed. Mr.
Matthews (Hereford) advocated helping mole drainage. The
Resolution was then put to the Meeting and carried.
Appendix 1.
Report from the Standing Committee on the present position
as regards Beef Prices and the Subsidy.
1. The Standing Committee has, from time to time during the last
eight or nine years, presented reports to the Council on the state of the
livestock industry in this country. In May, 1932, the Committee called
the Council's attention to the very serious position which had arisen in
the industry through the falling away of the wholesale prices of beef,
veal, mutton and lamb. Then, the cost of store cattle one and two years
before, when the animals had been taken on the farms by the feeders,
was high, and farmers found, on sale of the finished animals at lowering
prices, that they had been producing at a loss. Prices still further declined
and farmers, always hoping for better prices, which never materialized,
continued to produce at a loss until the subsidy of 55. per live cwt. for fat
cattle was brought in, in 1934. In many parts of the country, even with
the subsidy, fat cattle have since been only able to be produced by farmers
trenching on capital or going into debt. There is, at the present time,
a likelihood of improvement in this respect, as the prices of fat cattle
are to-day somewhat higher, though in our view, remembering also the
increases in costs of production, to some of which we refer later, they have
not yet reached a point at which, with the subsidy, they can be considered
as giving more than a scanty return to the average producer.
2. To realize the position more clearly the following facts and figures
from official sources are set out : in 1932, the average annual price of first
and second quality fat cattle (shorthorns) in England and Wales amounted
to 425. 2}(f. per live cwt., representing a decline of about 12 per cent,
compared with the annual average for the period 1927-31. In the next
three years, a further severe fall occurred, the average price, excluding
subsidy, in 1935 showing a fall of 30 per cent, as compared with the
period 1927-31. Prices in 1936 showed a slight recovery, but the average
for the year, excluding subsidy, was still nearly 27 per cent, below the
1927-31 average, excluding subsidy, or 16 per cent, including it.
3. So far this year — and especially in recent weeks — there has been a
further improvement in fat cattle prices which appears to represent
somewhat more than the seasonal increase which normally occurs in the
first half of the year. For the first quarter of 1937, the average price of
first and second quality fat cattle (shorthorns), including subsidy, was
41S. 2^d. per live cwt. as compared with 39s. lod. per cwt. in the first
quarter of 1936 and 485. 6d. per cwt. in the corresponding quarter of the
quinquennium 1927-1931. But it is doubtful whether producers of fat
cattle have so far benefited to any appreciable extent by the increase,
because of the sharp rise in the prices of purchased feeding stuffs which
has accompanied it. In the first quarter of the present year, the Ministry's
index of feeding stuffs prices was 117, representing a rise of 33 points as
compared with the corresponding quarter of last year. In fact, producers
who rely on purchased feeding stuffs are now, for the most part, paying
c 369
Council of Agriculture for England
prices appreciably higher than those ruling in 1932, although fat cattle
prices, exclusive of subsidy, are about 15 per cent, less than in that year.
4. If the official index numbers of cattle prices are compared with
those of other agricultural commodities, it will be seen that the cattle
industry is still one of the most depressed branches of agriculture. In
March this year, the Ministry's index of fat cattle prices was 102 (without
subsidy), whereas fat sheep stood at 145, pork pigs at 124, bacon pigs at
122, and the general index for all agricultural products at 130. After
full allowance is made for the effect of subsidy payments, the index for
fat cattle stands only at 117 for March. For April the corresponding
figure is 120, and so far as the present month is concerned prices arc
still slowly rising.
5. The Committee would, then, sum up the situation by saying that the
industry has, for some years past, been suffering under great difficulty,
and that it is a fine testimony to the hardihood of the livestock feeder that
he has been able to maintain himself in the face of adverse marketing
conditions. Some recompense in the form of a period of stable remunera-
tive conditions is certainly due to him.
6. The Livestock Industry Bill proposes that a sum of not more than
3^5,000,000 shall be available in any one financial year to assist the live-
stock farmer by means of payments of approved rates of subsidy on the
sale of fat stock. The Committee considers that in deciding on the rates
of assistance for future years, such facts as those set out above should be
taken into careful account. Further, the Committee is definitely of the
opinion that the 3^5,000,000 provided in the Bill is not likely to be more
than sufficient, if it is sufficient, to give the necessary help to the industry
in the first year of what we hope will be the beginning of a better period
for a much harassed and impoverished branch of home farming. Whether
it will prove sufficient for all years in the future will depend on the levels
of prices and costs of production and remains to be seen.
Appendix II.
Report from the Standing Committee on the question of
increasing the Consumption of Milk by the extension of the
cheaper milk schemes already operating.
PART I.
1. The Standing Committee's report to the Council on the subject of
increasing the consumption of milk, dated June, 1936, commented upon
the outstanding merit of Milk as a food containing all materials essential
for the growth and maintenance of life in a form ready for utilization
by human beings, and drew attention to the evidence in this respect
published in a memorandum on “ The Nutritive Value of Milk " by the
Advisory Committee on Nutrition appointed by the Ministry of Health.
Since that report was issued, this Advisory Committee has issued its
First Report, to which the Committee now draws the Council's attention.
2. The Report deals with food in general and refers, in its comments
on recent advances in the study of nutrition, to the essential need for correct
feeding in the case of expectant and nursing mothers and young children ;
the younger the child the more important it is that it should be properly
fed, for the effects of a dietary deficiency during childhood or adolescence
may persist through life. In its remarks on milk, the Report compares
the present consumption per head with the nutritional requirements
suggested by the Technical Commission of the League of Nations Health
Organization. It finds that, whereas the requirements suggested by the
Commission are equivalent to an average daily allowance per head of
370
Council of Agriculture for England
seven-eighths of a pint, less than one-half this amount is estimated to be
consumed per person in this country. If condensed and dried milk are
included the national consumption is still only 6o per cent, of the amount
suggested by the Commission. The Advisory Committee states the
desirable amount of milk for children to be from one to two pints per
day, for expectant and nursing mothers about two pints per day and for
other adult members of the community about one-half pint per day.
It deplores the fact, therefore, that while the volume of milk offered for
sale IS growing and there is a substantial surplus on the market, there is,
at the same time, ‘ ‘ a severe deficiency of milk in the diet of large sections
of the population."'
3. The Standing Committee sees no escape from the conclusion that
steps should be taken to remedy this position either by a drastic reorganiza-
tion of the methods of distribution which would enable an all-round
reduction in the price of milk to be effected or by a considerable extension
of the schemes for the supply of cheaper milk to special classes, or by both
methods.
PART II.
4. At the last meeting of the Council, the following resolution by Major
Nelson Rooke was referred to the Standing Committee for consideration
and report : —
“ That the Council of Agriculture for England is of the opinion that
the Government should be asked to take immediate steps to ensure
that any so-called ' surpluses,' i.e , amounts of agricultural produce
grown in excess of ordinary requirements, shall be diverted, without
loss to the producer, to any needy section of the population, such as
those m receipt of National Health In.surance, Unemployment Relief
or other form of public assistance, as, in the interests of food production
against an emergency, of proper nutrition for the under-fed and of the
agricultural industi*y itself, it is essential to stimulate production in
this country."
5. The Committee has carefully considered Major Nelson Rooke’s
suggestion and agrees that, wherever foodstuffs are grown surplus to
ordinary market requirements, it would be an undoubted advantage to
the community if workable schemes could be devised whereby the surpluses
could be dealt with as suggested, and not permitted to swamp the market
.so that the price for the whole crop or production is lowered beneath a
profitable price to the producer. The Committee considers that the few
commodities which would lend themselves to the treatment suggested
are to be found amongst those that are the subject of marketing schemes
and as to which the amounts of the comparable imports are known or
can be foreshadowed. Only in respect of such can it be stated with
reasonable accuracy how much, if any, of the crop or production in any
particular year is surplus to ordinary market requirements.
6. Whatever commodities come within the purview of such schemes,
milk is clearly one and outstandingly deserves first consideration. It is
entirely home produced and there is always a large surplus to ordinary
liquid milk sales. The Committee decided to restrict its examination
to this commodity in the first instance, and to deal only with the question
of the extension of existing schemes for the sale of milk at cheaper rates
than those ordinarily in operation.
7. The schemes already existing are the Milk-in-Schools Scheme and
those at present in force through the co-operation of the Milk Marketing
Board, the Commissioners for Special Areas, the distributors and the local
authorities in the distressed areas, particularly in the Rhondda Valley.
8. The Rhondda Valley scheme was started in July of last year and its
object was to sell additional milk for special classes in families, namely,
C2 371
Council of Agriculture for England
for expectant and nursing mothers and children under five years of age,
at 2d. per pint, i.e., js. 4d. per gallon. Under the authority of the Medical
Officers of Health, persons in these categories are allowed one pint daily
at the reduced price, though the allowance can be increased on the recom-
mendation of the M.O.H. who can approve either raw or pasteurized milk
or both. There is no income test and no reference is made to the financial
status of the applicant. Dairymen approved for supplying the special
categories under the scheme are allowed 8d. a gallon as a distributive
margin.
9. The effect of this and similar schemes in distressed areas now
operating appears to be that more milk is sold, the distributor deals with
larger quantities and does not lose money, and the producer gets a some-
what better price for it than he would if the milk were sold for manufacture.
10. The Standing Committee suggests that, since these schemes have
been successful in bringing more liquid milk into consumption, they should
be extended to similar classes throughout the country, the local authorities
and the Medical Officers of Health being invited to co-operate in this
national work. The Milk Marketing Board on behalf of all milk producers
has already shown its active interest in such schemes, and the Government
would no doubt be ready to assist in any way which it deemed to be
advisable and equitable. It might be necessary to apply an income test
to recipients as it is essential that the cheaper milk should go to the really
needy classes and be in addition to and not in substitution of existing
supplies. With such recipients the present average consumption of milk
would be likely to be low, and, therefore, supplies of cheaper milk, especially
if accompanied by conditions as in the case of the Rhondda Valley supplies,
are likely to be taken as additions to the present consumption. If thought
advisable and practicable, needy cases amongst the unemployed and old-
age pensioners might also be dealt with, possibly with slight variations
of the scheme to meet special cases.
11. Apart from this proposal, it appears to the Standing Committee
that there is ample room for advance on the lines suggested by the Re-
Organization Commission of Milk Marketing Schemes in Great Britain of
supplying factory workers, mine workers and even large office staffs with
cheaper milk during working hours. Where all the recipients are under
one roof, the distributors may find themselves able to accept a margin
of 6d. per gallon, as in the case of school milk ; and, since this milk would
not be in competition with household supplies, but would otherwise be
sold for manufacture, it might be supplied to the distributor for sale at
IS. 4d. per gallon. This would enable workers to purchase milk delivered
at a suitable time at their place of work at id. per half-pint.
12. The Committee would repeat the suggestion put forward by the
same Commission that there might also be sales of cheaper milk from
selected shops or depots for those people who were prepared to send for it.
It is not reasonable that the purchasers who are prepared to do without
the services of an expensive distributive system should be charged the
same as others who require milk delivered at their door twice or thrice
daily. It was suggested by the Commission that these special shops
could be supplied with milk at a lower rate than that to ordinary dis-
tributors, and that they should be tied to a low retail price and to sales
over the shop counter. If such a scheme were introduced, it would be of
especial advantage in areas where the consumption of milk is already low,
80 that there would be a good chance of a largely increased consumption
of milk resulting therefrom. Here, again, the Standing Committee would
like to see a retail price of is. 4d. per gallon for milk sold from those shops.
13. It will be realized that, in making the above suggestions, the
Standing Committee is putting forward very little that is new. It is
372
Council of Agriculture for England
rather bringing several proposals together : (a) for the extension of existing
schemes which have met with a measure of success, and (b) for the inaugura-
tion of schemes suggested in reports by ad hoc Committees and Commis-
sions, whose views should have much weight. If this can be done, con-
siderable advance would be achieved in the direction of utilizing the
surplus liquid milk for the good of the community and the benefit of
the producer.
14. In conclusion, the Standing Committee would repeat the words of
the Advisory Committee on Nutrition in their First Report mentioned at
the opening of this Report : “ The national advantages of an improved
standard of health for the rising generation cannot be expressed in pounds,
shillings and pence ; but even from the point of view of industrial efficiency,
it is not over-stating the case to say that a high general standard of physical
well-being is the nation’s greatest asset.” The Report continues : ” From
the health standpoint, there is no single measure which would do more to
improve the health, development and resistance to disease of the rising
generation than a largely increased consumption of safe milk by mothers,
children and adolescents.”
Appendix IIL
Report from the Standing Committee on the subject of Payment
by Counties, etc., of Expenses of Worker Members of County, etc.,
Agricultural Committees.
1. At the last meeting of the Council of Agriculture (December 10, 1936)
a resolution was passed on the motion of Mr. John Beard, as follows : —
” That this Council of Agriculture calls the attention of the Govern-
ment to the difficulty of securing labour representatives on many
County Agricultural Committees owing to County Councils declining
to make financial provision to meet the needs of the labourers for
travelling, subsistence and loss of pay , and asks the Government to
remedy this defect in the Act either by itself, or through instructions
to County Councils to make such financial provision as wull make it
possible for labourers to give their quota of service.”
2. The Standing Committee has looked into this question and finds
that local authorities have power only to pay travelling and subsistence
allowances, not loss of pay. It is, moreover, informed by the Ministry
of Agriculture that the matter has been taken up with the fifteen County
and Borough Agricultural Committees which liad, at the date of the
Council meeting, made no effective provision for the payment of travelling
expenses or subsistence allowances to members generally or to those
representing agricultural labour, with the following result : six of the
agricultural committees have come into line, and there is a likelihood of
four others doing so, leaving only five authorities in England and Wales
at present apparently indisposed to make any change in the practice
they have followed in this matter in the past.
3. The Committee considers that it is to be regretted that these five
authorities have come to a decision adverse to the spirit of the Council
of Agriculture's resolution, as set out above. It sugge.sts that these
bodies should now reconsider the proposal, bearing in mind the fact that
other committees have agreed, and that out of 68 such authorities set
up in England and Wales under Part 3 of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries Act, 1919, only five have declined to adopt the course
recommended.
4. The Committee sees no reason why there should not be absolute
uniformity in the practice of County and Borough Agricultural Committees
in the treatment of its members who are chosen to do public work and
freely give their time and experience for the benefit of their fellows.
373
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of
producer-retailers' contributions for May, 1937, are given
below, with comparative figures for April, 1937, and May,
1936. The montUy wholesale liquid milk price was is. ojd.
per gallon, the same as for the corresponding month last year.
The ^d. represents the purchasers’ contribution towards a
publicity fund; a similar contribution is made by producers
by an allocation from the Board’s funds.
Pool Prices Producer-Retailers'
Contributions
May
Apr.
May
May
Apr.
May
1937
1937
1936
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern
9 i
12 \
8i
3 i
2tt
North-Western
9 i
12J
8|
2i
3 l
2«
Eastern
9 i
12 §
9
2*
2f
East Midland
9 i
12 i
8}
2i
3 l
2«
West Midland
9
8J
2^
3 *
3
North Wales
9
I2i
8i
2*
3 *
3
South Wales
9 i
12 i
8i
2|
3 i
Southern
9I
12}
9 i
2
2^
2 -fff
Mid-Western
9
12
81
2*
3 l
3
Far-Western
9
12
81
2*
3 i
3
South-Eastern
10
13
9 l
III
2j
2i
Unweighted Average
9-30
12-45
8'8o
2 ‘34
3-i6
2-78
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the accredited
producers’ premium of id. per gallon.
The accredited premium was paid on 34,446,193 gal., and
the sum required for the payment of the premium was
equivalent to a levy of •34d. per gal. on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at ijd.
per gal., compared with i|d. per gal, in May, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
May, 1937
(estimated)
May, 1936
Gallons
Gallons
Liquid
49,730.968
48,031,378
Manufacturing
39.352.145
42,531,859
89,083,113
90.563.237
Percentage liquid sales
55-83
53-04
Percentage manufacturing sales
44 ’ 17
46-96
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
May was 5-53d. per gal, compared with 4 92d. per gal. for
374
Marketing Notes
May, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into cheese
on farms was 2,946,687 gal., compared with 1,323,449 gal. in
the previous month and 2,642,717 gal. in May, 1936.
Regional Elections. Elections of Regional members took
place in three Regions on June 5. Mr. J. W. Rickeard, the
retiring member, was returned unopposed for the Eastern
Region, and Messrs. F. Jackson and C. T. Sproston, and Mr.
J. Garton, retiring members, were re-elected for the North-
Western (two vacancies) and South-Eastern Regions, respec-
tively.
Annual General Meeting. The Fourth Annual General Meeting
of registered producers was held on June 10, 1937. The retiring
special member of the Board, Mr. T. Baxter, was re-elected.
The Board presented to the meeting a Report on the working
of the scheme for the year ended March 31, 1937, together
with a Statement of Accounts. According to the Report, the
number of producers selling milk by wholesale on March 31,
1937, was 84,610, compared with 81,984 on March 31, 1936
— an increase of 2,626 or 3.2 per cent. During the same period
the number of contracts registered with the Board increased
from 88,510 to 91,588, i.e., by 3,078 or 3.5 per cent., while
the number of licensed producer-retailers declined from 65,786
to 64,846, i.e., by 940 or 1.4 per cent.
The total quantity of milk sold under the scheme, compared
with the two previous years, was as follows: —
Thousands of Gallons
1936-37
1935-36
1934-35
Sold by wholesale under contract . .
883,612
868,386
783>424
Producer-retailers* sales
105,964
103,699
105,941
Farmhouse cheese-makers’ sales . .
Milk for schools sold direct by pro-
18,274
15,182
21,319
ducers
4.032
4,046
2,017
Total quantity of milk passing through
the Board . .
1,011,882
991,313
912,701
The respective quantities of milk sold in the liquid and
manufacturing markets were : —
Liquid
Manufacturing
Thousands of Gallons
1936-37 1935-36 1934-35
669,372 656,775 650,452
342,510 334»538 262,249
Total
1,011,882
991,313
912,701
375
Marketing Notes
It is of interest to note that liquid sales accounted for 6i per
cent, and manufacturing sales for 39 per cent, of the total
increase in 1936-37, as against 8 per cent and 92 per cent,
respectively in 1935-36.
There are 1,070 farmhouse cheese-makers’ contracts in
operation this year, compared with 963 a year ago, showing
an increase of 107, while the average grant payable to farm-
house cheese-makers was 4.58d. per gallon, compared with
4.35d. per gallon last year.
The Board have extended their manufacturing facilities
by alterations and additions to existing buildings and plants
and by the acquisition of new premises. At the end of the
financial year the Board were operating ten creameries; the
number a year ago was five.
Hops Marketing Scheme. The retiring district members
of the Hops Marketing Board have been re-elected for a
further year. At a meeting of the Board on April 23, Mr.
W. J. Woolrich and Mr. G. H. Edwards were re-elected
Chairman and Vice-Chairman respectively.
The estimated market demand for hops for 1937 has been
fixed at 222,500 cwt., as compared with 225,000 cwt. for 1936,
and the total of annual quotas at 98 per cent, of basic quotas,
as against 100 per cent, for 1936. Interchange of annual quotas
for the 1937 crop will be permitted until October 7, 1937.
The latest date for tendering to the Board hops of the 1937
season is October 6, 1937.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of
payments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936.
Payments
Animals
Average
Payment per
Animal
April and May, 1933
April and May, 1936
April and May, 1937
i
660,803
649,815
650,040
277,258
276.881
275.426
1
L s- A.
2 7 8
2 6 ] I
272
♦Sept. 1, 1934, to May 31, 1937
10,530,093
1
4,443,269
275
♦ Commencement of subsidy payments.
376
Marketing Notes
Livestock Industry Bill. The Second Reading and Com-
mittee stages of this Bill in the House of Lords have now been
completed. The Bill has been amended to provide that the
" appointed day ” for the purposes of Part II of the Bill
(subsidy payments) shall be August i, 1937.
Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936: Manujacluring Milk. Advances
made by the Ministry up to June 15, 1937, in respect of manu-
facturing milk were as follows : —
Section
of
Act
1
1 Period
1 of
j Manufacture
Quantity '
!
Advances
1
(a) Milk Marketing Board for England and Wales, \
In respect of milk :
(gallons
£
I
Manufactured at
A])nl, 1934. to
523,141,426 '
2,241 ,910
factories other
March, 1937.
than the Board’s
2
Manufactured by
April, 1934,
2,573.662
12,850
the Board.
Sept., 1435.
3
Made into cheese
April, 1934,
43,658,147
193.078
on farms
Dec., 1936.
Total for England and Wales . .
57 o> 37 i .235
2,447,838
{b) Government of Northern Ireland.
In respect of milk .
6
Manufactured into
April, 1934, to
1 ^>7.3^5.527 !
3^1.231
cream and butter
March, 1937.
I '
1
at registered
! !
creameries.
; ^
Total
1 637,738,762
.i.839,069
Owing to the Cheese Milk prices for April, May and June of this year
being in excess of the Standard Price, no advances are payable in respect
of milk produced and manufactured in these months.
Milk in Schools Scheme. The following figures show the
gallonage of milk consumed in the first 6 months of the third
year of the scheme compared with the corresponding period
in the first and second years. The figures for the third period
will be slightly increased when further returns are received.
Exchequer
Gallons Contnbutton
October, 1934, March, 1935 . . 13,104,996 285, 807
October, 1935, to March, 1936 . . 12,045,800 75,974
October, 1936, to March, 1937 • • 11,860,627 £2^1,806
377
Marketing Notes
Cheese-Milk Price. For the purpose of payments under the
Milk Acts (whether by the Exchequer to Milk Marketing Boards
or by Boards to the Exchequer) in respect of milk used for
manufacture, the cheese-milk price has been certified by the
Minister and the Secretary of State for Scotland to be 6.26
pence per lb. for the month of June, 1937.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-grown Wheat, Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commission
by registered growers during the period August i, 1936, to
June 4, 1937, cover sales of 20,589,592 cwt. of millable wheat
as compared with 30,964,244 cwt. in the corresponding period
(to June 5) in the last cereal year.
Deficiency Payments — Cereal Year 1936-37. The Wheat
Conunission have decided that no further advance on account
of deficiency payments in the current year be made to registered
growers.
Regulation of Imports of Bacon and Hams. In the light
of a recommendation of the Market Supply Committee, it has
been decided that the foreign bacon quota for the first eight
weeks of the third quarter shall be fixed provisionally at the
rate operative in the first six months of the year. The alloca-
tions to the individual foreign exporting countries for the
period July i to August 25 are as follows :
Country
Allocations
Cwt, (a)
Denmark
. .
516,280
Netherlands
77.240
Poland . .
64,640
Sweden . .
38,216
Lithuania
23.984
Estonia . .
6,096
Finland . .
3.252
Latvia . .
5.692
U.S.S.R.
6,912
Argentina
. .
5.692
U.S.A
Allowance for imports from foreign
countries not scheduled to the Bacon
65.043
(Import Regulation) Order . .
Total
• ■
19,670
832.717
(a) Subject to any adjustments necessitated by overshipments or
undershipments in previous periods.
378
Marketing Notes
Imports of Mutton and Lamb, 1937 : Agreement in principle
has been reached with New Zealand and Australia concerning
the arrangements for the regulation of imports of mutton and
lamb from the Dominions in 1937.
New Zealand and Australia will receive the same basic
allocations as for 1936, i.e., 3,900,000 cwt. and 1,750,000 cwt.
respectively. As regards Australia, however, the year October i,
1936, to September 30, 1937, has been adopted as the period of
allocation in lieu of the calendar year 1937 in order
to fit in with the Australian shipping season. The basic alloca-
tions may be increased if the United Kingdom Government
are of the opinion that additional quantities can be accepted
without endangering the stability of the market; on the other
hand it was arranged that they might be reduced by not more
than 3^ per cent, if, in the first six months of 1937, prices of
United Kingdom mutton and lamb fell appreciably below the
average of 1935-1936 prices.
In view of the improved price position, it has been agreed
that New Zealand and Australia should be entitled to ship
110,000 cwt. and 50.000 cwt., respectively, additional to their
basic allocations. A further review of the market position is
now taking place.
As provided for in the Ottawa Agreements and the recent
Trade Agreement with Argentina, imports of mutton and
lamb from foreign countries are being regulated on the same
basis as in 1936, when they were limited to approximately
65 per cent, of the quantities sent in the Ottawa Standard
Year (July, 1931- June, 1932).
National Mark Scheme for Plums. The Minister has given
notice of intention to make revised regulations, under the
Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Acts, 1928 and
1931, prescribing grade designations, grade designation marks
and standards of quality for plums. The amendments relate
to the amount of dispersed russet permitted in the various
grades, to a reduction in the existing size specifications for the
variety “Belle de Louvain,’’ and to the inclusion of all varieties
of greengages.
Copies of the draft regulations may be obtained from
H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway, London,
W.C.2, or through any bookseller, price 2d. each (2|d.
post free).
379
Marketing Notes
National Mark Canned Fruit and Vesretables. At a recent
meeting the National Mark Canned Fruit and Vegetables Trade
Committee recommended the inclusion in the Scheme of
certain varieties of broad beans, mainly those with
pale green hilums. Draft Regulations prescribing a grade
designation, " Select Fresh Broad Beans,” and definitions of
quality, will shortly be published.
The Committee further recommended the inclusion in the
" List of approved varieties of vegetables,” of the varieties
of peas known as ” Dwarf Canner ” and ” Onward.” Effect
will be given to this recommendation.
A recommendation was also made that all sizes of cans
approved for the packing of other fruits should be approved
for the packing of apples. (The range of cans includes sizes
A. 10, A. 2^, A. 2, E. I and Picnic.) The recommendation is
being adopted.
National Mark Fruit Products Scheme. The National
Mark Cider, Perry and Fruit Products Trade Committee
considered the question of extending the scope of the National
Mark Scheme for Fruit Products which has hitherto been
confined to two grades of fruit juice syrups. In view of the
progress which has been made in the technique of production
of other fruit products, the Committee recommended the
extension of the scheme to include fruit juice, fruit concentrates
and aerated fruit beverages. The proposed grade designations
for these products are ” Select Fruit Juice,” ” Select Fruit
Concentrate ” and ” Select Aerated Fruit Beverage.”
These grade designations, together with definitions of quality,
will be included in draft regulations proposed to be made under
the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Acts. As
with fruit juice syrups, the definitions of quality will specify
certain requirements as to flavour, colour, specific gravity,
alcohol content and the use of sweetening materials and
preservatives.
The same conditions as regards the minimum output
qualification of applicants for enrolment in the scheme will
apply as for fruit juice syrups, viz. , makers and bottlers not
enrolled in any of the National Mark schemes relating to cider,
perry, canned and bottled fruit and vegetables and jam will
normally be required to have an annual output of fruit products
of all kinds of not less than 3,000 gallons.
380
Marketing Notes
Marketings Demonstrations. Particulars of exhibits and
demonstrations to be staged by the Ministry during July are
as follows : —
Show
Royal, Wolverhampton . .
July 6-10.
Great Yorkshire, York . .
July 13-15.
Kent, Canterbury
July 14-16.
Royal Welsh, Monmouth
July 21-23.
Royal Lancs, Manchester
July 29-Aug. 2.
Demonstration
Egg testing, fruit grading and live-
stock demonstrations. Fruit, dairy
produce, egg and honey exhibits.
Egg testing and grading, and live-
stock demonstrations. Dairy pro-
duce, egg and honey exhibits.
Plum grading demonstration. Fruit,
table poultry, honey and vegetable
exhibits.
Egg - testing demonstration. Dairy
produce, egg and honey exhibits.
Egg testing and grading, and livestock
demonstrations. Dairy produce, egg
and fruit exhibits.
IJnion of South Africa: Agricultural Marketing Act,
1937 . The Agricultural Marketing Bill referred to in the April,
1937, issue of the Journal (p. 67) has been enacted, subject to
certain amendments and additions made in committee. The
most important of these excludes the need for the approval of
a marketing scheme by Parliament, it being held that con-
sumers are sufficiently protected by the provision for an ad hoc
committee of investigation should cause for complaint arise.
Existing boards of control are now entitled to submit schemes
to the Minister for approval, but other schemes must have the
approval of three-fifths of the producers, representing more
than half the total production of the product proposed to be
regulated. A consumer’s committee may propose to the
Minister the amendment of any scheme. The Governor-General
may suspend any provision of the Dairy Industry Control Act
which is inconsistent with a scheme relating to dairy products,
and a regulatory board is now empowered to impose a variable
levy on a sliding (quantitative) scale on different classes or
qualities of a product.
JULY ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
In normal years in southern and earlier districts, July sees
the end of hay-making and the commencement of harvest,
while in the north and later districts July sees the peak of
hay-making activities and August is the harvest month.
At the time of writing, it looks as if good hay crops will be
won in most areas if there is favourable weather.
A sufficient supply of well- won hay will be a great asset to
many farmers, as purchased feeding stuffs are high in price
and there seems to be little prospect of any great reduction in
the immediate future. Where sufficient really good quality hay
is available the feeder is certainly less dependent on purchased
concentrates.
The tendency to reduce labour and to depend more on
machinery for hay-making makes it most important that all
machines should be in good repair, and risks of breakdown
reduced to a minimum. Good hay-making certainly depends
veiy much upon weather conditions, but skill in handling the
crop in the correct manner is of very great importance.
The root crop has been sown under variable conditions and
although the weather in the early part of June was favourable
for germination there were many complaints of trouble from
the Turnip Flea beetle. Where potatoes were planted under
good conditions they have come through quickly and are
making rapid growth. Little opportunity was afforded for
cleaning land before putting in green crops, and it is therefore
desirable that no opportunity should be missed for drill cultiva-
tion and cleaning. The root crop usually allows for an
opportunity to reduce weeds, but in many districts the
opportunity is still to come this year.
Lime and Phosphates. The proposed Government aid in
relation to the use of lime and basic slag will no doubt encourage
many farmers to more liberal use of these fertilizers. Many
of our soils are very deficient in the constituents supplied by
these manures. On certain soils lime is lost at a rapid rate, while
for many generations phosphates have too commonly been
sold off the farm in milk, in the bones of live-stock and in
crops, without any recompense. The result is that on large
areas of land the need for one or other, or both, of these fertili-
382
July on the Farm
zers definitely limits crop production. It is important, therefore,
to try to ensure that an economic return will be obtained from
money expended on such manures.
At Cockle Park, excellent results have been obtained from
the use of lime on arable land. Greatly increased crops and
reduction in losses from finger-and-toe and other diseases have
followed its application. It is nevertheless true that on much
of the grass land that lies on the Boulder Clay, and is only
moderately acid in character, no economic return has resulted
from the application of lime. The Cockle Park results hold
good for considerable areas of Boulder Clay land in North-
umberland and possibly for other parts of the country. On
some of the lighter soils in the North of England lime has given
veiy good returns on grass land, and in the West Riding of
Yorkshire the results from lime have often been most striking.
Experience of the use of lime suggests the desirability of
arriving at some measure of the need for lime by having samples
of the soil analysed, and, if the need is not abnormally high,
to dress a small area only in order to make sure that an
adequate return may be expected before embarking on great
expenditure. County Agricultural Staffs have a good knowledge
of the likely response of soils in different areas to applications
of lime, and may be able to arrange a chemical test if re-
quired. While it is true that, in a general way, lime is greatly
needed, there are particular instances even with indications of
acidity, where no economic return may be obtained.
As far as phosphates are concerned, it should be borne in
mind that different types of phosphatic manures give varying
results according to conditions. In the drier districts of East
Anglia, insoluble ground mineral phosphates are not largely
used, superphosphates being usually preferred. The soluble
phosphate of the latter gives good results under dry climatic
conditions. In the North of England on poor pastures of low
productivity, especially those of a rather wet, acid t)q)e,
ground mineral phosphates frequently give good results,
especially in the first stages of improvement. For later dressings,
after the productivity of the pastures has been considerably
increased, and with a greater demand for available phosphates,
good quality high citric soluble basic slag usually gives better
returns. On light soils it is often necessary to apply potash in
addition to phosphates, and always it is wise to make sure
potash is not a limiting factor to improvement.
Basic slag of high citric solubility costs more per unit of
383
July on the Farm
phosphoric acid than the low soluble types. For dry soils and
land of high productivity the high citric soluble slags usually
give the best results and justify the extra expenditure.
While manuring may provide the basis for pasture improve-
ment, correct management of the grazing is equally important.
Greater production of pasturage needs increased stock : without
this, waste and deterioration of the pasture will follow.
Grazing Stock. On pastures grazed mainly by sheep and
with only few cattle, the flowering stems of the grasses are
now seen in abundance. The disadvantage of allowing pasture
plants to produce seed, on account of waste, loss of vitality and
productiveness, has already been referred to in these articles.
Where pastures tend to run to seed, topping by the mowing
machine does much to prevent harmful effects.
On early feeding land, many cattle will already have been
sold. If such pastures are to maintain a high output it is of first
importance that they should be kept properly grazed. Good
graziers are at great pains to ensure efficient grazing manage-
ment of the best feeding pastures. Sometimes efficient grazing
of the poor pastures on the farm may be sacrificed for these
good feeding fields.
During recent years, it has often been said of some of the
best graziers that they would rather waste money than waste
grass. The poor return for beef frequently meant that the full
stocking of the pasture led to increased loss, but these pastures
have been maintained in first-class condition ready to give
increased returns as the market for beef improves. What may
have appeared to be waste will have, in many instances, proved
to be a profitable investment.
In many districts there has been an abundance of pasture.
During the first week in June after a good spell of growing
weather there were many complaints of a falling off in yield
of dairy cows in the North of England. An opportunity was
taken of inspecting the pasturage of several farms and it was
found that the more abundant the pasture, especially if there
was much stem growth, the greater was the fall in yield. This
emphasizes the need for control, not only of the amount of
i;rass consumed by the cow, but also the type of the herbage.
Every effort should be made to prevent a falling away in
milk yield, as the loss is very difficult to recover, and the
efficiency of the individual cow is reduced for the remainder
of the lactation. July is frequently a month when pastures
384
July on the Farm
deteriorate and some compensation in the way of concentrates
should be given to the cows on most farms. Judicious manage-
ment and feeding can do much to reduce the fall off in yield
that is usually experienced in dairy herds during July, August
and September.
Sheep. During the month ewes for drafting and casting will
be drawn. With hill and running flocks, the draft ewes go out
according to ages, but with breeding flocks on lower ground
ewes may be retained as long as they are serviceable. With
some flockmasters as with other breeders of farm livestock,
there is a definite prejudice against age and frequently first-
class breeding stock are disposed of when they could be usefully
retained for a longer period and are replaced by (unproved)
youngsters. The desirable qualities in a breeding ewe such as
type, economic conversion of food, mothering or milking
qualities, constitution prolificacy and prepotency are difficult to
combine in an individual. When these are found developed to
a high degree in any individual every effort should be made
to propagate this type of animal. In sheep-breeding, greater
attention to individual selection on the female side would no
doubt result in an improvement in many of our flocks. It is
done in some of our successful breeding flocks but there appears
to be need for an extension of the practice.
Whatever the inherent possibilities may be with an animal,
management in tire end plays an important part in determining
just how far these possibilities are developed. With the increased
demand for lamb and the selling off of sheep at light weights,
more lambs arc needed. Hence prolificacy is a factor that is
sought after as evidenced by the popularity and higher prices
obtained for prolific breeds or crosses. There is no doubt that,
on certain types of farms, much advantage is obtained from
“ flushing ” the ewes before mating. Sheep should be kept
in improving condition at mating time. “ Flushing ” also
helps in that the ewes come to the ram at about the same time,
with the result that the lambing period is shortened, manage-
ment is easier, and a more uniform lot of lambs can be
marketed.
Bovine Mastitis. This trouble is responsible for serious
losses in dairy herds. The term mastitis covers a number of
distinct pathological conditions of the mammary gland caused
by a number of different species of organism. Thus, what is
commonly called a " weed ” is a chronic form of mastitis due
385
July on the Farm
to infection with micro-organisms called streptococci, while an
acute form of mastitis prevalent in summer months and known
as " udder clap ” or “ garget ” is brought about by a micro-
organism of an entirely different species.
The chronic form of mastitis occurs among dairy cows
throughout the year and especially in older cattle, produces
udder damage, and ultimately leads to hardening of the quarter
and reduced yield. Edwards estimates that about 30 per cent,
of daily cows are affected with this disease.
The channel of infection is now thought to be almost
exclusively by way of the teat canal and infection of the udder
is facilitated by wounds or abrasions of the gland. It is interest-
ing to note that the disease does not arise spontaneously once
all known sources of infection have been removed. Recent
researches have proved the disease to be contagious (i.e. , spread
by contact) and transmission is frequently by way of the
milker’s hand.
Efficient control of contagious mastitis demands the segrega-
tion of infected cows, or where this is not possible the chance
of spread is limited by milking them last. Some success has
recently been claimed by treating infected udders with infusions
of chemical substances, and those interested in this new
treatment are advised to consult their veterinarians.
With regard to the acute or summer form of mastitis, this
principally affects dry in-calf cows and heifers that are at
grass during July and August. This form is characterized by
marked systemic disturbance and the affected quarter is
swollen, hard and painful. The course of this disease is
frequently rapid and may result in death. Care should be
taken in drying off cows at this season and frequent inspection
is advisable when animals are at grass. In certain localities
dairy cattle would appear to be more prone to this form of
mastitis, which may be carried by flies.
Finally it must be emphasized that cleanliness in all dairy
operations is the sheet anchor for the prevention of mastitis,
as indeed of other troubles, and daiiymen should do all in
their power to increase the efficiency of herd hygiene. If a
single case occurs it should be viewed with grave concern and
prompt measures should be adopted.
386
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
1
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
Description
during week ended June 9th
1
Costs
Ikistol
Hull
L’pool
London
per
Unit^
i
s.
£
5 .
£
s.
£
s.
s
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 15^%) . . ]
7
12c
7
I2C
7
12c
7
\2C
9
10
,, ,, Granulated (N. 16%)
7
12c
7
I2r
7
12c
7
\2C
9
6
Nitrate of Lime (N. 13%)
7
oc
7
oc
7
oc
7
OC
10
9
Nitro-Chalk (N. i5i%)
Sulphate of Ammonia
♦
7
5^
7
'SO
7
so
7
so
9
4
Neutral (N. 20-6%) . .
1 7
5C'
7
SO
7
SO
7
so
7
0
Calcium Cyanamidc (N. 20*6%)
i ^
5d
7
Sd
7
Sd
1 7
Sd
7
0
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . • • >
! 2
18
2
15
1 2
15
2
L5
3
II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
' 5
0
4
17
1 4
^5
: 4
17
i 3
3
„ (Pot 20%)
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
: 3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot 50 %)
• 8
3
I
1 7
17
1 8
1
3
3
Sulphate (Pot 48%)
! <)
15
■ 9
13
1 9
9
' 9
13
1 4
0
Basic Slag (P A 152%)
Z
126
i ^
S'b
1 -
1
—
; 2
106
1 3
2
„ (PA. 14%)..
§
1 2
86
! 2
06
1 2
06
' 2
66
3
3
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P.A 26-
i
!
i
8
27 i%)
2
12a
—
2
loa
'i 2
i I
Superphosphate (S.P.A. i6%)
3
4
—
’ 3
SO
' 3
of
i 3
9
(S.PA. I3l%)
! 3
I
, 2
17
i 2
ige
i 2
ibf
1 ^
I
Bone Meal {N 3 }%. P A 2oi%)
Steamed Bone Flour (N. }%,
i
5h
, 6
10
; 7
SS
, 7
0
1 ’
-
P.A. 27i-29i%)
• 5
' 5
)
10
i 5
og
, 5
0
1
Abbreviations : N. = Nitrogen ; P.A. Phosphoric Acid ,
S P.A = Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. = Potash.
♦ Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser’s nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
§ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, net cash for prompt delivery f o.r. in
towm named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
h Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
I.iverpool f o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o r. at depots m London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 55. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons. los. extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton, 15s. extra, and
for lots of less than 10 cwt. but not less than 2 cwt., 20s. extra.
e Prices shown are f o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails 15. id, extra.
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o r. Newport, Mon.
K These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 “ units ” (equal parts
of 22*4 lb.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen contains
16 such ” units ” in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a*' unit ” of that agent. Those
%n the table above are based on London prices. (^For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,'* obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
387
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
Research at Shinfield. In commemoration of the twenty-
fifth anniversary of the establishment of the National Institute
for Research in Dairying, the staff of the Institute have issued
a special volume, in which is given, along with an outline of
the history of the Institute, a condensed' summary of the
research results achieved in the many lines of activity covered
by its work. These are set out in twelve chapters, of which
those dealing with Dairy Herd Management, Pig Feeding,
Milk Taints, and Nutritional Value of Milk have special interest
for us in these notes, and may be briefly reviewed.
Calf Rearing. On the farm side much attention has been
given to rearing problems. After several years’ work
involving tests of free choice feeding and the rearing of groups
of calves on different quantities of milk and on different
mixture of concentrates, a satisfactory method of rearing calves
with a minimum use of whole milk was evolved, in which not
more than 30-40 gallons of milk, spread over the first eight
weeks, are required. This amount can be reduced to 15-20
gallons per calf, if dried milk is also utilized.
Moderately heavy winter feeding of young dairy heifers
brought them to suitable breeding size about five months earlier
than when on light feeding, but no advantage was shown in
the subsequent milk yield's.
For yearling heifers, grazing during the daytime, a daily
allowance of 16 lb. of good hay gave fair results, which became
quite satisfactory when the hay was supplemented by ^Ib. of
concentrates containing 20-30 per cent, of protein. If a pro-
portion of straw was included in the rations it was found of
advantage to give a small supplement of ground chalk.
Protein Requirements. Special interest attaches to the large-
scale co-operative experiment on the protein requirements of
dairy cows, at present in progress under the direction of the
Institute. This experiment was started in 1935-6 with eighteen
herds, including some 500 cows, and in the present year data are
being obtained from twenty-eight herds, with some 900 cows.
Protein supplies are mostly expensive, and in large measure
388
Notes on Feeding
derived from imported materials, so that precise information
on protein requirements is of great importance to the economy
both of the farm and of the nation, and the results of this co-
operative effort cannot fail to be of great value.
In recent years, work at the Hannah Dairy Research
Institute on the influence of the “ quality ” of the protein
supply on milk secretion, has indicated that the amount of
the amino-acid lysine in the make-up of the protein may have
an appreciable influence upon the amount of milk secreted.
Practical feeding tests at this Scottish institute demonstrated
that some rations that contained proteins poor in lysine gave
less milk than when proteins rich in lysine were included. These
results were not confirmed, however, in an experiment carried
out at Shinficld last year, when the effect of adding a high
protein food rich in lysine to a ration of low protein content
was compared with the effect of adding another high protein
food poor in lysine to the same ration. A more extended study of
this important problem is clearly desirable.
Pig Feeding. The experimental work of the Institute with
pigs has been chiefly concerned with studies of the nutritive
value of milk and vitamin requirements. The general growth-
promoting properties of even small quantities of milk — ^no
more than one-half pint per head daily — have been strikingly
demonstrated. As the quantity of milk was increased a still
further improvement was effected, but not proportionate to the
increase of supply. The most economic return from a given
quantity of milk is thus obtained by spreading it over as many
young pigs as possible.
The vitamin research of the Institute has demonstrated the
practical importance of vitamins A, B and D in pig-feeding. In
recent years attention has been largely concentrated upon
vitamin A, and it has been shown that some of the rations
commonly used in pig-feeding practice may be deficient in this
vitamin.
In studies of anaemia in suckling pigs confirmation has been
obtained of the now generally accepted view that this disorder
is due to deficiency of iron in the sow’s milk, and may be
checked by administration of iron direct to the suckers before
the critical third and fourth weeks of life. Dosing the piglets
with solutions of iron salts, smearing the sow’s teats with the
iron solutions, and providing cinders treated with ferrous
sulphate in the " creep ” were all found to be effective.
389
Notes on Feeding
Milk Taints. The work on milk taints arising from the food
has included studies of the effect of chamomile, marrow-stem
kale and molassed sugar-beet pulp. The weeds known collec-
tively as chamomile, when present in quantity in hay, were
found to impart an unpleasant tar-like flavour to the milk. The
taint was more pronounced in early than in later winter, pre-
sumably owing to volatilisation of the tainting ingredient from
the hay during storage.
The sickly, kale-like flavour sometimes found in milk from
cows receiving marrow-stem kale was found to be dependent
upon the quantity fed, the limit of safety varying as between
individual cows. In a few instances not more than 20 lb. per
day could be fed without producing the taint, although the risk
was greatly reduced by giving the kale immediately after
milking.
With molassed beet pulp it was proved that the primary
cause of taint was the fishy smelling trimethylamine oxide,
which arises from the breakdown of the nitrogenous ingredient,
betaine, that occurs in sugar-beet and passes into the molasses.
From this work further studies have developed on the develop-
ment of fishy taints in meat fats.
Vitamins in Milk. The Institute was founded in the year in
which the first publication was made of the discovery of the
vitamins in milk, and much of its work on the nutritional value
of milk has been concerned with vitamin problems. An early
achievement in this field was the demonstration of the superior
vitamin potency of summer (grass-fed) milk over winter (stall-
fed) milk. This was followed by the demonstration of the
possibility of raising the vitamin A and vitamin D potency
of butter by adding codliver oil to the ration; this being
accompanied, however, by the less desirable effect of a slight
reduction in the percentage of fat in the milk. In other experi-
ments the vitamin D content of milk has been raised by feeding
yeast that had been exposed to ultra-violet radiation, and
also by feeding cacao shell.
Elaborate tests carried out later with the Institute dairy herd
have confirmed the earlier findings that the fat-soluble vitamins
of milk (vitamin A, carotene, and vitamin D) are subject to
marked seasonal variations, and are present in larger quanti-
ties in summer than in winter milk. The amounts of vitamin
A and carotene are largely dependent upon the supply of grass,
but a high level can be maintained into late autumn if kale or
390
Notes on Feeding
other greenstuff be supplied as the pasture deteriorates. On
the other hand, fresh grass was found to be of little value as
a source of vitamin D for the milk, this vitamin being mainly
produced by the direct action of the sun's radiation on the
cow’s skin. In contrast to vitamins A and D the proportions of
the other vitamins in milk were found to be relatively constant
throughout the year, and to be independent of changes in the
cow’s diet.
The concentration of vitamin A and carotene is much higher
in colostrum than in later milk, and probably the same holds
good with vitamin D, especially in summer.
Raw V. Pasteurized Milk. The acute controversy that has
long prevailed as to the relative nutritive merits of raw and
heated milk made it inevitable that this problem should figure
prominently in the research programme of the National Insti-
tute. The w’ork has included studies of the effects of sterilization
and of the less drastic heat treatment involved in pasteurization.
In early feeding experiments with rats, on a diet of milk and
white flour, life could be sustained when raw or pasteurized
milk was used, but not with sterilized milk.
In later experiments with rats, in which raw milk was com-
pared with milk from the same bulk submitted to commercial
pasteurization by the holder method, no difference could be
detected between the two supplies, either in the digestibility
and biological value of the protein, or in the availability of
the calcium and phosphorus. When used for rats as an exclusive
diet pasteurized milk supplemented with iron, copper and
manganese was, pint for pint, not inferior to raw milk supple-
mented in the same way. The heating apparently did not
affect the vitamin A or its precursor, carotene, but caused some
loss of B and C vitamins.
Apart from its bearing upon the sale of liquid milk, the
question of the possible influence of pasteurization upon the
nutritive value of milk is of interest on the farm in its incidence
upon the use of milk in pig-feeding, and also in calf -rearing
where measures of eradication of tuberculosis from the dairy
herd are in progress. Whether conclusions based upon work
with rats or other laboratory animals are applicable to farm
livestock must clearly remain doubtful until tested out directiy
with the latter. It is of interest, therefore, to note the results
of a calf-rearing experiment, carried out on a scale not hitherto
attempted, that are contained in a report issued by the Milk
391
Notes on Feeding
Production Department of the West of Scotland Agricultural
College.
The Scottish trial was conducted with 35 dairy calves,
divided into three groups of winter heifers and three of winter
bulls in the trial for 150 days, and two groups of spring bulls
and two of spring heifers in the trial for 120 days. Four groups
received the colostrum of their dams for 5 days, and the
others for ro days before going on to the raw or pasteurized
mixed milk of the herd. The milk was pasteurized by heating
at 145— 150 degrees F. for 30 minutes. The milk was given at the
rate of i lb. per 10 lb. liveweight until a maximum daily allow-
ance of 15 lb. was reached. After the third week the calves had
free access to good hay and received an allowance of concen-
trates (maize, oats, linseed cake and bran) graduated according
to age. Each calf was weighed at birth, and thereafter every ten
days. Certain body measurements were also taken at the time
of weighing.
All the groups made reasonably good liveweight gains. The
winter bull calves on raw milk throughout gave an average
gain in liveweight in 150 days of 364 per cent, of their average
weight at birth; while those fed on pasteurized milk after 5
days gained 330 per cent. The spring bull calves on raw milk
throughout gained 272 per cent, in 120 days, and those on
pasteurized milk after 5 days gained 244 per cent, in the same
period. There appeared therefore, to be a small advantage in
the raw milk feeding.
With heifer calves there was a similar difference only in the
earlier weeks. Heifer calves put on pasteurized milk after 10
days on colostrum took two months to catch up with those on
raw milk throughout, while those put on pasteurized milk after
5 days took four months to overtake the raw milk heifers. By
the end of the first year the heifers on raw milk had made a
liveweight gain of 590 per cent., as compared with 554 per cent,
for those on pasteurized milk after 10 days old.
Whether the differences recorded would be accepted as "signi-
ficant ’’ by the statistician is doubtful, but taking them as they
stand they suggest a small superiority of raw milk over pasteur-
ized milk, which was greater with bulls than with heifers. It
is also recorded that the calves on raw milk had the best
coats, whilst those on colostrum for 5 days only and then on
pasteurized milk were worst in this respect.
Disease was more frequent among the calves on pasteurized
milk than among tho^e on raw milk, the incidence being the
392
Notes on Feeding
heavier the shorter the initial period on colostrum. This applied
also to the specific incidence of tuberculosis, three out of four
calves that reacted being the group of winter heifers put on
pasteurized milk after only 5 days on colostrum. A colostrum
feeding period of at least 10 days would thus appear to be
desirable on the grounds both of growth-rate and health.
Experimental work of this kind suffers from the difficulty of
securing and handling a sufficiently large number of compar-
able animals, and whilst the Scottish trial excels previous trials
in this respect, so far as the total number of calves is concerned,
the complexity of the scheme reduced the numbers per group
to only 3 or 4 calves. The results will therefore hardly be
accepted as decisive, but they are certainly suggestive and
establish a prima facie case for a more extensive test of this
important practical issue that arises both in calf-rearing and in
pig-feeding.
393
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
TOO lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
£
s.
£ 5 .
£
s.
d.
d.
%
Wheat, British . .
9
17
0 8
9 9
72
2
7
1-38
9-6
Barley, British Feeding
8
15
0 8
8 7
71
2
4
1*25
6*2
„ Argentine
9
0
0 8
8 12
71
2
5
1-29
6-2
„ Danubian
8
5*
0 8
7 17
71
2
3
I ‘21
6-2
„ Persian . .
8
12
0 8
8 4
71
2
4
1-25
6*2
Oats, English, white
9
7
0 9
8 18
60
3
0
i*6i
7-6
„ „ black and
grey ..
9
3
0 9
8 14
60
2
II
1-56
7-6.
„ Scotch, white
10
0
0 9
9 II
60
3
2
1-70
7*6
,, Canadian No. 2
Western
10
13*
0 9
10 4
60
3
5
1-83
7-6
,, ,, mixed feed
9
7
0 9
8 18
60
3
0
I *61
7-6
Maize, Argentine
7
0
0 7
6 13
78
I
8
0*89
7-6
„ Gal. Fox
6
I2t
0 7
5
78
I
7
0-85
7-6
Beans, English, Winter
7
o§
0 17
6 3
66
I
TI
1*03
19*7
Peas, Japanese . .
22
i 3 t
0 15
21 18
69
6
4
3-39
i8-i
Dari
8
i 5 t
0 8
8 7
74
2
3
1*21
7*2
Milling Offals : —
Bran, British . .
6
17
0 16
6 I
43
2
10
1*52
9-9
„ broad . .
7
17
0 16
7 I
43
3
3
1*74
10*0
Middlings, fine, im-
ported
8
3 "'
0 13
7 10
69
2
2
i*i6
12*1
Weatingsf
7
17
0 14
7 3
2
7
1*38
10*7
„ Superfine t
8
7
0 13
7 14
69
2
3
1*21
12*1
Pollards, imported . ,
7
2
0 14
6 8
50
2
7
1*38
II-O
Meal, barley
9
17
0 8
9 9
71
2
8
1*43
6-2
„ „ grade II . .
9
2
0 8
8 14
71 i
2
5
i 1-29
6*2
,, maize
7
7
0 7
7 0
78 !
I
10
1 0-98
7*6
„ „ germ
7
10
0 II
6 19
84 i
I
8
0-89
10-3
,, locust bean
7
15
0 5
7 10
71
2
I
1*12
3.6
,, bean
8
12
0 17
7 15
66
2
4
1-25
19*7
„ fish (white)
14
15
2 2
12 13
59
4
3
2*28
53*0
„ soya bean
!
(extracted )t
9
0
I 9
7 II
64
2
4 1
1-25
38*3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .
7
15
0 7
7 8
84
I
9 1
0*94
9-2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil
10
2
I 0
9 2
74
2
6
1-34
24*6
» 9 %
9
10
I 0
8 10
74
2
4
1-25
24*6
»»
9
5
I 0
8 5
74
2
3
1*21
24*6
Cottonseed cake, English,
Egyptian seed,
oil
6
2
0 18
5 4
42
2
6
1*34
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
Egyptian, 4J% oil . .
5
12
0 18
4 14
42
2
3
1*21
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
decorticated, 7% oil . .
8
i 5 t
I 8
7 7
68
2
2
I -16
34*7
Cottonseed meal.
decorticated, 7% oil . .
8
5 t
I 8
6 17
70
I
II
1*03
36*8
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
7
5
1
0 18
6 7
77
I
8
0*89
16*4
394
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS {continued)
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Co.st of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
£ 5.
£ s.
£ s.
s. d.
d.
%
Ground nut cake,
decorticated, 6-7% oil
8 i7§
I 8
7 9
73
2 0
1*07
41-3
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated.
6-7% oil
Palm-kernel cake,
8 0
I 8
6 12
73
I 10
0*98
413
4l~5i% oil . .
Palm-kernel cake, meal.
7 i2§|
1
0 II
1
1 7 1 1
73
I II
1-03
16-9
4i% oil
Palm-kernel meal, 1-2%
8 2§|
i
1 0 II !
1
i 7 II ■
73
2 I
I‘I2
16-9
oil . . . . . ,
; 7 io§i
^ 0 12
6 18 1
71
I II
1-03
i6-5
Feeding treacle . . . . |
Brewers' grains, dried ale '
1 ^ 1
1 0 8 i
i 4 12 i
51
I 10 i
0*98
2-7
5 10 ,
0 II
4 19 '
48
2 I i
I • 12
12-5
Brewers’ grains, dried '
porter . . . . . . '
5 2 !
! 0 II
4 II :
48 i
I II
1-03 1
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . .
i
May delivery — From £$ ys. Gd. to £6 2s. 6 d.
June delivery — From £$ ys. 6 d. to £$ 15s. per
ton ex factory (according to factory).
♦ At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
{ In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note. — ^I'he prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were
current at the beginning of June, 1937, and are, as a rule, considerably
lower than the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to
carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by
the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake
is offered locally at £11 per ton, then since its manurial value is £i per
ton as shown above, the cost of food value 'per ton is ;{io. Dividing this
figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table,
the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2 s, Sd. Dividing this again by
22*4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost
per lb. of starch equivalent is i • 43<i. Similar calculations will show the
relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the
same local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can
determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices
quoted on his own markets. The figures given in the table under the
heading manurial value per ton are calculated on the basis of the
following unit prices : — N., ys, ^d . ; P,^ 0^, 2s. 3c?. ; K^, 3s. 6 d,
395
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations are as follows : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Barley (imported) . .
• 71
6*2
8 12
Maize
78
7-6
7 0
Decorticated ground-nut cake
• 73
41*3
8 8
„ cotton-seed cake
. 68
34-7
8 15
(Add I os. per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent
works out
2 *16 shillings,
and
per unit protein equivalent o • 78 shillings. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Wheat
Per cent.
7 ^
Per cent.
9-6
£ s. ,
8 3
Oats . .
60
7-0
6 16
Barley
7 T
6*2
7 J8
Potatoes
18
0-8
2 0
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds
7
0-4
0 15
Beans
I 66
19-7
7 18
Good meadow hay . .
37
4*6
4 4
Good oat straw
20
0-9
2 4
Good clover hay
38
70
4 8
Vetch and oat silage
13
I -6
I 9
Barley straw
^3
0-7 i
2 10
Wheat straw
13
0-1 I
1 8
Bean straw . .
23
1*7
2 II
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6d., post free 7^.
396
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for May is 133 (base, May, 1911-13 = 100) or 7 points below
the previous month and 18 points above that for May, 1936.
If allowance be made for payments under the Wheat Act
and the Cattle Industry Act, the revised index is 136. The re-
duction in the price of liquid milk to the summer level
occurred in May whereas in the base period it took place in
April and, in consequence, the fall in index is considerable;
this reduction is entirely responsible for the decline in the
general index.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. [Corresponding
months of 1911-13 ~ 100 )
Month
; 193-2
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
.. 1 122
107
114
117
119
130
February . .
i 117
106
1 12
115
118
129
March
.. ’ 113
T02
108
112
116
130
April
•• , 117
105
III
119
123
140
May
.. , 115
102
112
111
133
June
. . Ill
100
110
1 1 1
116
—
July
. . i io(>
;
114
1
117
—
August
•• i *^5
1 105
119
1 ”3
1 19
—
September . .
. . 1 104 j
107
1 19
1 120
127
—
October
. . ' 100
i ^^7
114
I
1-25
November . .
. . 1 101
109
T14
I 113
1^5
—
December . .
103 ;
1
no
1
1 1
113
114
126
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act [a) and the Cattle Industry [Emergency
Provisions) Act (b).
Month
193^
1933
J 934
1935
1936
1937
January
—
III
1 19
124
125
133
February . .
—
110
117
122
123
133
March
—
106
112
1 18
122
134
April
—
109
116
126
128
143
May
—
105
116
117
120
136
June
—
104
114 j
1 117 i
121
—
July
—
104
117
120
121 1
—
August
108
108
122
120
124
—
September . .
108
III
1-25
128
133
—
October
104
112
121
119
129
—
November . .
105 1
113
120
119
129
—
December . .
107 !
1
114
!
120 i
j
120
130
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (6) Commenced September, 1934.
397
Miscellaneous Notes
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of
February to May, 1937, and May, 1936, and May, 1935;
base, the corresponding months of 1911-13 = 100.
Commodity
1935
1936
1937
May
May
Feb.
Mar.
i Apr.
May
Wheat
67
84
122
I 2 T
131
124
Barley
91
105
124
124
: 13^
133
Oats
97
82
116
115
; 119
119
Fat cattle . .
89
94
99
102
106
IT 2
„ sheep . .
140
130
137
145
153
160
Bacon pigs . .
104
113
126
122
1 119
118
Pork ,, . .
106
108
1^5
124
1 ii 7
116
Eggs
99
109
1 15
J 2 I
i 112
1 12
Poultry
i
121
121
1^3
1 IJ 3
122
Milk
162
162
171
I7T
i 215
162
Butter
87 :
96
97
100
104
106
Cheese
94
103
107
110
i 109
112
Potatoes
174 1
201
200
I 191
196
Hay
100
82 !
98
lOI
' 100
100
Wool
83
96 ,
131
130
: 138
141
Dairy cows
1
98
lOI i
III 1
III
112
112
Store cattle
90
96 1
101
105
109
TI5
,, sheep
• • 1
105
107 :
115
117
1 128
T33
M pigs . .
!
1
115
I18 j
139 j
129
i 126
125
Revised index numbers due
Cattle Industry [Emergency Prot
0 payments under the Wheat Act and the
nsions) Act.
Wheat
109
115
134
131
125
Fat cattle . .
102
107
114
120
126
General Index
117
120
133
■1
143
Grain. At an average of 9s. lod. per cwt., wheat was
lower on the month by id. per cwt., the index moving down-
wards by 7 points. Barley at los. 2d. and oats at 8s. lod.
per cwt. showed a rise of id. and ^d. per cwt. respectively;
the index for the former is slightly higher than in April, but
that for oats is unaltered owing to a proportionately similar
increase having taken place in the base price. In May, 1936,
wheat averaged 6s. gd., barley 8s. id. and oats 6s. id. per
cwt.
Live Stock. During the month under review quotations
for fat cattle showed a further advance, the average of second
quality at 41s. 6d. per live cwt. being again higher by
398
Miscellaneous Notes
2s. gd., and the index rises by 6 points to 112. The addition
of the subsidy under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Pro-
visions) Act, 1934, brings the index up to 126. Fat sheep,
at IS. per lb. for second quality, were reduced by \d. per
lb., but, as a fall of \d. per lb. was recorded during the
corresponding months of 1911-13, the index moves upwards
by 7 points. Baconers and porkers at iis. M. and 12s. 2d.
per score (20 lb.) declined by 2 ,d- and 2d. per score respec-
tively, and as these reductions were slightly more than in
the base period, the index of each is i point lower than in
April.
All classes of store stock were dearer than a month earlier;
indices for store cattle and sheep are 6 and 5 points
respectively higher, but those for dairy cows and store pigs
are about unchanged.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. As a result of the decline of
^d. per gallon in the regional contract price of liquid milk,
the index shows a fall of 53 points to 162. The latter figure
is, however, the same as in May, 1936, and May, 1935. At
IS. o%d. per lb. butter averaged id. per lb. less than in April,
but as the reduction was smaller than that recorded during
the base years, the index moves upwards by 2 points. Eggs
averaged 9s. 2d. per 120 compared with 8s. 6 d. in the
previous month, but the index remains the same. At
£4 IS. 6 d. per cwt. cheese was slightly lower in price; here
again the downward movement which occurred during the
base period was greater and, in consequence, the index rises
by 3 points.
Other Commodities. Prices of potatoes rose during May
by 2s. to £8 15s. 6d. per ton, but in the base months showed
a slight reduction, and the index is 5 points higher than in
April. Both clover and meadow hay were slightly lower in
price, but the combined index figure is not altered. At
IS. 6Jd. per lb. quotations for wool were higher by fd. per
lb. and the index shows a further rise to 141.
The National Diploma in Agriculture and the Fream
Memorial Prize
The 38th Annual Examination for the National Diploma
in Agriculturai^as held, under the auspices of the National
Agricultural Examination Board, at the University of Leeds
from April 14 to 22|^937, when 208 candidates presented
themselves. Of this nrahber, 13 took the whole examination;
399
Miscellaneous Notes
8o who had already passed in certain subjects appeared to
take the remaining portion; and the other 115 came up for
a first group of subjects. Of this last 115, 53 (including 2
women) passed in a group of subjects and are eligible, there-
fore, to take the remaining subjects in either 1938 or *939.
Of the 93 candidates sitting for the Diploma, 48 (including
2 women) were successful, four of them obtaining Honours.
These were Mr. H. R. Kirby (Midland Agricultural College),
Mr. D. L. Sinclair (Harper Adams Agricultural College),
and Messrs. J. Pearce and K. N. Russell, both from Reading
University. The training colleges of the successful candidates
were as follows : —
First
Diploma > Group of
Subjects
England :
Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
2
3
East Anglian Institute of Agriculture . .
6
—
Harper Adams Agricultural College
7
4
Leeds University
I
2
Midland Agricultural College
9
10
Non-collegiate
—
I
Reading University
5
6
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester
—
3
Seale-Hayne Agricultural College
I
4
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
I
—
South-Eastern Agricultural College
5
I
WdUs :
University College of Wales, Aberystwyth
2
2
Scotland :
Bell Baxter Continuation School, Cupar
—
2
Edinburgh University
2
—
Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural
College . .
—
5
Glasgow University
4
3
West of Scotland Agricultural College . .
3
7
48
53
—
The Fream Memorial Prize, awarded to
the
Candidate
obtaining the highest marks in the examination, was secured
by Mr. H. R. Kirby, of the Midland Agricultural College.
The prize, of an approximate value this year, of £y,
pro|Nkied from a fund entrusted to the Ministry as a memorial
to lire late Dr.*Fream, is applied to the purchase of books
selected by the recipient as best calculated to assist him in
pursuing his agricultural studies.
400
Miscellaneous Notes
The Maynard Ganga Ram Prize: Third Award
The Managing Body of the above Prize have now made
their award for the year 1935. The Prize, of the value of
3,000 wpees, goes to R. S. L. Jai Chand Luthra, I.A.S.,
Professor .of Botany, Punjab Agricultural College, Lyallpur,
for hi^iliifew method of treating wheat-seed to free it from the
fungal disease called Loose Smut. The disease is present in
most parts of the Punjab and causes considerable loss to
cultivators. The old method of treatment, involving the use
of a thermometer, required skill and accuracy in raising
water to a temperature that, while sufficient to kill the spores
of the disease inside the wheat-grain, would yet leave the
germinating power of the seed undamaged. Such a method,
needless to say, was unsafe in the hands of unskilled and
illiterate people. In the treatment devised by Professor
Luthra, the use of a thermometer is dispensed with. The
wheat-seed to be treated is merely soaked in water at ordinary
temperature for four hours during the morning of a day in
summer. The soaked grain is then spread in the sunshine
until it is thoroughly dried. Experience has shown that this
treatment is effective in controlling the disease without
damaging the germinating power of the seed ; and the process
can be carried out safely by any illiterate worker.
The Maynard Ganga Ram Prize owes its inception to the
generosity of the late Sir Ganga Ram, C.I.E., M.V.O., who
gave a sum of 25,000 rupees to the Punjab Government for
its endowment. The Prize is awarded triennially for a
discovery, or an invention or a new practical method which
will tend to increase agricultural production in the Punjab
on a paying basis. The competition is open to all the world,
government servants also being eligible to compete.
The first award, in respect of the year 1929, was made to
Dr. Barber, late Imperial sugar expert, for discoveries that
resulted in the production of Coimbatore sugarcane. The
second (1932) award was given to Mr. T. A. Miller Brownlie,
late Agricultural Engineer to the Punjab Government, for
an improved slip strainer for use in connexion with well-water
supplies. By its use, owners of lands irrigated from well-
water supplies have been able to increase their output of water
and, consequently, their crops.
The Prize is now open for award in resp>ect 0^1938, and
entries should reach the Director of AgriculWre,' Punjab,
Lahore, on or before December 31. 1938-
D
401
Miscellaneous Notes
Farm Institute Live Stock Judging Competition
The eleventh annual Live Stock Judging Competition, open
to teams of three from Farm Institutes in England and Wales,
was held at the farm of Mr. J. H. Rowe, Bridgetown House,
Stratford-on-Avon, on Thursday, June 3, 1937. Teams from
the following counties competed : — Cumberland and Westmor-
land (Newton Rigg), Hertfordshire (Oaklands), Monmouthshire
(Usk), Northamptonshire (Moulton), Staffordshire (Rod-
baston).
The teams were required to judge Dairy Shorthorn Cows,
Shire Horses, Large Black and Large White Cross-bred Pigs
for bacon purposes. Cross-bred Down Ewe Tegs for the butchet
and Buff Rock Poultry. The stock to be judged were typical
commercial stock. The classes were not easy and provided a
good test.
The team from Monmouthshire were the winners with a score
of 281 marks out of a possible 365. The second team, Cumber-
land and Westmorland, were 15 marks behind.
The following judges officiated: — Dairy Cows — Mr. W. J.
Wheeler; Horses — Mr. E. B. Wynn; Sheep — Mr. G. A. Lea;
Pigs — Mr. N. D. Clarke; Poultry — Mr. R. G. Virtue.
The teams and officials were afterwards entertained to lunch
by the National Farmers’ Union Mutual Assurance Society,
when Mr. Black, a Director, presented to the winning team the
Silver Challenge Cup provided by the National Farmers’
Union.
The Committee has expressed its disappointment at the small
entry for the Competition this year.
Register of Dairy Cattle
Volume XX of the Register of Dairy Cattle has just been
published. It contains particulars of 766 cows in respect of
which Certificates of Merit have been issued by the Ministry
since October 1, 1936, as compared with 722 cows entered in
the previous volume. To be eligible for a Certificate of Merit,
a cow must have given, during a period of three consecutive
Milk Recording Years, not less than the prescribed yield of
milk and must normally have calved three times during those
years. The prescribed yields for the three-year period are
30,000 lb. forFriesians; 27,000 lb. for Ayrshires, Blue Albions,
Lincoln Red Shorthorns, Red Polls and Shorthorns; 24,000 lb.
for all other breeds except Dexters; and 21,000 lb. for Dexters.
402
Miscellaneous Notes
The Register contains a statement showing the number and
distribution of the yields of the cows of the various breeds
entered, and the highest yield certified for each breed for the
three years ended October i, 1936. Of these cows 15 gave over
50.000 lb. of milk during the three years concerned; 47 over
40.000 and under 50,000 lb.; 91 over 35,000 and under
40.000 lb.; 238 over 30,000 and under 35,000 lb.; 227 over
27.000 and under 30,000 lb. ; and 115 over 24,000 and under
27,000 lb.
Particulars of pedigree bulls of proved milking strain are
also given. The condition of entry of a bull in the Register is
that its dam and sire’s dam have given the standard yield
prescribed for their breed or type in any particular Milk
Recording Year. The volume contains entries relating to 16
bulls.
A list of the Milk Recording Societies in England and Wales,
with particulars of each Society and the name and address of
its Secretary, is included in the Register.
Dairy farmers and others desirous of acquiring high-yielding
milk-recorded cows that have been regular breeders should
find the Register a valuable book of reference.
The Register can be obtained through any bookseller or
from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price is., post free is. 3d. A copy of the
volume is issued free to all members of Milk Recording
Societies.
The Work of Agricultural Research Institutes
The annual volume of reports on the work of the Agri-
cultural Research Institutes in Oreat Britain and Northern
Ireland has become well-known to the readers of this Journal,
and this note is intended to draw attention to the appearance
of the latest volume.* In addition to the reports of the
Research Institutes, the volume contains reports of the
research work undertaken by Agricultural Advisory Officers,
and special investigations financed by the Departments of
Agriculture and the Agricultural Research Council. Naturally
enough, it is not possible in this publication to give anything
more than a brief summary of the work done but this
summary is presented in non-technical language, so that it
shall be readily understood by the layman. It is difficult to
* Report on the Work of Agricultural Research Institutes, i934~35*
London : H.M. Stationery Office, 1937. 5s. post free.
B 2
403
Miscellaneous Notes
select examples, but amongst the wide range of activities it
describes may be mentioned a number of soil surveys of
different parts of the country, a large number of references
to the cultivation of grass-land, and the allied problems, a
subject which is very much to the forefront at the present
time.
In addition to the combined reports contained in this
volume, it forms a useful reference work for those who wish
to pursue inquiries into the originally published work, because
it contains a list of the publications of the workers concerned.
The Carnegie Trust
The activities of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust
continue to include several of an agricultural type, the most
remarkable being grants in aid of land settlement schemes.
The twenty-third annual report of the Trust just issued^
records that to the end of last year specific grants for this
purpose amounted to £35,000 in addition to an annual grant
of £1,500 for five years towards the administrative expenses
of the Land Settlement Association. The Trustees have
intimated their willingness to consider during 1937 applica-
tions for grants in respect of new settlements up to a maximum
of £40,000. During the year twenty-six grants totalling
£3,310 were made in respect of village halls. For the quin-
quennium 1936-40 an allocation of £2,400 has been made to
Young Farmers’ Clubs, which now number 250. During the
past six years the Trustees have taken a keen interest in the
preservation of rural amenities, and over £14,000 has been
devoted to this object.
Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds
This survey, issued by the Imperial Economic Committee, t
follows the same general lines as the Committee's commodity
studies of meat, fruit, etc. The seeds, etc., to which most
attention is given are those used for the production of the
leading oilcakes, such as cotton seed, linseed, ground-nut
♦ The Twenty-third Report of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust*
Obtainable from the Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, Comely
Park House, Dunfermline, Fife.
t Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds : A Summary of Figures of Production and
Trade relating to Cottonseed, Linseed, Rapeseed, Sesame Seed, Soya Beans,
Ground Nuts, Copra, Palm Kernels, Palm Oil and Olive Oil, Obtainable
from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastxal House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2.
Price 25 . 6 d,, post free 25. gd.
404
Miscellaneous Notes
and palm kernel cakes, but statistics are also provided for
the minor seeds and for margarine, compound lard, etc. As
far as is possible with the limited data available, the survey
gives figures for world production, world trade, utilization
and prices, with emphasis particularly on the supplies and
requirements of the Empire. A short preface is provided on
the “ Nature and Utilization of Vegetable Oils.” This branch
of the trade in animal feeding stuffs has previously been so
ill documented that all concerned will be grateful to the
Imperial Economic Committee for the additional information
they have provided, particularly at the present time when the
price levels of feeding stuffs are a matter of concern.
Fifth Selected Bibliography of Literature on Mechanization
of Agriculture.
The Ministry has issued a further selected bibliography on
“ Mechanization of Agriculture,” containing references to
books and periodicals filed in the Ministry’s library. Although
the bibliography cannot be said to be a complete list of publica-
tions dealing with the mechanization of agriculture, it includes
references to mechanization in most branches of the industry
and contains the titles noted from certain publications issued
during the year January to December, 1936. A few titles of
articles which appeared in January, 1937, are also included as
it has not been found practicable to confine such a list precisely
to the limits of time mentioned.
Amongst the many subjects included may be mentioned the
numerous entries relating to tractors and tractor equipment.
The articles on crop drying will be of particular interest at the
present time.
The bibliography has been widely circulated in Great Britain
and a few copies are available, free of charge, to any agri-
cultural worker or person interested.
The N.I.A.B. Farm Crop Variety Trials. — The National Institute of
Agricultural Botany again invites farmers and others interested to visit
the accurate field trials of cereals, root crops, etc., carried out by the
Institute at Cambridge and at its Sub-stations at Askham Bryan (Yorks),
Cannington (Somerset), Long Sutton (Hants), Newport (Salop), and
Sprowston (Norfolk) . Profitable varieties of the crops may be seen growing,
and their relative merits discussed with members of the staff, July is the
best month for visits, either to Cambridge or, if more convenient, to the
nearest of the Sub-stations mentioned above. Parties or single visitors
are welcome, but arrangements should be made beforehand by writing to
the Secretary, N.I.A.B., Huntingdon Road, Cambridge.
405
Miscellaneous Notes
Farm Workers’ Minimum Rates of Wa^es. — ^Meetings of the Agricultural
Wages Board were held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London, S.W.i,
on May 24, 1937, June 21, 1937.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Derbyshire . — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages (other than the overtime rates for the hay and corn
harvests of 1937, which remain m force), and fixing fresh rates in
substitution therefor to come into operation on June 26, 1937, and to
continue in force until December 25, 1937. The minimum rate for
male workers of 21 years of age and over is per hour (instead of
as formerly). For whole-time workers provision is made for payment
of not less than 37s. i\d. (instead of 36s. as formerly) per week of
54 hours, except in the week in which Christmas Day falls when the
hours arc 45. The overtime rates for adult male w^orkers remain un-
changed at lod per hour on Sundays and gd per hour for employment
on Christmas Day. The minimum rates for female workers of 18 years
of age and over are unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime (i.c.,
employment on Sundays) at M. per hour.
Dorset . — An Order fixing the minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into operation on July i, 1937 (i.e., the day following that on which
the existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in force until
June 30, 1938. The minimum rates are (1) in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over 335. (instead of 31s. as formerly) per week
of 51 hours in summer except in the weeks in which Good Friday,
Easter Monday, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday fall when the
hours are 42, and 48 hours in winter, except in the weeks in which
Christmas Day and December 27, 1937, when the hours are 39J ;
(ii) in the case of female wwkers of 2 1 years of age and over (other than ,
part-time and casual workers) 245. (as formerly) per week of 48 hours,
except in the weeks in which Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit
Monday, August Bank Holiday, Christmas Day and December 27, 1937,
fall when the hours are 39^, with, in addition, in the case of all workers
referred to above, not more than 3 hours on the holidays mentioned
on work in connexion with milking and the care of and attendance
upon stock ; and (iii) in the case of part-time or casual female workers
of 18 years of age and over, ^d. per hour. The overtime rates are ^d.
per hour for male workers of 21 years of age and over (except for over-
time employment in the hay and corn harvests when the rate is gd.
per hour) and 6 d. per hour for all classes of female workers of 20 years
of age and over (as formerly) .
Hampshire and Isle of Wight . — An Order cancelling the existing overtime
and minimum rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution
therefor to come into force on June 6, 1937, and to continue in operation
until January i, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 325. (instead of 315. as formerly) per week of 51 hours in
summer, except in the week in which August Bank Holiday falls when
the hours are 41^, and 48 hours in winter, except in the weeks in which
Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall when the hours are 40. The over-
time rates are unchanged at gd. per hour throughout the year, except
in the case of carters, cowmen, shepherds or milkers for work in
connexion with the immediate care of animals in which case the over-
time rate is M. per hour. The minimum rate for female workers of 18
years of age and over remains unchanged at $d, per hour for all time
worked.
406
Miscellaneous Notes
Lancashire . — An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor to come into
operation on June 27, 1937, and to continue in force until April 30,
1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over are : In the Southern Area, workers employed wholly or
mainly in one or more of the following capacities — Stockman, Teams-
man, Poultryman, Pigman or Shepherd (instead of for w'orkers employed
wholly or mainly with animals as formerly) 385. per week of 52 J hours,
and other workers 34s. 6 d. per week of 50 hours (as formerly), and in
the remainder of the area of the Committee, workers of the special classes
mentioned above (instead of for workers employed wholly or mainly
with animals as formerly) 415., and other workers 385. 6rf. per week
of 60 hours (as formerly) in each case. The overtime rates for all
classes of adult male workers remain unchanged at gd. per hour on
weekdays and is. i\d. per hour for employment (other than time
necessarily spent in the immediate care of and attention to animals)
on Sundays. Overtime at c)d per hour is also payable for employment
(other than immediate care of and attention to animals) on Christmas
Day and Good P'riday. In the case of female workers of t8 years of
age and over, the minimum rate remains unchanged at ^d. per hour
for all time worked.
Lines. {Holland ). — An Order cancelling the exi.sting minimum and over-
time rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor to
come into force on June 27, 1937, and to continue in operation until
October 39, 1937. minimum rates in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over are 36s. (instead of 35s. as formerly) per
week of (1) 41 hours in the week in which August Bank Holiday falls,
and (11) 50 hours in any other week. In the case of horsemen, cattlemen
and shepherds of similar age additional weekly sums are fixed to cover
all time worked in excess of the number of hours mentioned above,
except employment which is to be treated as overtime employment.
The overtime rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and
over arc is. i\d. per hour on Sundays, gd. per hour on August Bank
Holiday and lojcf. per hour for all other overtime employment (as
formerly). The minimum rate for female workers of 15 years of age and
over is unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime at 'jd. per hour for all
employment in excess of 5J hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly
short day, on Sundays and in excess of 8 hours on any other day (as
formerly).
Lines, (Kesteven and Lindsey ). — An Order cancelling the existing minimum
and overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor
to come into force on June 27, 1937, and to continue in operation until
January 29, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age
and over are: (i) waggoners, 405. (instead of 395. as formerly) per
week of 50 hours in the week in which August Bank Holiday falls, 58
hours in any other week up to October 14, 52 J hours in the week in
which Christmas Day falls and 61 hours in any other "week subsequent
to October 14 ; (11) shepherds, 38s. (instead of 37s. as formerly) per
week of 45} hours in the week in which August Bank Holiday falls,
55 hours in any other week in summer, 47 J hours in the week in which
Christmas Day falls and 56 hours in any other week in winter with
additional payments for the lambing season ; (iii) stockmen, 395.
(instead of 38s. as formerly) per week of 46! hours in the week in
which August Bank Holiday falls, 56 hours in any other week in summer,
49J hours in the week in which Christmas Day falls and 58 hours in
any other week in winter; and (iv) other male workers, 33s. (instead
407
Miscellaneous Notes
of 325. as at present) per week of 41 hours in the week in which August
Bank Holiday falls, 50 hours in any other week in summer, 39J hours
in the week in which Christmas Day falls, and 48 hours in any other
week in winter, with overtime in the case of all classes of male workers
at lod. per hour on weekdays and is. on Sundays (as formerly).
Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of which
the minimum weekly wage is payable in the week in which Boxing
Day falls to meet cases where a holiday is given in that week instead
of in the week in which Christmas Day falls. In the case of female workers
of 17 years of age and over the minimum rate is unchanged at per
hour for all time worked.
Shropshire, — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on June i, 1937 (i.e., the day following that on which
the existing rates are due to expire). The minimum rates for male
workers of 2 t years of age and over are 345. (instead of 325. 6d. as
formerly) per week of 54 hours, except in the weeks in which Christmas
Day and Good Friday fall when the hours are 44J, with overtime un-
changed at gd. per hour on weekdays and for attention to stock on
Sundays, and lod, per hour for other employment on Sundays. The
minimum rates for female workers of 18 years of age and over remain
unchanged at ^d. per hour and overtime at 6d. per hour.
Staffordshire. — An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime rates
of wages, the rates as varied to come into force on June 27, 1937.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age
and over are 34s. (instead of 32s. 6d, as formerly) per week of (a)
44J hours in the weeks in which Christmas Day and Good Friday fall ;
and (b) 54 hours in any other week, with overtime unchanged at gd.
per hour. The minimum rates in the case of female workers of 18 years
of age and over remain unchanged at ^d. per hour with overtime at 6d.
per hour.
Sussex. — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to come
into force on July 12, 1937 ^^ly following that on which the
existing rates are due to expire), and to continue in operation until
April 10, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of
21 year^i of age and over are : (1) for workers employed wholly or mainly
as horsemen, cowmen, stockmen or shepherds, 38s. ^d. (instead of 375. 6d.
as at present) per week of (a) 50 hours in the week in which Christmas
Day falls, and ip) 58 hours in any other week ; and (ii) for other workers,
33s. 3tf. (instead of 32s. ()d. as at present) per week of (a) 52 hours in
any week in summer ; (b) (i) 40 hours in the week in which Christmas
Day falls, and (ii) 48 hours in any other week m winter. The overtime
rates in the case of all classes of adult male workers are unchanged at
gd. per hour on weekdays, and loj^d. per hour on Sundays.
The minimum rate of wages for female workers of 18 years 01 age
and over is ^d. per hour, with overtime at 6ld. per hour on weekdays
and y^d. per hour on Sundays as at present.
Yorks (West Riding). — An Order varying the existing minimum and
overtime rates of wages, the rates as varied to come into force on
June 27, 1937.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers are (a) for all workers
of 21 years of age and over, other than specified in paragraph (b) below,
355. 6d. (instead of 34s.) per week of 52} hours in summer and 48 hours
in winter, except (i) in the weeks in which Easter Monday, Whit Monday,
and August Bank Holiday fall, when the hours are 43, and (ii) in the
week in which Boxing Day falls, when the hours are 39J ; and (6) for
workers of 21 years of age and over employed as waggoners or other
horsemen, beastmen or shepherds, 40s. 6d. (instead of 395.) per week
406
Miscellaneous Notes
of the hours specified in (a) above, with, in addition, not more than 12
hours per week on weekdays and 3 hours on Sundays and when holidays
on full pay are given, 3 hours on those holidays, for work in connexion
with the care of and attention to stock. Provision is made for an
adjustment of the hours in respect of which the minimum weekly rates
are payable to meet cases where i, 2, 3 or 4 days’ holiday on full pay
are given in particular weeks in lieu of Easter Monday, Whit Monday,
August Bank Holiday and Boxing Day. The minimum rate for female
workers of 18 years of age and over is (instead of 6d.) per hour for
a week of 44 hours. The overtime rates are (1) male workers of 21 years
of age and over (a) waggoners or other horsemen, beastmen or shepherds,
gd. (as at present) per hour on weekdays and iid. (instead of lojd.)
per hour on Sundays ; (6) other male workers, lojd. (instead of lod.)
per hour on weekdays and is. o\d. (instead of is.) per hour on Sundays ;
and (11) female workers of 18 years of age and over 8d. (instead of ^\d.)
per hour on weekdays and g\d. (instead of gd.) per hour on Sundays.
Anglesey and Caernarvon . — An Order fixing special overtime rates of
wages for male workers employed in harvest work during the hay and
corn harvests of 1937 ^.nd minimum and overtime rates of wages for
male workers engaged specially for such work. The minimum rates for
male workers of 21 years of age and over are (i) for all male workers a
differential overtime rate of lod. per hour, and (2) for workers engaged
specially for harvest work, (1) employed by the week or any longer
period, 44s. ()d. per week of 58 hours, and (11) employed by the day (a)
on weekdays other than Saturday, 8s. 8d. per day of 10 J hours, and (b)
on Saturdays, 5s. per day of 6 hours.
Denbigh and Flint . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of
wages for male workers employed on harvest work during the hay and
corn harvests of 1937. rates for male workers of 21 years of age
and over are (1) for workers (other than casual workers), a differential
rate for overtime employment of is. per hour, and (11) for casual workers,
a minimum rate of is. per hour for all hours worked on harvest work.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
June II, 1937, h'g^l proceedings were taken against five employers for
failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
workers
involved
£
S.
d.
£
5.
d.
£
d.
Gloucester
Stroud
10
0
0
0
12
6
36 13
7
I
Lancashire
Ashton-under-
Lyne . . |
10
0
0
—
50 0
0
I
,,
Reedley
I
10
0
0
4
0
14 15
2
2
Glamorgan
Neath
*
3
0
6
6 0
0
I
Pembroke
Newport
I
0
0
0
12
0
10 13
6
I
22
10
0
4
9
0
00
M
3
6
♦ Dismissed under ** Probation of Offenders ” Act.
Foot - and - Mouth Disease. — Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
were confirmed on June 6 at Woodbury, Exeter, Devon, and on June 9
at Westfield, Woking, Surrey. The usual restrictions were imposed over
areas of approximately 15 miles radius round the respective premises.
409
Miscellaneous Notes
The areas under restrictions he in the county of Devon, and in the counties
of Berks, Buckingham, Hants, Middlesex and Surrey, respectively. The
outbreak at Woodbury was the first in Great Britain for four months, the
last outbreak previously having been confirmed at Donnington, Hereford,
on February 5.
No further outbreak has been confirmed in either of the Infected Areas,
and the Devonshire Area was contracted to approximately 5 miles around
Woodbury on June 21 and the Surrey Area to 5 miles around Westfield
on June 24.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS: ENGLAND.
Cheshire : Mr. F. H. Foster, B.Sc., N.D.A., has been appointed Assistant
Lecturer in Agriculture and Farm Book-keeping, vice Mr. N. A.
Selkirk, B.Sc. (Agric.), N.D.A.
Cumberland and Westmorland : Mr. L. E. Edney, B.Sc. (Agric.), has
been appointed Assistant Agricultural Organizer and Vice-Principal
of the Farm Institute, vice Mr. A. Mann, B.Sc.
Devon: Miss V. C. Milner, N.D.P., has been appointed Assistant County
Poultry Instructress. Miss E. E. M. Cheal, N.D.P., has been appointed
Instructress to the Travelling Poultry School.
Surrey: Mr. J. E. Campion, M.A., has been appointed Assistant Agri-
cultural Organizer, vice Mr. R. Line, B.Sc.
WIRELESS TALKS, JULY, 1937
AGRICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time '
p m.
Speakers
Subject
“
National :
i
No talks in July.
—
Midland :
1
July 7
6.20 :
Various
Discussion at the Royal Agn-
1
cultural Show, Wrottesley
Park, Wolverhampton.
Viewpoints and person-
alities.
West:
July 8
0
00
Various
For WY^stern Farmers in par-
ticular : The Agricultural
and Horticultural Research
Station, Long Ashton.
North :
July 19
6 20
1 Mr. J. A. Willis, a York-
Drystone Walling (one of a
series, " Tricks of the
shire Farmer
Trade ").
Welsh :
July 16
7*30
Professor R. G. Staple-
don, Professor J. A.
Scott Watson, Dr. F.
T. Wahlin, Dr. P. D.
Cardon and Dr. E.
Bruce Levy
WTiat is Grassland ? (in con-
nection with the Fourth
International Grassland
Conference) .
Scottish :
July I
8.0
Mr. J. F Duncan
For Scottish Farmers.
,, 8
6.30
Mr. A Allan interviewed
Moorland Pasture.
by Mr J. R. Allan
15
6.20
Mr. W. J. Wright
For Scottish Farmers.
,, 22
6.30
Mr. J. Anderson
Heather Honey.
410
Notices of Books
HORTICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speakers
Subject
National :
July 9
715
Mr. P. W. D. Izzard
—
,, 16
7 15
Mr H S. Redgrove
—
.. 23
7 15
Mr. H. H. Thomas
—
30
715
Miss Eleanour Sinclair
Rohde
— ,
West:
July 7
95
Mr. I). Harris
Eye-witness account of the
National Sweet Pea Show
at Bath
,, 20
9.40
Mr. D Hams
For Western Gardeners.
North : |
July 2 1
8.40
Messrs V/. E Shcwell- |
Cooper and Arthur
1 Behrend ;
1 Flower Shows.
,, 10
650 1
i
; Mr. W E. Shewell- ;
Cooper
; Eye-witness account of the
Alderley Edge (Cheshire)
Flow’er Show
, , 16
6-45
Messrs W. E. Shewell- ]
Cooper and Oliver Mec
Roses
21 ;
10.25
_
Eyc-witness account of the
1 Leeds Flower Show
.. 30
6.40
1
Messrs D. E Horton
: Bulb-growing for the
1 and W. E Shewell-
; Amateur
Scottish :
1 Cooper.
1
July 21
1 6.15
j Mr. Alexander Keith
1 July in the Garden.
1
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Proceedings of the IV th International Conference of Agricultural
Economists, 1936. Ed. J P. Maxton. Pp. xiv -f 528. Ulus.
(London : Oxford University lYess. 1037. Price 175. (>d.)
This volume records the papers and speeches delivered at the Fourth
International Conference of Agricultural Economists held at St. Andrews
during the first week of September, 1936, and provides a most interesting
and informative collection of studies on a variety of subjects. Mainly
as a result of the policy followed in drafting the programme for the St.
Andrews Conference and used consistently by Mr. Maxton in editing these
proceedings, it is, however, more homogeneous in its subject-matter than
the proceedings of the previous three conferences. There arc only seven
papers that are what might be called independent " papers, and most
of these are mainly interesting for their informative character. Special
mention, however, should be made of l^ofessor von Dietze's paper which
raises important issues in the relation of planning or cartelization to the
peasant system of production.
The remainder of the volume is divided into eight subjects, which form
the topic of more or less extended discussion from various angles. Four
of these are fairly specialized. The first is a series of papers and a short
discussion on The Provision of Agricultural Credit,” to which Dr. F. F.
Hill, Deputy Governor of the U.S.A. Farm Credit Administration, con-
tributed the first paper ; the second, ” Commercial Policy and the
Outlook for International Trade in Agricultural Products,” the discussion
of which was opened by Mr. A. Cairns, Secretary of the Wheat Advisory
4II
Notices of Books
Committee, on the outlook for the regulation of world wheat supplies ;
the third, " Problems of Milk Marketing Regulation," opened by Mr.
W. H. Bronson, Statistician of the New England Milk Producers’
Association and J. LI. Davies of the Milk Marketing Board ; and fourth,
" Part-time Holdings for Urban Workers," opened by H. Krause, Berlin,
and K. Hood, of Pennsylvania.
The larger part of the volume is occupied by the papers and discussions
on the four subjects set down in the programme as the main subjects for
discussion at the Conference. These are : —
(i) The Relations of Agriculture to Industry and the Community,
introduced by a paper from Professor W. R. Scott, of Glasgow
University,
(ii) The Relations of Land Tenure to the Economic and Social Develop-
ment of Agriculture, introduced by papers from Professor M.
Sering, Berlin, and Professor A. W. Ashby, University College,
Aberystwyth.
(iii) Farm Organization with Special Reference to the Needs of Technical
Industrial and Economic Development of Agriculture, introduced
by papers from Mr. L. Bridges, Oxford University, Professor
H. Zomer of Berlin, and Mr. H. R. Tolley, Administrator of the
A. A. A., Washington.
(iv) Problems of Consumption of Agricultural Products, introduced
by papers from Professor E. R. Cathcart, Glasgow, and Professor
R. B. Forrester, Aberystwyth.
The importance of the four main subjects mentioned above needs no
emphasis, since they involve fundamental principles in the future planning
of agriculture. There is, in fact, a main thread running through all four —
namely, the issue of the responsibility of agriculture for its place in the
economic and social structure of the community and the responsibility
of the community to agriculture. The first main subject took that as the
general theme, but its importance is also evident in the discussibn of
Land Tenure, Farm Organization, and the Problems of Consumption of
Agricultural Products. It is evident, although not brought out so clearly,
in the papers and discussions on the first two subjects, that there is a
fundamental conflict of opinion on what should be the structure of agri-
culture and its place in the economic and social structure of the State.
In the discussion of Farm Organization, however, this conflict of
" philosophies " makes itself felt. The contrast is apparent in the different
treatments of the opening papers and particularly between the excellent
papers of Bridges and Zomer. In the discussion, especially in the contri-
bution by Ashby and the reply by Zomer, this fundamental difference
comes quite clearly to a head. Throughout the whole discussion there is
an apparent opposition from the British and the Continental point of
view, the former emphasizing the industrial and economic attitude
towards agriculture and the social considerations which are implicit in
it, the latter emphasizing the stabilizing and racial arguments for a large
secured peasant population. The American speakers claim that the peasant
(in their country the family farmer) is at one and the same time the most
economic form of farm organization and the source of the social attributes
which the Continental economists claim for it. In this connexion the
paper by Professor Boss, of Minnesota, with the short discussion on it,
though included as one of the " independent " papers at the end of the
volume, is in some ways a most interesting continuation of the discussion
on the subject of farm organization and should, therefore, be read along
with the main discussion.
Under the section dealing with the Problems of Consumption of
Agricultural Products, Professor Cathcart and Dr. Stiebeling, Washington,
412
Notices of Books
provide valuable information on consumption habits, while Professor
Forrester and Dr. von Bulow (I.L.O.) and Dr. Bennett (Food Research
Institute, California) deal with the economic implications of consumption
on agriculture.
This book is certainly the kind of publication that everyone interested
in the economic, political and social aspects of national and international
agriculture should read. The programme of the conference, and in
particular the editing of the papers and discussions by Mr. Maxton and
his colleagues at Oxford, make it easy to select the papers and discussions
in which the reader is most interested.
Report on the Marketing of Wheat in India. Pp. ix + 451, 4 maps,
24 diagrams, 35 plates, 54 appendices. (Delhi : Government of
India. Price Rs. 1.4 or 2s.)
This is the first of a series of reports on the marketing of agricultural
produce in India, which are being prepared by the Agricultural Marketing
Adviser to the Government of India and the Central Marketing staff. The
series is similar in scope and purpose to the familiar senes of Orange
Books in this country.
The report is mainly of interest to students of Indian conditions, but
it offers much useful information to agricultural economists generally
and is a welcome addition to our knowledge of agricultural marketing.
It covers all aspects of marketing, including supply, demand, prices,
processing, transport, storage, standardization and methods of distribution.
In the chapter on supply, the official statistics of production come in
for a certain amount of criticism. The position of India in relation to
the world market is well brought out and the dependence of wheat exports
on the world price of wheat and on the relative prices of wheat and gram
and barley is shown in an interesting diagram on page 41.
Perhaps the diversity of conditions in India is shown vividly in the
statistics of consumption per head in Appendix XIV. Consumption
varies from under 4 lb. per head m Madras to over 2501b in Delhi.
The effect of weather conditions on marketing is brought out in detail ;
for example, the effect of the monsoon on the periodicity of sales, and
detailed recommendations for overcoming the difficulties are included.
The lack of standardization in the wheat trade is emphasized throughout
the report. It is mentioned in nearly all the chapters. The trade descrip-
tions of similar types of wheat vary greatly from district to district and
even in neighbouring localities. The amount of refraction allowed
both in ready and in future sales varies just as much. Published prices
are, therefore, valueless for the purpose of trading in distant markets.
The confusion in weights and measures seems almost incredible and is a
serious handicap to organized trading.
The description of prevailing market charges, which range from
** charity deductions to bribes to municipal servants and include in
some cases payments to cooks and sweepers, shows the nature of the
burdens borne by large numbers of small producers and the need for some
measure of control on the lines of the local market legislation already
adopted in some parts of India.
The many detailed recommendations in the report are hardly of interest
to English readers and they raise no theoretical questions. They do,
however, reveal, in a striking manner, how wide are the opportunities
for marketing reform in relation to the wheat, crop which represents more
than one-tenth of the total cultivated area of the Indian Empire.
The report is well written, but for the English reader a glossary of
Indian terms is needed, as he will find it impossible to remember all the
terms or to understand them if they are not explained. Even more
413
Notices of Books
pleasing than the style, however, is the sound commonsense shown
throughout the report, and the insistence that the trade should put its
own house in order and not rely too much on Government assistance.
The printing and the diagrams are clear and good, but some of the photo-
graphs might have been better. Altogether, the report is a well-planned
and thorough piece of work.
The Mushroom Handbook. By Louis C. C. Kricger. Pp. xiv +550 and
157 Figs. (London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1936. Price 15s.)
This attractive little handbook is written for American readers, and
con.scquently contains descriptions of some species that do not occur in
this country. Apart from this, however, the work can be recommended
as a most useful introduction to the .study of the larger fungi. The general
arrangement of the book follows more or less traditional lines. There is
an introductory portion dealing with the ecology, life-histories, economic
importance, and classification of the larger fungi, together with some
information as to the more common edible and poisonous species and a
brief account of methods of mushroom-growing. An unusual feature in
a popular work, but a very encouraging one, is the inclusion of an index
to the chief literature necessary for the identification of the higher fungi,
with references to the bibliography at the end of the book. With notes
as to the collection and preservation of herbarium specimens and the
characters required in writing descriptions, the general portion ol the
work occupies 232 pages. The remainder consists of detailed descriptions
of species, illustrated by uncoloured photographs and excellent coloured
plates, with a very full glossary of technical terms. The book is well
produced and of a convenient size. It is evidently intended for use in
the field since each copy contains a small cardboard scale of inches divided
into twelfths (“ lines ") for use in measuring fungi.
The Second Conference on Mechanized Farming. A summary of the
papers read at the Second Conference on Mechanized Farming appeared
in this Journal for February of this year. The discussions which followed
the papers have now be(*n printed in a companion volume to the patpers
themselves and copies of the two brochures can be obtained from the
Conference Secretary, 10, I’arks Road, Oxford, price 2s. Gd., post paid.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY
Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous
Hanley, J. A., Boyd, A. L., and Williamson, W. — An Agricultural
Survey of the Northern Province. The ('ounties of Durham,
Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmorland. (123 pp. and map.)
Newcastle-upon-Tyne : Department of Agriculture, Armstrong
College, 1936
Schultze, J. H, — Deutsche Siedlung, Raumordnung und Siedlungs-
we.sen im Reich und in den Kolonien. (viii + 158 pp.) Stuttgart :
Ferdinand Enke, 1937, RM.6.20. (German Settlements. Organiza-
tion of Settlements and of Disposition of Lands in the Reich and
in the Colonies.)
Kellar, H. A. (Edit.). — Indiana Historical Collections, Vol. XXII.
Solon Robinson, Pioneer and Agriculturist, II. 1846-1851.
(xvii -f 556 pp. -f- 12 plates.) Indianapolis: Indiana Historical
Bureau, 1936.
Second International Congress for Microbiology, London, 1936. —
Report of Proceedings, (xiii -f 579 pp.) London : Dr. R. St.
John-Brooks, lister Institute, Chelsea Bridge Road, 1937, 205.
The Land Utilization Survey of Britain, Part 53 : Rutland,
Margaret E, Broughton. (38 pp.) 1937, ^5. Part i : Ayrshire,
414
Additions to the Library
/. H. G. Lebon. (83 pp.)* i937> 2S. 6 d. Part 2 : Moray and
Nairn, F. H. W. Green, (pp. 87-124.) 1937, 25. London School
of Economics.
Tate, W, E, — ^The Thoroton Society Record Series, Vol. V. Parlia-
mentary Land Enclosures in the County of Nottingham during
the 1 8th and 19th Centuries (1743-1868). (xxv + 215 pp.)
Nottingham, 1935.
Wilkinson, S. G. G . — The Tithe Act, 1936. (xx + 171 PP-) London :
The E.states Gazette, 1937,
Leigh, Margaret . — Harvest of the Moor. (291 pp.) London : G. Bell
and S(ms, 1937,
Golding, E. W . — The Electrification of Agriculture and Rural
Districts (xii + 244 pp.) London : English Universities Press,
1937, 165.
Digges, J. G . — The Practical Bee Guide, (via -f* 305 pp.) 8th Edition.
Dublin and Cork : The Talbot Press ; London : Simpkin, Marshall,
1936, 4s. 6 d.
Ransome, Hilda M . — The Sacred Bee in Ancient Times and Folk
Lore. (308 pp. -f 12 plates.) London : Allen & Unwin, 1937,
125 6 d.
Keishaw. S — Wool, From the Raw JMaterial to the Fini.shed Product.
5th Edition, (xi 4-123 pp ) London : Pitman, 1937, 35.
Agricultural Economics
Fourth International Conference of Agricultural Economists. — Pro-
ceedings of the Fourth Conference held at St Andrews, Scotland,
Aug 30~Sept. 6, 1936. (vit 4* 528 pp -j- 2 plates) London :
Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford, 1937, 175 6 d.
Clark, C — National Income and Outlay, (xix 4* 304 pp ) London :
Macmillan & Co., 1937, 125. (>d.
Salter, A. — World Trade and Its Future. (101 pp.) Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press , London : Humphrey Milford,
1936, 75. (yd.
Simpson, E. N — The Ejido, Mexico’s Way Out. (xxi 4- 849 pp. 4-
12 plates ) Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press,
1937, London : Humphrey Milford.
Deilby, O. J . — Egg Prices — A Study of the Factors affecting Prices
and Production (66 pp ) Oxford : Agricultural Economics
Research In.stitute, 1937. 25 6 d.
Lucas, A. F . — Industrial Reconstruction and the Control of Com-
petition. The British Experiments, (x 4 384 pp ) London :
Longmans, Green & Co., 1937, *5^-
Botany and Plant Physiology
James, W. O . — An Introduction to Plant Physiology, (viii -f 265 pp.
-f I plate ) 3rd Edition. Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1936,
75. 6 d.
Crops
Armstrong, S. F . — British Grasses and Their Employment in Agri-
culture. (xi 4- 350 pp.) 3rd Edition. Cambridge : The University
Press, 1937. 155.'
Dixey, R. N., and Askew, R. P. — Grass-Drying — A Study of Pro-
duction Costs in 1936. (45 pp.) Oxford : Agricultural Economics
Research Institute, 1937,
Gardner, H. W . — The Grassland of Hertfordshire and Its Improve-
ment. An Account of the Experiments conducted by the Hert-
fordshire Institute of Agriculture, 1923-35. (51 PP-) St. Albans,
1936.
415
Additions to the Library
Dairying and Milk Products
Eheflein, L. — ^Die Neueren Milchindustrien. (135 pp.) Dresden,
Leipsig : Verlag von Theodor Steinkopff, 1937, R.M.5.50.
Wilts County Council. — Agricultural Education Sub-Committee
Advisory Report on Milk Production, (no pp.) Trowbridge:
Polebarn House, 1937.
Diseases of Animals and Veterinary Science
Impenal Bureau of Agricultural Parasitology. — The Effects of Some
Natural Factors on the Second Ecdysis of Nematode Infective
Larva?, G. Lapage. (Reprinted from University of Cambridge
Institute of Animal Pathology, Fourth Report, 1934-35.) St.
Albans, 1937, 4s.
Fertilizers and Soils
Russell, E. J. — Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, (viii + 655 pp.
-f II plates.) 7th Edition. London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
1937, 21S.
Hall, A. D . — The Feeding of Crops and Stock. Part i : The Plant,
(ix -f- 120 pp.) Part 2 : Soils and Fertilizers. (ix -f 122 pp.)
London : Murray, 1937, 3s. 6 d. each part.
Food, Nutrition and Preservation
City and County of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. — A Study of the Diets of
Sixty-mne Working-class Families in Newxastlc-upon-Tyne.
(45 PPO Newcastle-upon-Tyne : The City Health Department,
1937,
Ministry of Health. — Advisory Committee on Nutrition. First Report.
(52 pp.) London : H.M. Stationery Office, 1937,
Board of Trade. — Report of the Food Council to the President of
the Board of Trade for the Year 1936. (26 pp.) London : H.M.
Stationery Office, 1937, 6 d.
Sherman, H. C . — Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, (x -f 640’ pp.)
5th Edition. New York and London ; Macmillan & Co., 1937,
125 . ()d.
Jones, 0 ., and Jones, T. W. — Canning Practice and Control, (xii
-f 254 pp. -f 63 plates.) London : Chapman & Hall, 1937, 255.
Fruit Culture and Horticulture
Auchter, E. G., and Knapp, H. B. — Orchard and Small Fruit Culture,
(xxi + 627 pp.) New York : John Wiley & Sons ; London :
Chapman & Hall, 1937, 25s.
Hoare, A. H . — Vegetable Crops for Market. (198 pp. + 19 plates.)
London : Crosby Lockwood & Son, 1937, 7 ^-
Cohh, A. J. (Editor). — ^Modern Garden Craft by many expert con-
tributors. Vol. I. (x -f 205 pp. + 5 plates.) Vol. II. (vii +
226 pp. -f 9 plates.) Vol. III. (vii -f 229 pp. + 2 plates.)
London : Gresham Publishing Co., 1936, 455.
Plant Diseases and Pests
Ainsworth, G. C. — The Plant Diseases of Great Britain — A Biblio-
graphy. (xii -f 273 pp.) London : Chapman & Hall, 1937, 15s,
Massee, A . M. — The Pests of Fruits and Hops. (292 pp. -f 27 plates.)
London : Crosby Lockwood, 1937, 155.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 5 August, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Gas-storage of Eggs
The following note has been communicated by Dr. T. Moran,
Principal Scientific Officer, Low Temperature Research Station
(Cambridge), Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research : —
In this country the bulk of the eggs that are cold-stored
for long periods— 5 to g months— arc held at a temperature
of approximately 31° to 33 “F. and a relative humidity in the
range 80 to 85 per cent. When brought out of store, they
differ from new-laid eggs in several respects, the chief being
(i) the larger air-cell, (2) the general weakening or liquefaction
of the white, creating a tendency for the yolk to sink or stick
to the shell, (3) the more pronounced yellow colour in th(!
white, (4) the weakening of the membrane surrounding the
yolk, (5) the tendency for the yolk to lose its firm, erect condi-
tion and to “spread,” (6) the presence in the yolk of a slight
but unpleasant taste— the so-called “ storage-taste.” Further,
if the relative humidity of the air in the store rises much
above 85 per cent., mould grows on the shell and ultimately
penetrates into the egg. All of these changes are aggravated
the longer the eggs arc held before storage and the higher the
temperature during this period.
For some time past experiments that have been carried out
at the Low Temperature Research Station in Cambridge have
had as their aim a clearer understanding of the structure and
chemistry of the different parts of the egg and the conditions of
storage that will reduce the changes outlined above to a
minimum . The condition of the white , for example , is particu-
larly important. In the fresh ogg there are three distinct
fractions, an outer thin or liquid layer, a central thick or jelly
layer, which encloses the inner ffiin layer surrounding the
yolk. The quality of the white is judged by the firmness of
the thick or jelly fraction, and the total amount of thick and
A 417
Notes for the Month
iimcr thin; in a new-laid egg this is approximately 8o per cent,
of the total white.
Particular attention has been given to the storage of eggs
in air containing definite and controlled amounts of carbon
dioxide. The effect of this gas is two-fold; it increases the
acidity (lowers the pH) of the yolk and white, and thereby
controls changes in the structure of the egg (Nos. 2, 3, 4 and
5 above). In addition, it inhibits the growth of mould on the egg,
and thereby permits of a higher humidity in the store; this in
turn means a smaller air-cell at the end of storage (No. i
above). American workers^ have also found that the presence
of even i per cent, of carbon dioxide retards the appearance of
“ storage-taste ” in the yolk.
During the past year a .scries of storage trials was carried
out in collaboration with the Commercial Division of the
Ministry of Agriculture, who judged the quality of the eggs
before and after storage by the usual candling technique, and
with the research staff of Messrs. J. Lyons & Co., Ltd., who
tested the eggs for quality when cooked in different ways.
Further experiments of this nature are in progress this year.
A paper has been published** summarizing the earlier labora-
tory work, and also giving the results of the chemical and
physical tests made on the eggs in these storage trials. The
storage atmospheres investigated were as follows: —
Experiment Storage Atmosphere
Mean Eclat tve
Humidity
T
Air
..
2
Air t'ontoiniiig 2*5 per cent COj, ..
.. S2-5
3
,,
4
,, ,, 10-0 ,, ,,
. . ^ 4*0
3
,, ,, Oo-o
Saturated
0
.. 75-0 ..
7
,, -f 15
S
85-0 ,, „ -1
9
100 per cent CO^ . .
The eggs were examined after 22| and 38 weeks’ storage.
In Experiment 8 the eggs were first exhausted to remove dis-
solved gases and finally filled with the gas-mixture. The
lemperature of storage was 32°F.
The main conclusion from the experiments was that in every
instance there was a reduction in the amount of inner thin
white, which had passed through the thick layer to increase
the outer thin white. This was most marked in the eggs stored
in high concentrations of carbon dioxide (Experiments 5 to 9).
’ Sharp and Stewart : U.S. Egg and Poultry Mag., 1931, 37, 30.
® Moran : Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1937, 61 , 96T.
418
Notes for the Month
'J'hc work, however, points to two atmospheres as being of
importance in the storage of eggs, (i) air containing 2^ per cent,
of carbon dioxide approximately, (2) air containing 60-100 per
cent, of carbon dioxide.
As compared with storage in ordinary air, storage in air
containing 2^ per cent, of carbon dioxide gives a firmer yolk
and a more viscous thick white ; but the amount of thick and
inner thin white is slightly smaller. This concentration of
carbon dioxide, however, has little effect on the growth of
mould, so that the eggs must be stored at a relative humidity
of about 85 per cent.*
After storage in 60 to 100 per cent, carbon dioxide, the thick
white is shrunken and the white as a whole is more fluid. The
yolk, however, is very firm whilst, owing to the saturated
humidity, there is no increase in the size of the air-cell. The
shells of tiiese eggs tend to be white and powdery, owing to the
formation of calcium bicarbonate.
No differences could be detected in the quality of the eggs
after storage in Experiments 5 to 9.
The paper also describes experiments on the use of controlled
amounts of ozone (i and 5 parts per million by volume) in the
storage of eggs. This gas removes musty or undesirable
odours from the store, but it helps little towards raising the
safe limit of relative humidity with eggs stored in air or in 2 ^
per cent, carbon dioxide.
Silver Leaf Disease
The following note has Ix’en communicated by Mr. W. F.
Chcal, D.I.C., N.D.A., Horticultural Superintendent, Isle of
Ely : —
In the recommendations for the control of Silver Leaf disease
of fruit trees primary emphasis is laid on prevention of the
formation of fnictifications of the fungus on dead wood. It
is recommended that all dead wood should be removed from
the orchard and burnt, and that the stumps and roots of dead
trees should also be grubbed and removed. It is also suggested
that tree stumps on the borders of orchards, if they cannot
be removed and burnt, should at least be kept covered with
* It is possible to store eggs in 2J per cent, carbon dioxide and a
saturated humidity free from mould for 9 months at 32° F. by introducing
a trace of a volatile fungicide into the atmosphere, but the use of such
fungicides is prohibited by the Public Health (Preservatives, etc., in
Foods) Regulations.
A 2 419
Notes for the Month
soil in order to prevent the development of fructifications of
the fungus upon them.
In an instance that recently came to notice the stump of an
infected tree, which had been cut off at ground level and
covered with a mound of soil, gave rise to the fructifications of
Stereum purpureum on the surface of the mound. The fungus
had grown up from the infected wood through the soil, filling
small cavities and lining the interior of larger cavities with a
dense mat of mycelium, until it reached the surface, where it
spread out forming a spore-bearing surface one or two square
inches in area. The distance through the soil which the fungus .
had grown was about 3J in.
It would appear, therefore, that covering infected stumps
with soil, or burying infected wood, may not always suffice
to prevent the fructifications of this fungus developing. The
only safe procedure is thus to grub and burn infected stumps.
Grey Squirrels
An Order under the Destructive Imported Animals Act, 1932,
has been made by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
and the Secretary of State for Scotland, acting jointly, known
as The Grey Squirrels (Prohibition of Importation and Keep-
ing) Order, 1937, applying the provisions of that Act to t.ho
grey squirrel. The Order, which has now been approved by
both Houses of Parliament, came into force on Julj^3i.
The effect of the Order is to place the grey squirrel in the
same category as the musk rat so far as prohibition of importa-
tion and keeping is concerned. As far as is known the animal
is not, in fact, imported and kept for profit, but in reaching
the decision to make the Order the Minister and the Secretary
of State have been guided by the view that " keeping ” con-
notes some deliberate act done by a person for the purpose of,
and having the effect of, inducing grey squirrels to remain
upon his land, whether in captivity or not, but the omission
by a person to take steps to destroy grey squirrels which come
upon his land does not by itself constitute “ keeping.”
The intention of the Order is to facilitate voluntary measures
of control of the pest and it is unlikely that the power of entty
on land which is conferred by the making of the Order will
actually be exercised unless voluntary measures prove
inadequate.
Practical and scientific opinions unite in condemning the
grey squirrel as a menace, and an increasing menace. It lives
420
SOIL LEVEL
h \\ r CliCdl
liver Leaf DiseU'^e- I'ructifitations of SturinH pm puicum grown iiji
from the stiimi> ol <in infecti'd tree
(An iiK h scak‘ has hi‘rn placed lx sidi^ the fungus )
To Idtf piO^e 4i(
Kobin at nest in old tin can Photograph Enc J. Hoskmg.
Notes for the Month
upon green shoots and buds, nuts and seeds, fruits, the inner
bark of young trees, bulbs and roots, birds' eggs and young
birds. There are, therefore, few branches of agriculture which
do not suffer from its depredations and few parts of the country
in which it cannot find the food it requires. Although at the
present time it is not found everywhere in Great Britain, it has
already colonized a very large area.
It is hoped that all those on whose land it is prevalent will be
prepared to co-operate in a campaign to secure the elimination
of this pest.
Interesting Birds: (6) The Robin
The Robin is perhaps the best known of all our small birds,
and is undoubtedly the most popular. It seems to be aware
that it is a general favourite, and is at all times a bold
and confiding little bird. It is the subject of a good deal of
legend and superstition, a fact that may have something to
do with its freedom from molestation. One of the most striking
characteristics of the robin is its versatility in the matter of nest
building. It seems to be able to adapt its nest to any hole
and corner, and uses a variety of receptacles for nesting
purposes; old kettles, paint pots, drain pipes, and even dis-
carded boots. It will readily accept artificial nest-boxes.
Other interesting facts are that both sexes sing, and are so alike
in plumage that they are practically indistinguishable. Both
cock and hen have the russet breast and forehead. The young,
however, lack this colour in their first year, having a speckled
breast rather like that of the thrush, but darker.
The worst that can be said of the robin is that it occasionally
takes a little cultivated fruit, but its feeding habits generally can
result in nothing but good to the gardener and the fruit grower.
It destroys many pests of the orchard and garden — caterpillars
and grubs of various kinds as well as winged insects. It also
eats worms, slugs, and sometimes wild seeds and berries. It
is, therefore, a highly beneficial bird, and should be encouraged
and protected. It is fortunate that no sensible person is in the
least likely to harm it.
Indoor Farrowing (in Crate) and Outdoor Farrowing in
Field Huts: A Comparison
The following note has been communicated by Mr. S.
Williams, M.Sc,, N.D.A., Midland Agricultural College: —
Last autumn it was decided to farrow a portion of the
421
Notes for the Month
Midland Agricultural College herd of Large White pigs in
a farrowing crate indoors and to compare this method with
the usual College practice of farrowing in field huts.
For Indoor Farrowing, the heaviest and most clumsy and
nervous sows were selected during the past winter, being put
in the farrowing crate (5 ft. 9 in x 2 ft. 3 in.) three or
four days before they were due. Exercise was at first in-
tentionally limited to that obtained when the sows were let
out half an hour twice each day for feeding. It was soon
found that the sows became markedly stiff and often lame
when subjected to this treatment, so gentle exercising was
practised each day. The sows were generally removed with
their litters from the crate into boxes (13 ft. 6 in x ii ft. 6 in.)
on the seventh or eighth day after farrowing. When the
little pigs reached three weeks old, the sow and litter were
moved to field huts, where they remained till weaned. It
has now been shown that it is better to move the litters
straight from the crate to the field huts about a week after
farrowing, the little pigs being fastened in the huts for a day
or two.
For Farrowing in Field Huts the sows are normally picked
out about a fortnight before they are due and placed in
separate J-acre farrowing runs. A night or two before
farrowing, they are fastened in the huts. Artificial heating
is provided if necessary and attention is given during farrow-
ing. The sow and young pigs are allowed to go out at will
on the second or third day after farrowing, although, in
winter, the little ones rarely venture forth until they are
two or three weeks old.
During the period, October 17, 1936, to March 24, 1937,
10 sows brought litters in the farrowing crate and 25 farrowed
in field huts. A comparison of the results obtained is of
interest.
Sows farrowing indoors gave birth to 11-30 live pigs per
litter, rearing 7-60 pigs to 6 weeks old. This compares with
an average of ii-8o pigs born alive per litter and 816 reared
to 6 weeks old with sows farrowed in field huts. It is seen
that practically the same number of pigs died per litter in
each instance, 370 in each indoor-farrowed litter and 3-64
in each litter farrowed in field huts. It is found on further
examination of our records, however, that the deaths resulted
from different causes. With litters farrowed indoors, on the
average 2 6 pigs per litter were crushed to death by the sow
422
Notes for the Month
within six days of birth, compared with 304 pigs killed in
the same way in litters born in field huts. This difference
is significant in view of the fact that usually the largest,
clumsiest and most nervous sows were selected for crate-
farrowing.
As a routine practice, all pigs are dosed with Parrish’s
('hemical Food when they are three weeks old and before
and after if the necessity is obvious. In spite of this treat-
ment, on an average 0.70 pigs died from anaemia in each litter
farrowed in the crate, a very high figure compared with 0.06
with litters bom in field huts. It is estimated that 60 per cent,
of the pigs farrowed in the crate and kept indoors till three
weeks old developed symptoms of anaemia, while very few
pigs bom in field huts showed any signs of this disease. Pigs
kept indoors till three weeks old averaged approximately
11-8 lb. and 199 lb. livcweight when three and six weeks
old, respectively; whilst those raised from birth in field huts
weighed I2'6 lb. and 22 8 lb. at these ages. Thus, those
farrowed in field huts are the better in respect of liveweight.
It is, however, the increase in liveweight from 3 to 6 weeks
old that is particularly interesting; 71 lb. with the crate-
farrowed pigs and io-2 lb. for the others. It would appear
that pigs born and raised in field huts are of higher vitality
than those kept indoors to the age of three weeks from birth,
and are consequently able to make greater liveweight gains
even though the pigs farrowed indoors are kept under
identical conditions during their 3-6 weeks-old period.
Deaths from causes other than cmshing and anaemia,
previously to six weeks old, are slightly more numerous in
litters born in field huts (0 54 pigs per litter) than in those
farrowed indoors (0-40 pigs per litter).
Referring now to records of the previous year, it is found
that 9 of the sows which farrowed in the crate during this
past winter had brought litters 12 months previously (i.e., in
winter), and it is instractive to compare their performance
when they farrowed in the crate with what they did when
they farrowed in field huts. Last winter, one of the sows
brought her seventh, two their sixth, three their fifth and
three their fourth litters. Thus some of them were passing
their prime and one would expect a slightly lower standard
of performance. When these 9 sows farrowed in field
huts, they gave birth to 10.22 pigs per litter, of which 7.22
pigs were reared to six weeks old, when their average liveweight
423
Notes for the Month
was 21.60 lb. — a death rate of 3.00 pigs per litter. When they
farrowed indoors, 11.22 pigs were bom alive of which 7.33
were reared (average weight at 6 weeks old being 19-81 lb.)
— a death-rate of 3.55 pigs per litter. Evidence is thus afforded
above confirming the suggestion that outdoor breeding produces
heavier pigs at six weeks old than indoor breeding.
In conclusion, it may be stated that the use of the farrow-
ing crate is justified for sows that are likely to be difficult to
attend while farrowing, and that there are definite indications
that better protection of the young pigs is afforded by its
use. It is particularly important, however, that the young
pigs should be brought under more or less natural conditions
at the end of their first week, otherwise there is considerable
risk of anaemia and perhaps other diseases developing. If
moved from the crate to field huts at an early age, say
seven or eight days old, the young pigs will have been
protected against the risk of the sow lying on them and
will benefit from being kept in a pure atmosphere, receiving
plenty of unfiltered light, and having ready access to green-
stuff and soil minerals whenever these are needed.
A Note on the Melancholy Thistle
The following note has been contributed by Messrs. H. Cecil
Pawson and Brynmor Thomas of the Armstrong College,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne : —
The Melancholy Thistle {Carduus heterophyllus L.) probably
received its name as the result of a belief in its efficacy as
a cure for depression. It is of interest to note that it was
one of the personal badges of the House of Stuart. Unlike
most members of the genus it is not prickly, although it
resembles them in other respects. Its rootstock is perennial
and creeping, and it has tall, stout and deeply furrowed
stems with some loose cottony wool. The leaves, which clasp
the stem, are lanceolate, glabrous and green above, but white
and cottony underneath. They are bordered with small,
bristly teeth, and are sometimes slightly lobed. The flower-
heads are about the size of those of the Spear Thistle
(C. lanceolatus) , and appear in July and August.
According to Bentham and Hooker,* it occurs in mountain
pastures in northern Europe and Asia, and is frequent in
Scotland, extending into northern England and north Wales.
It has been the experience of the writers that, in the norffi,
♦ Bentham O. and Hooker, J. D., British Flora, 1924, 43 , 262.
424
Notes for the Month
the species is not usually found in quantity in pasture or
meadow, but more frequently by the side of streams or roads.
In one instance, however, they observed this thistle growing
in profusion in meadow land on a Northumberland hill farm.
The shepherd complained that its presence caused difficulty
in winning the hay crop, but affirmed that sheep brought
in from the open moor showed a marked partiality for it.
This information stimulated further inquiry, and samples
of the thistle were taken for analysis in September, 1935, and
November, 1936. The results obtained on these samples are
tabulated below : —
Date of Sampling
Sept. 14, 1935
Percentage of
Dry Matter
Nov. 3, 1936
Percentage of
Dry Matter
♦Crude protein
17*50
12*77
Ether extract
3*11
3*53
N.-free extractives
5^*72
54*32
Fibre
M- 5 b
16*83
tAsh
13*11
12-55
♦Including :
True protein
15-3^
11*90
t Including :
Phosphoric acid (P/) .)
0*04
0*92
Lime (CaO) . .
4*61
4-38
Digestibility of crude protein
66*79
50-75
It will be seen that, in the sample of 1935, the crude protein
content is comparable with that in good month-old pasture
grass. The markedly poorer protein content of the 1936
sample is probably due, in large part, to the later date of
sampling. The digestibility of the crude protein, as
determined in vitro, is reasonably good, although inferior to
that of grass. The two samples show very close agreement
in respect of the chief ash constituents, and both show a high
mineral content. While the proportion of phosphoric acid
present is greater than in many cultivated grasses, the lime
content reaches an exceptional level.
Stapledon, in The Land Now and To-morrow, lays great
emphasis on the value of herbs as mineral supplements,
although no species of thistle is included in his list of useful
weeds. Special importance is attached to the occurrence of
such weeds on poor soils on which the mineral content of
grasses and clovers is likely to be low, and the ribgrass and
daisy are named as particularly valuable dual-puipose
deficiency rectifiers. It is stated that both are grazed by
425
Notes for the Month
stock, and that in certain situations both are frequently hard
grazed to the ground in winter. Stapledon's conclusions
are supported by the analyses of useful weeds made by Fagan
at Abery.stwyth. Seven such weeds, known to be consumed
by sheep and cattle, contained lime and phosphoric acid
ranging from 109 to 2 25 per cent., and from o-86 to 201 per
cent, respectively. Ribgrass and daisy, which were included
in this test, were shown to contain 225 and 1-83 per cent.,
and 107 and 0 90 per cent, of lime and phosphoric acid
respectively. The species of thistle dealt wi& in this note is
therefore as efficient in respect of phosphoric acid as either
ribgrass or daisy, and contains an outstandingly larger amount
of lime.
While thistles are generally known to have a high mineral
content, they are not much relished by stock, presumably
because of their spinous nature. The Melancholy Thistle,
which is more leafy and does not suffer from the disadvantage
of strong spines, appears to be eaten with avidity, and there-
fore merits inclusion in any list of valuable mineral-efficient
herbs.
42b
LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY ACT, 1937
The Livestock Industry Bill has passed through all stages
in Parliament and received the Royal Assent on July 20. The
following is a brief summary of the provisions of the Act.*
Part I
Part I provides for the constitution of the Livestock Com-
mission and the Livestock Advisory Committee. The Com-
mission are charged with the functions of keeping generally
under review the production, marketing and slaughtering of
livestock in the United Kingdom, the preparation for sale of
the products of the slaughtering of livestock and the marketing,
consumption, treatment and use of such products. It will be
their duty to advise and assist Ministers in matters relating to
the livestock industry, and to carry out the particular duties
assigned to them under the several parts of the Act. [A state-
ment regarding the constitution of the Commission appears on
p. 431 of this Journal.]
The Livestock Advisory Committee are to give advice and
assistance to the Commission in the discharge of their func-
tions. The Act provides that the Committee shall consist of
persons appointed by the Ministers as representing the interests
of producers, local authorities, auctioneers and any other
interests connected with the livestock industry that are likely
to be immediately affected by the operation of the Act. Four
additional independent members are to be appointed, and they
will act as Chairmen of the main Committee and of sub-
committees for England, Scotland and Wales respectively.
'I'hese sub-committees will have referred to them matters arising
only in relation to the particular country they represent.
Part II .
Provision is made in Part II for the continuance of a
subsidy to producers of fat cattle in the United Kingdom. The
only substantial change is the power taken to give effect to the
Uovernment’s policy of encouraging further (i) th^ home
breeder, and (ii) the production of good quality beef animals
by differential rates of subsidy payment (see full explanation
given in the note on p. 432). The Act provides for an aggregate
sum not exceeding £5,000,000 to be voted annually by Parlia-.
ment for subsidy purposes. Provision is made, similar to that
contained in the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts,
for the marking of imported animals.
* Copies are obtainable from H M. Stationery Oflire or throttgh any
bookseller, price i.t.
427
Livestock Industry Act
Part III
Part III empowers the Board of Trade to regulate by order
the importation of livestock and meat (except bacon*) if this
course appears desirable in order to secure the stability of the
United Kingdom market for livestock and meat. The Board
of Trade are also empowered to obtain information regarding
stocks of meat in the country and imports of livestock and
meat.
Part IV
The provisions of this part of the Act are designed to secure
an improvement in the system of livestock markets in Great
Britain and may be divided into three parts — section 14, which
is designed to prevent the creation of unnecessaiy new markets,
sections 15 and 16, under which the live.stock markets system
can be reorganized by livestock markets orders, and the third
part comprising the general regulation of auctions and market
premises by means of by-laws (section 17).
The approval of the Livestock Commission must be obtained
before new premises are used for the holding of a market —
certain exemptions being provided for, more particularly in
relation to farm sales. This provision will operate as from
November i next, the expression “ new premises” meaning
premises which were not used for holding a market during the
year ended November 30, 1936. Under a livestock markets
order a particular area may be scheduled in which redundant
markets can be closed and the facilities at the remaining author-
ized markets improved. Provision is made for the payment of
compensation. The function of the Livestock Commission in
relation to livestock market orders is first to make proposals.
The orders are made by Ministers after full enquiry and if
necessary after reference to Parliament. The Commission then
administers the orders. Livestock markets by-laws will enable
the holding and conduct of auctions to be regulated, e.g. , in
regard to the number of auction places in a particular market,
or to the scale of auctioneers’ charges. Similarly
charges made by market owners in respect of animals
brought to the premises can be fixed or limited, and the manage-
* Bacon is excluded from the term " meat ” in this connexion because
imports are already regulated by order of the Board of Trade, under the
Agricultural Marketing Act, 1933. as a complement to the regulation of
the marketing of home produce under the Pigs and Bacon Marketing
Schemes.
428
Livestock Industry Act
ment of premises regulated. The days and times at which
premises may be used for holding markets may also be deter-
mined. By-laws may relate to particular markets or to all
markets in a particular area, or relate to particular classes of
livestock only. By-laws arc made by the Livestock Commis-
sion but do not have effect until confirmed by the appropriate
Minister.
Part V /
This Part of the Act provides for three experiments in central
slaughtering with the object of securing data that will be of
value when consideration is given in due course to the question
of a national slaughtering policy.
The Livestock Commission may consider proposals put
before them by any person, local authority or other body for
the provision of a slaughterhouse that might serve the purpose
of a central slaughterhouse conducted on the meat-works
principle, i.e., one in which efficiency and economy in
slaughtering would be promoted by treating carcasses and meat
in the most satisfactory manner and by utilizing by-products to
the best advantage. When satisfied as to the suitability of any
such proposal the ('ommission may submit for the approval of
the Minister concerned a scheme providing for the control of
slaughtering activities in the area round the proposed central
slaughterhouse in order to ensure an economic throughput for
that undertaking. Such a scheme may make provision, inter
alia, for closing slaughterhouses in the area or for controlling
the throughput of other slaughterhouses in the area. Com-
pensation may be paid under the scheme to the owners of
closed slaughterhouses, or persons owning slaughtering busi-
nesses who suffer loss or damage, such compensation being
payable by the person or authority carrying on the central
slaughterhouse.
Provision is made to enable a local authority to establish
and carry on a central slaughterhouse for the purpose of the
Act; and certain of the administrative functions of the Commis-
sion under this Part of the Act may be delegated to a local
authority carrying on a central slaughterhouse.
Exchequer grants or loans may be made towards the cost
of providing central slaughterhouses. Such advances are
limited to ;^250,ooo, of which not more than ;Ci50,ooo may be
advanced by way of grants. These sums represent the maxi-
mum Exchequer assistance for all three schemes.
429
Livestock Industry Act-
Part VI
The provisions of this part of the Act enable the Livestock
Commission at the request of any body or bodies representing
interests concerned with the several activities of the livestock
industry to prepare a service scheme for one of the following
purposes, namely, the encouragement, promotion or conduct
of research and education; the collection and dissemination
of statistics and other information ; the insurance of livestock
or products of the slaughtering of livestock; the advertisement
of livestock or such products; the grading or marking of live-
stock or such products; the improvement of breeding of
livestock; or any similar purpose.
Under a service scheme an authorized body would be consti-
tuted for the purpose of administering the scheme, and for
undertaking the activities, or for arranging for the services and
facilities for which the scheme was promoted. Provision is
made for requiring all persons in the class of interests repre-
sented by the authorized body to contribute towards its
expenses, but it will not be obligatory on such persons to pay
also for services or facilities provided under the scheme unless
such services or facilities are utilized. Before any scheme can
be confirmed by the Minister concerned he must be satisfied,
amongst other things, that there is a preponderating opinion
in its favour amongst the persons liable for contributions, and
that the scheme is desirable in the public interest.
Section 33 makes provision for a special t5q)c of service
scheme that would facilitate the operation of livestock markets
by-laws; in particular, such a scheme may constitute an
authorized body representing auctioneers with power to license
individual auctioneers to carry on their business in particular
markets. Under this Section a service scheme may also be
promoted with the object of compensating persons who suffer
loss or damage by reason of the operation of ]iv('stock markets
orders or by-laws.
Part Vll
The provisions of this Part of the Act arc purely financial
and relate mainly to the Fund out of which the cattle subsidy
is payable, and in general to the expenses of the Commission
and Ministers. These and other relevant provisions of the
Act are so framed as to render Parts IV, V and VI , individually,
financially self-supporting, thus relieving the Cattle Fund, as
far as possible, of liability under those Parts.
430
Livestock Industry Act
Part VIII
This part contains general and supplementary provisions
relating to the obtaining and disclosure of information, and
such matters as inquiries, offences, validity of instruments and
interpretation. In particular. Section 48 enables provision to
be made in a livestock markets order or slaughterhouse scheme
whereby permanent employees of a local authority may be
compensated for any loss, for which no provision is made in
any other Act, which arises from termination of emplo5mient
or diminution of emoluments through the operation of such
orders or schemes.
The Schedules
The First and Second Schedules contain incidental provisions
relating to the constitution and procedure of the Livestock
Commission and the Livestock Advisory Committee, respec-
tively. The Third Schedule prescribes the procedure to be
followed in connexion with the making of livestock markets
orders. This procedure, generally referred to as provisional
order procedure, affords the fullest protection for individual
interests, and, in particular, provides that if an order is duly op-
posed by presentation of a memorial, the order cannot come into
effect unless confirmed by Parliament. The Fourth Schedule
sets out the procedure relating to the making of livestock
markets by-laws. The Fifth Schedule prescribes the procedure
to be followed in the submission and confirmation of slaughter-
house and service schemes. In all these instances the object
of the provisions is to ensure that persons affected by these
instruments should have full opportunity of making objection
to the Minister and having their representations considered.
Appointment of the Livestock Commission. The members
of the Cattle Committee appointed under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provisions) Act, 1034, have been appointed by
the appropriate Ministers to serve on the Livestock Commis-
sion. The names of the members are :
LI .-Col. Sir John Chancellor, G.C.M.G.,
G.C.V.O., D.S.O. (Chairman)
Sir PYancis Boys, K.B.E.
George Dallas, Esq , J.P.
Sir Robert Greig, M.C., LL.D,, D.Sc.
Sir Harold Howitt, D.S.O., M.C., F.C.A.
Sir John Boyd Orr, D.S.O., M.C., M.A.,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
The Hon. Jasper Ridley, J.P., B.A.
431
Livestock Industry Act
The appointment of two additional members to complete the
personnel of the Commission is under consideration.
The Secretary to the Commission is Mr. H. Crow, O.B.E., to
whom all communications should be addressed at i, Sanctuary
Buildings, Great Smith Street, London, S.W.i.
Subsidy Arrangements. The subsidy provisions (Part II
of the Act), which come into operation on August i, 1937, refer
to a Subsidy Scheme, Regulations, and a Payment Order. The
Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Secretary of State
for Scotland and the Secretary of State for the Home Depart-
ment gave preliminary consideration to these instruments and
issued their provisional conclusions in the form of a White
Paper (Cmd. 5362) dated January 29, 1937. They have now
had an opportunity of consulting the Livestock Commission
constituted by them under the Act and have made or approved
the necessary instruments.
The Cattle Subsidy Scheme. 1937, which deals with the
administrative machinery for the grading and certification of
eligible animals, has been drawn up by the Livestock Commis-
sion and submitted by them to Ministers, who have approved
the Scheme by an Order under Section 5 of the Act. The methods
by which the subsidy will be administered follow very closely on
the lines of the existing Arrangements made under the Cattle
Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936. Tn
addition to changes of a minor character necessitated largely
by the grading of animals to two standards and the payment
of differential rates according to grade, the Subsidy Scheme
provides for a slight increase in the fees payable by producers
when their animals are certified. Some such increase was en-
visaged in the White Paper in view of the additional work that
will be thrown on to Certifying Authorities and Certifying
Officers as a result of the introduction of a second grade
standard. At Live Weight centres the fee chargeable to pro-
ducers will be increased to is. 8d. per animal certified, a fee
of 9d. being chargeable in respect of an animal presented for
certification and examined but not actually certified. At Dead
Weight centres the fee for an animal certified will remain at 2s.
while the fee for an animal presented and examined but not
certified will be 9d.
The Cattle Subsidy Regulations, 1937, which define the
descriptions of eligible animals and the manner in which weight
shall be computed for the purposes of payment, have been
made by the Ministers under Section 6 of the Act after consulta-
432
Livest(xk Industry Act
tion with the Livestock Commission. Two standards are
defined, the ordinary standard and the quality standard, to
which fat cattle must conform in order to be eligible for subsidy
at the appropriate rates. The Regulations also prescribe
maximum carcass weights on which subsidy may be paid,
equivalent to those prescribed for live animals.
The Cattle Subsidy Payments Order, 1937, made
by the Ministers under Section 4 of the Act, prescribes the rates
of subsidy payment on animals in each category. The rates
are as follows : —
. I Him ah per cwt. Carcasses per lb.
(live -weight) (dead-iveight)
Ordinary Standard
Animals :
Homc-bn^d . . • • 3/ • ^d
Imported . . . . i!(> . . kd.
Q Halit V Standard
Antmah :
Home-hr<‘d .. 7A> .. i Jr/.
Imported .. .. 3/ .. id.
These rates are so adjusted as to give further encouragement
to the production in the United Kingdom of good quality fat
cattle. They place a premium upon home-bred fat cattle of
eligible qualities and indicate that it is the Government’s desire
as far as practicable to encourage the home breeder to improve
and develop his beef cattle herds. The rates will operate as
long as the present Order remains in force and will be kept
under close review by Ministers in consultation with the Live-
stock Commission and the Treasury.
In order to ensure the due making of subsidy payments the
Cattle Subsidy {Marking of Imported Cattle) Order, igyj, pro-
vides for the marking of cattle imported into the United
Kingdom on or after August i, 1937- In effect, the present
arrangements for marking such animals are to be continued.
Copies of the Subsidy Scheme (S.R. & 0. 659), Regulations (S.R. & O. 660),
the I’ayments Order (S.R. & (). 658), and the Marking Order (S.R. & O.
b6i) may be purchased (price 4^. for S.R. & O. 659, and id. each for the
others, exclusive of postage) through any bookseller or direct from H.M.
Stationery Office at the following addresses : Ada.stral House, Kingsway,
Ltindon, W.C.2 ; 120, Great George Street, Edinburgh, 2 ; 26, York
Street, Manchester, 1 ; i, St. Andrew's Street, Cardiff ; and 80, Chi-
chester Street, Belfast.
433
FOURTH INTERNATIONAL GRASSLAND CONGRESS
The Fourth International Grassland Congress was held be-
tween July 8 and 23, under the presidency of Professor R. G.
Stapledon, C.B.E., (Director, Welsh Plant Breeding Station).
The Congress commenced with enrolment of about two hundred
delegates at Rhodes House, Oxford, on Thursday, July 8
(Options 2 and 4). On the same evening. His Majesty’s Govern-
ment entertained these delegates to dinner in Christ Church,
when the Earl of Feversham presided. The next day, the
party made a tour of the Thames valley and Chiltem districts,
visiting Lord Aster’s estate at Cliveden in the afternoon. On
Saturday morning, July 10, the party left on a tour through
representative grassland areas of south-east and central Eng-
land and on through Herefordshire to Aberystwyth. The
Institutes visited included the Rothamsted Experimental
Station, Northampton Institute of Agriculture, Moulton, and
the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. After visiting
seed-production areas in Herefordshire, on Tuesday, July 13,
the party reached the Cahn Hill Improvement Scheme at mid-
day on Wednesday. After inspecting the experiments on the
Cahn Hill lands the delegates reached Aberystwyth on the same
evening.
Another party of delegates (Options i and 3) enrolled in
Aberystw3dh on the same morning and also toured the Cahn
Hill lands on Wednesday afternoon, but without joining the
Oxford party.
On Wednesday evening the first full meeting of the Congress
was held at the Parish Hall, Aberystw3dh, when addresses of
welcome were given by His Worship the Mayor of Aberystw5dh,
Mr. C. Bryner Jones, C.B.E., Welsh Secretary of the Ministry
of Agriculture, and the Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G.
These were followed by the presidential address given by
Professor R. G. Stapledon.
The large number of papers offered for presentation to the
Congress were divided into Plenary and Sectional Sessions.
The first Plenary Session was held on Thursday morning, when
H. E. Woodman discussed the nutritional aspects of grass-
drying, describing the research carried out at Cambridge since
the 1925 season. This was followed by a paper on mountain
pasturing of young cattle by V. Vezzani and E. Carbone, Italy
(read by V. Vezzani) and a paper by Hedley R. Marston,
434
International Grassland Congress
Australia, on the nutritive value of pastures for wool produc-
tion, in which stressed the necessity for a more complete
collaboration between workers concerned with agrostology and
animal nutrition.
The second Plenary Session on Saturday morning, July 17,
was devoted to a series of papers on plant breeding and related
subjects. P. V. Cardon, chairman of the U.S.A. delegation,
described the extensive plant breeding programme now under
way in the United States, and he was followed by papers on
Swedish research by N. Sylven and H. Osvald. T. J. Jenkin,
Great Britain, discussed the research carried on at the Welsh
Plant Breeding Station, on strain-building in the herbage
grasses, and was followed by T. E. Miln, Great Britain, who
dealt more particularly with the seed production of these pedi-
gree grasses. Mr. Miln stated that “ there is no doubt that
there is ample scope for the extensive use of pedigree grass and
clover seeds in Great Britain, and it is pleasing to realize that
steps are being taken to form a new Association comprising
various seed houses and seed growers with the guidance and
help of the Welsh Plant Breeding Station. The seed trade will
adopt the Aberystwyth pedigree strains and expects the farmers
of Great Britain to co-operate by undertaking to grow seed
crops on an extensive scale. It is greatly to be desired that
all such seed crops be grown at home, and inasmuch as the
growing of pedigree grass seeds in Great Britain is a new under-
taking for our farmers, those who are willing to grow can
depend upon co-operation in full from both the seed houses
for whom they grow and the staff of the Welsh Plant Breeding
Station.”
The more technical aspects of cultivating pasture types of
grasses for seed were described by Gwilym Evans, Great Bri-
tain, in a paper to the plant breeding and seed production
section.
The Third Plenary Session eonlaiiied papers of more general
grass land interest. The Session was opened by E. Bruct;
Levy, New Zealand, who described the conversion of rain
forest to grass land in that country; the area of forest felled
and sown is approximately 14,000,000 acres, of which
12,000,000 acres have been more or less successfully grassed.
The same topic was the subject of an illustrated lecture given by
E. Bruce Levy on the evening of July 16. A. I. Virtanen,
Finland, followed with a description of the important research
in progress at the Biochemical Laboratory in Helsingfors, on
435
International Grassland Congress
the associated growth of legumes and non-legumes. This
paper contained a chemical explanation of the old-established
fact that non-legumes benefit by an association with legumes.
L. E. Kirk, U.S.A., gave an evaluation of some species of
grasses and legumes under Canadian conditions, discussing, in
particular, red clover associations, white clover associations
and lucerne associations. C. R. Enlow, U.S.A., outlined the
pasture improvement programme developed by the Soil Con-
servation Service in the United States. Illustrations of this
work were given in a lantern lecture which followed that of E.
Bruce Levy. The Plenary Sessions concluded with a paper
by E. Klapp, Germany, on the effects of frequent mowing and
frequent grazing on different types of swards and upon differ-
ent pasture species.
On Friday. July i6, the conference was divided into six
sections, which discussed the following aspects of the grass
land problem.
1. GkASSLANI) lCcOLO(j\’, 1N(LUD1N(, RaNC.K MANAGEMENT
President : Dr. J. D. Tothill (Uganda).
Vice’Presidents : Dr. E. Wyllie Fenton ((iroat Britain).
J)r. R. Weeke (Germany).
2. Seeds Mixtures
President • Dr. C. K. van Daalen, FTolIand.
Vice-Presidents. Dr. D B Johnstone-Wallace (U.S A ).
|. N. Whittot (Australia).
3. Plant Breeding, CiENEncs and Seed Production.
President . T^r. G. Nil.sson-Leissner (Sweden).
Vice-President . '\\ K Mdn (Great Britain).
4. Manures and Fertilizers, Soil Aspects of Grass Land.
President : TYofe.ssor G. W. Robinson (Great Britain).
Vice-Presidents : Dr. H. J. Frankena (Holland).
J. M. Caie (Great Britain).
5. Nutritive Value of Pastures ; Fodder ('onservation.
President : Dr. O. McConkey (Canada).
Vice-Presidents : A. B. Fowler (Great Britain).
Dr. W. Kinsch (Germany).
6. Pastures. Management, Yields and Economics.
President : Professor H. Osvald (Sweden).
Vice-Presidents : Martin Jones (Great Britain).
Dr. R. Gcith (Germany).
Papers on range management in Section i were read by J. W.
Rowland, South Africa, and W. R. Chapline, U.S.A. Both
readers stressed that a re-orientation of the principles of arid
land farming must come about, so that the farming enterprise
will not only pay the individual, but be governed by a full
consideration of the land, in the light of complex interrelation-
ships between the soil, the plant and the climate.
436
International Grassland Congress
K. T. Kolbai and J. von Piukovich discussed the grass-
land problem in Hungary, where increasing attention is now
being given to the grass lands of that country. There are now
three Grassland Unions in Hungary, with 60,000 farmer mem-
bers, so that, although the soil conditions and climate of the
country are very unfavourable from a pasture point of view,
interesting results may be expected as a result of this increased
interest in grass land. J. de Carvalho e Vasconcelos, Portugal,
described the grassland regions of his country, which are of
particular interest since Portugal has zones of the highest and
lowest rainfall in Europe. Continuing Section i, three papers
by British readers (R. A. Roberts, (i. H. Bates and E. Wyllie
Fenton) dealt respectively with trends in semi-natural hill
pastures from the i8th century, life forms of pasture plants,
and the value of certain mosses in detecting old woodland sites.
The final paper in Section i was given by J. E. Senaratna,
Ceylon, on the grass lands of C'eylon in relation to rainfall.
The opening paper in Section 2 was given by D. B. Johnstone-
Wallace, U.S.A., who described his experiments at Cornell
University on the influence of wild white clover on seasonal
production and chemical com]X)sition of pasture herbage, and
upon soil temperature, soil moisture and erosion control. Then
followed an Australian paper by J. N. VVhittet, New South
Wales, who described the success of light seedings of pasture
plants, particularly in areas of relatively light rainfall.
L. Rinne, Esthonia, described his experiments on seeds mix-
tures for cultivated meadows on low moor, and D. H.
Robinson, Great Britain, suggested mixtures suitable lor
poultry turf. Further papers on seeds mixtures were read by
C. K. van Daalen, Holland. M. T. Thomas, Great Britain,
and W. M. Findlay, Great Britain.
In Section 3 the genetics of red clover were discussed by R. D.
Williams, Great Britain, the breeding of herbage plants by
O. Valle, Finland, and the new varieties of subterranean clover
in Western Australia by A. B. Adams.
After a visit to the breeding gardens of the Welsh Plant
Breeding Station to discuss technique with T. J. Jenkin,
the section concluded with a paper by Gwilym Evans, Great
Britain, on growing pasture t>q)es of grasses for seed, a similar
paper by C. L. Behm and a description of the grassland pests
of the Midland Counties of England by A. Roebuck.
Section 4 opened with an important paper, as far as British
agriculture is concerned, by J. A. Hanley on the need for lime
437
International Grassland Congress
and phosphate in grassland improvement; deficiency in these
two substances is still the outstanding trouble with most of the
grass land in England and Wales. An important point in this
paper is the fact that at Cockle Park, where response to basic
slag is veiy marked, the recovery of phosphoric acid in the
herbage is only of the order of lo per cent. The second paper
in this section was by H. G. Heddle and W. G. Ogg, Great
Britain, (read by the former), who described experiments
designed to obtain exact information with regard to the
standards of fertility required by the various pasture plants.
Further papers in this secton dealt with the manuring of grass
land in arid regions (N. von Bittera, Hungary), the effects of
fertilizers on the soil, the botanical and chemical composition
of the herbage and the seasonal and total production of grass
land in Connecticut (B.A. Brown, U.S.A.), the influence of
potash manuring on the protein economy and production of
organic matter in the plant (O. Eckstein, Switzerland), and a
description of the soils of Wales by G. W. Robinson, Great
Britain. The profitability of employing nitrogenous fertilizers
on pastures was the subject of a group of four papers delivered
respectively by G. Gicibel, Sweden, H. J. Frankena, Holland,
A. Biederbeck, Germany, and K. Schneider-Kleeberg,
Germany.
In the opening paper of Section 5, O. McConkey,
Canada, stated that a programme designed to raise soil fertility,
particularly in available minerals and especially in phosphorus,
must accompany improved fodder production in Eastern
Canada, because surveys of the mineral content of pasture and
hay gathered in different areas of the region showed that a con-
siderable percentage of these fodders is too low in the essential
minerals to maintain animals in health. T. W. Fagan and
R. O. Davies, Great Britain, discussed the chemical aspect of the
grassland research carried out in co-operation with the Welsh
Plant Breeding Station since 1922. F. Konig, Germany, dis-
cussed the influence of different manurial treatment upon the
composition and value of the herbage of permanent grass land,
and LI. I. Jones, Great Britain, compared the various herbage
plants in Wales on the basis of their value as animal fodder.
O. Jaaskelainen described the system of feeding young cattle
in west Finland, where scanty stall feeding combined with the
use of good pastures is very profitable, because the production
cost of the pasture food unit is only one-half (and even less) of
that of the food unit used during the winter. A paper that
438
International Grassland Congress
attracted considerable interest in Section 5 was the review of
the histoty and present position of artificial drying of grass in
Great Britain by E. J. Roberts. The Section also contained a
group of three papers on various aspects of ensilage, by E.
Crasemann, Switzerland, S. J. Watson, Great Britain, and W.
Kirsch, Germany.
In Section 6, R. Geith, Germany, gave a report on the results
of a study that was undertaken as a result of a resolution passed
at the Third International Grassland Congress in Zurich in 1934,
to the effect that the norms used in determining the 5deld of
animal products from a pasture should be subjected to thorough
investigation. Winifred E. Brenchley, Great Britain, read a
paper on the correlation of manuring and botanical composi-
tion of continuous hay crops, describing the plots that had
been seen by some delegates on their visit to Rothamsted on
July 10. This was followed by two American papers, namely,
H. D. Hughes, Iowa, on the response of Poa pratensis to
different harvest treatments, measured by weight and com-
position of forage and roots, and R. H. Lush, Louisiana, on
seven years’ results of monthly clipping of pastures. G. H.
Holford, New Zealand, then gave some pasture observations in
New Zealand, which were illustrated by a colour film. John
Orr, Great Britain, stated in his paper on the economics of grass
cultivation that “ figures obtained in the summer of 1936'
showed that grass aged from one year to sixteen months pro-
duced much more milk per acre than grass of greater age, and
other figures suggested that grass from two months’ old to
five months’ old produces more milk per acre than grass of
twelve to sixteen months, and it produces it in the late summer.
Different record's show, and in some cases suggest, that fields
which are ploughed, which receive generous dressings of ferti-
lizers on the surface of the ploughed land, on which a good seed
bed is made by the harrow, on which good grass and clover
seed is used, gave the largest return as an investment. This
experience is consistent with the a priori reasoning in economics
that in a process of manufacture the first instalment of capital
should be supported by the second, and the second by the
third and so on until the co-operating factors are complete.
Instead of being relegated to a secondary, or even inferior,
rank among crops, grass should be brought to the very front
and receive as much attention as any arable crop has ever
received. The justification is that this pays.” Martin Jones,
Great Britain, described his studies on the effect of grazing on
439
International Grassland Congress
the various constituents of the sward and the way in which
systems of farming influence the grass land, causing certain
species to dominate over large districts. D. M. de Vries,
Holland, compared certain methods of determining the
botanical composition of hay fields and pastures.
In addition to the tour already mentioned to the Cahn Hill
Improvement Scheme, delegates visited the plots of the Welsh
Plant Breeding Station on Friday, July 15, and again on
Sunday, July 18. Other tours were also arranged for that
Sunday morning. A comprehensive exhibit of the various
aspects of the grassland research in progress at the Welsh Plant
Breeding Station was staged in the buildings of the University
College of Wales, Abeiystwyth, where the Sectional Meetings
were held.
On Sunday, July 18, one party of the delegates (Options 3 and
4) left for the north of England and Scotland; Cockle Park was
visited on Monday, and a tour was made through various
grassland areas in Northumberland. The party then proceeded
from Newcastle to Edinburgh, which was reached in time for
lunch on Wednesday, when the afternoon was spent inspecting
the experiment farm of the Edinburgh and East of Scotland
College of Agriculture at Boghall, or the work of the Scottish
Society for Plant Breeding at Corstorphine. On Thursday,
an extensive tour was made through the Central Plain, ‘the
southern part of the Central Highlands and the Trossachs, and
the Congress concluded with a luncheon given by His Majesty’s
Government at the North British Station Hotel, Edinburgh,
on Friday, July 23, when Mr. H. J. Scrymgeour Wedderbum,
M.P., Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Scotland,
presided.
The Congress was attended by about 450 delegates from
thirty-seven countries. The largest representation from abroad
came from the United States of America, indicating the rapidly
increasing interest in grass land in that country since the ravages
of soil erosion became so marked. The British delegates
were about 250 in number, and were representative of a
wide range of interests. In addition to persons connected
with grassland research, there were also numerous farmers and
representatives of the seed trade, fertilizer industry and the
implement manufacturers.
Particular reference should be made to the excellent hospi-
tality offered to the delegates by official bodies and private
persons at various points along the route of the Congress
440
International Grassland Congress
tours, and in Aberystwyth. The large numbers of delegates
from countries overseas were much impressed by the warmth
of the welcome they received, and will cany back with them
many happy memories of a successful tour.
At the general meeting of the International Grassland
Congress Association on Friday, July i6. Dr. Huizinga of the
Netherlands repeated the invitation, already given at the Third
Congress at Zurich, to hold the Fifth Congress in the Nether-
lands in 1940. The invitation was gratefully accepted and Dr,
Huizinga was elected President ot the Fifth Congress. The
Congress was invited by Count Teleki of Hungary to hold its
Sixth Meeting in that country in 1943.
A volume of Abstracts (in English and German) of all papers
read at the Fourth Congress is available from the Joint Secre-
taries, Fourth International Grassland Congress, Aberystw5dh,
for 5s. The full Report will be published as soon as possible
and should be ready in October; the price will be per copy,
or 35.V. to buyers wlu) hav(,* already purchased the Abstracts.
441
IMMATURE GRASS AND YOUNG SWARDS— II.*
Professor R. G. Stapledon, C B.E., M.A.,
Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Aberystwyth.
Data on Carrying Capacity. Having produced evidence as
to the chemical composition and yield of foggages it will
be of interest to examine such data as we have available
relative to carrying capacity. Data from a number of
different fields will be given.
The Bank. This field (2.91 acres) was sown out on June 5,
1934, in plots consisting of simple mixtures with wild white
clover; indigenous strains of rye-grass and cocksfoot
accounted for most of the area. A nurse crop was not
employed, and the field was grazed for the first time weeks
after sowing. It was rested for the production of winter grass
as from October 23, when it received i cwt. nitro-chalk per
acre.
From March 25 to April 23, 1935, the field was grazed
continuously with Kerry Hill ewes and their lambs, t During
this period the field carried the equivalent of eight sheep per
acre; the ewes remained in splendid condition, giving an
abundance of milk to their lambs.
From February 28 to March 31, 1936, the field again
carried the equivalent of eight sheep per acre. It had been
grazed lightly during the previous September and Octob(!r,
and was completely rested as from the beginning of
November.
Pond Field. This field (1.49 acres) was sown out
on May 22, 1933, half in a simple mixture consisting of
indigenous strains of meadow foxtail, red fescue and cocks-
foot, and the other half in indigenous strains of meadow
foxtail, red fescue and tall fescue, wild white clover being
sown over the whole field. A nurse crop was not employed,
and the field was grazed for the first time eleven weeks after
sowing. It was rested from September 13 to December 15.
The winter grass was converted in two periods, from
December 13 to 20 and from March 21 to April 4. During
these two periods, 23 days in all, the field carried the
equivalent of 17 sheep per acre.
• Ihe previous article appeared in the issue of this Journal for
July, J937.
t The weight of the ewes einployed in these experiments was from
about 110 lb. to lioib.
442
Immature Grass and Young Swards
Lane Field. This field was sown out on June 19, 1936,
in a number of simple mixtures all including wild white
clover. The number of species was considerable, about one-
eighth of the field being devoted to indigenous perennial rye-
grass. The field was sown without a nurse crop, and was
not grazed at all from the date of sowing until the middle of
December. By this date a considerable foggage had
developed, and for some of the species it was badly burned.
Grazing was started in the middle of December and was
conducted by resort to movable folds taken over the whole
field. From the middle of December until the end of March,
the field carried four wether sheep per acre continuously.
Orchard Field. This field had been sown down in 1033
without a nurse crop. Half the field was sown in plots of
commercial perennial rye-grass and the other half in plots
of indigenous rye-grass, and crested dogstail and wild white
clover were sown on all the plots. The field, which had been
used only as a pasture, was not employed for winter grazing
until 1936-37 when the sward was coming into its fourth
harvest year. It had been rested from August 24, and
winted grazing was started in the middle of December. The
folding method of grazing was employed, and from the
middle of December until the end of March the field has
continuously carried six in-lamb ewes to the acre in excellent
and improving condition, an abundance of green rye-grass
leafage being available to the sheep throughout the period.
Penwenallt. This field is now coming into its fifth harvest
year. It had been sown out in plots consisting for the most
part of indigenous rye-grass and indigenous cocksfoot: half
of the plots also included wild white clover, while no clover
was sown on the remaining plots.
For the past winter (1936-37) the field had been rested
from August 24, and winter grazing was started on
December 21. The folding method of grazing was again
adopted. On the with-clover plots five ewes per acre were
continuously and successfully carried from December 21 until
the end of March, four ewes to the acre having been so
carried on the without-clover plots.
Spaced Single Plants of Cocksfoot. In connexion with
the breeding of cocksfoot, considerable areas are set out in
spaced single plants. These plants are cut back after flowering
time and then allowed to grow up into foggage. A tremen-
443
Immature Grass and Young Swards
dous bulk of fodder is thus developed and if allowed to
cany into the winter the leafage will be partially burned
and dead and partially green and growing. In the winter of
1934, ij acres of cocksfoot in this condition were available,
and since keep was short that year sheep were given access
to the area. Between February 23 and March 24 thirty-two
sheep per acre were maintained wholly on this fodder for
no less than twenty-four days. Unfortunately no record
was taken of the bulk of fodder available and no samples
were taken for chemical analyses. In view of what we have
said as to special timothy rows, this result is, however, well
worth recording, and the more so since cocksfoot is by no
means an ideal foggage grass, for even the indigenous strains
winter bum (and particularly when allowed to grow right
away) far more badly than do indigenous rye-grass, indi-
genous meadow foxtail or indigenous timothy. This little
bit of evidence does, however, suggest that even foggage of
decidedly low quality, if not downright unpalatable and
if present in great bulk, is of very real value as a standby in
severe winters.
Practical Suggestions. Speaking in terms not only of the
present results, but of our whole experience of grass land, it
would appear that the foggage from young and compara-
tively young leys (say not older than 3-4 years) is superior
to that from permanent pastures in both chemical properties
and in carrying capacity. Unfortunately we have only been
able to test carrjdng capacity in terms of sheep, in regard
to which stock the figures are very striking, and afford ample
justification for advocating this method of dealing with grass
land. The results incidentally stand very much to the credit
of winter protein. It would be premature to suggest a correct
date for closing fields, and this will always depend upon
circumstances. The date should probably, however, be
never earlier than August and seldom later than the middle
of September. It is the fact, however, because of the quicker
growth made by young leys, that the date of putting leys
up can be considerably later than would be applicable to
jjermanent pastures, for as we have seen, good yields of
excellent winter grass can be obtained from leys put up as
late as the end of October. It is also the fact that leys that
have been heavily impregnated with stock nitrogen can be
put up earlier than those not so manured and still provide
winter green foggage of high protein content.
444
Immature Grass and Young Swards
If the chief grass on permanent pastures is bent (readily
burning), the date of putting-up should probably be later
than if the chief grass is rye-grass. For most purposes it
is better to aim at good foggage than at poor foggage, even
at the cost of reduced yield, but the value of relatively poor
foggage in sufficient bulk is manifestly considerable in time
of unusual winter shortage. The whole question of a just
compromise between bulk and quality is one that demands
extended research: it is to be remembered, however, that
the accumulation of excessive bulk reacts adversely upon
the continued excellence of a sward.
In our experience, better foggage is obtained after pasture
than after hay — the ‘ ‘ stock nitrogen ’ ’ resulting from grazing
having a profound influence on the production of winter grass
and upon its winter greenness. If we consider the evidence
from all the grassland experiments conducted at Aberystw}^!,
there is every reason for thinking that to take hay one year
(this to encourage root development) and to graze the fol-
lowing year, putting the field up in August-September, would
be the correct procedure to follow to ensure the maximum
production of foggage of maximum quality. It should be
added, however, that pasture leys used year after year for
foggage — provided they have been well phosphated, and
despite a yearly application of nitro-chalk in August or
September, and despite also the very heavy late winter-early
spring grazing — have been maintained in excellent sward with
an abundant clover contribution. Indeed, this method of
grazing — ^thc leys are never grazed excessively hard in the
summer — appears to represent exceedingly sound pasture
management from the point of view of both the animal and
the sward, at any rate as regards leys not intended to be
left down for longer than about four years.
The Production of Grass at Difficult Periods During
the Summer. In an exceedingly important paper on “ Grass
and Money,” Orr* remarks that ” one of the first things to
do is to contemplate the abolition of the ‘ nurse ' crop,” and
on financial grounds he completely justifies *' abolition ” on
the farms with which he has been concerned. As will have
been apparent from the examples quoted in the previous
section, at Aberystwyth we have long since abolished the
* Orr, John, Grass and Money, Scottish Jour. Agric., Vol. XX, No. i
January, 1937.
445
Immature Grass and Young Swards
nurse crop (as ordinarily understood) and we are convinced
with results that are beyond reproach from the financial
point of view. The advantages of abolition are threefold:
(i) establishment of an excellent sward (more than ever
essential if we are thinking in terms of 4-6 year leys) will be
the more rapid and the more certain; (2) the spread of wild
white clover will be rendered practically certain and will be
greatly hastened: and (3) abundant succulent and nutritious
grass will be produced at a time of the year when such grass
frequently tends to be scarce — ^in July and August, and, as
we have already seen, in the winter.
It is this last point that needs to be the most strongly
emphasized, for by providing grass in July-August, and in
the winter, we have an admirable and safe way of pa5dng
for our seeds mixture in terms of feed, the equivalent of
which is always expensive to buy in. Our practice at
Aberystwyth is to graze our developing leys as soon as
reasonably possible after sowing, and it is in order to assist
to this end that we almost invariably include Italian rye-grass
in our mixtures. Italian lye-grass is in fact our nurse. As
before mentioned, we have conducted all our experiments
with sheep, but we have been informed of many instances
where dairy cows have been turned on to the maiden le}^
in July or August with markedly beneficial results on' the
milk yields. In a favourable year maiden seeds unhampered
by a nurse come away with great rapidity, and make quite
exceptionally lush growth. So rapid and spring-like is the
growth, and so excellent the feed that it would seem not
unlikely that the protein so developed has about it properties
more akin to “ spring " than to “ autumn " protein;
detailed investigation relative to this is urgently necessary.
During the past ten years or so we have grazed maiden leys
for the first time most usually within eight to twelve weeks
of sowing the seeds mixture; on rare occasons we have
actually grazed within no more than six and a half weeks
of sowing date.
Examples of Stocking. A few examples of the stocking
on fields so treated will now be given.
Spring Field, “rhis field was sown on May 5, 1936, in
various plots consisting largely of indigenous strains. It was
grazed for the first time eight weeks after sowing. From
June 29 to August 3 it provided three grazing periods and
446
Immature Grass and Young Swards
carried the equivalent of six and one-third sheep per acre
lor the thirty-five days.
Pond Field. This field has already been referred to. It
was grazed eight weeks after sowing, and from August i6
to September 13 in two grazing periods of fifteen da5^s in all
it carried the equivalent of eleven sheep to the acre for the
full period of twenty-nine days. This field w'as first grazed
on August 16, 1933, and it has been used only as a sheep
pasture ever since. During the period up to October 9, 1936
(three years fifty-three days), the field has carried the
equivalent of four and a half sheep per acre per day through-
out — this including very satisfactory periods of winter
grazing. The full stocking results are given to show that
the methods of managing leys here under discussion mani-
festly do not lead to sward deterioration, despite excellent
carying capacity. The grazing is always and at all times of
the year intermittent — “ on ” and “ off ” is the golden rule.
The Bank. This field, which has already been referred
to, was grazed for the first time eight and a half weeks after
sowing. It provided three grazing periods from August 4
to October 23, and in this time afforded keep for the
equivalent of nearly five and one-quarter sheep per acre for
the full eighty days.
Lodge Field : Cahn Hill Improvement Scheme. This field
of ten acres standing at about 850 ft. above sea level was
sown on May 12, 1936, and was grazed for the first time
within seven and a half weeks. It had been sown with a
mixture consisting chiefly of indigenous perennial rye-grass
(S.23) and wild white clover — of course with a generous
addition of Italian rye-grass. The field was grazed inter-
mittently from July 3 to September 14, and during that
period as a whole actually carried the equivalent of 8.4 Welsh
mountain sheep to the acre. This stocking was advisedly
('xaggeratedly heavy because it was desired to test the
influence of ultra-hard grazing on the sward. The growth
was unusually abundant and six sheep per acre for the period
would have been a lenient stocking. After this hard grazing
the field was dressed with C.C.F. (No. 4) and rested until
the end of March, when the sward was looking remarkably
well and already full of wild white clover with a most inviting
bite offering for ewes and lambs. The hard grazing had done
no harm and all the indications arc that it had done a great
deal of good.
447
Immature Grass and Young Swards
Other Methods. Just as grass can be laid up to provide
winter keep, so can the grazing management be adjusted to
provide grass at other wanted-times-of-the-year from fully
established leys. Equally, seeds mixtures can be designed to
provide pre-eminently for particular periods of the year. It
is beyond the scope of this article to discuss this matter in
detail, but an example will suffice to illustrate what can be
achieved. A simple seeds mixture based predominantly on
indigenous perennial rye-grass, will give a sward which, in
some years, tends to go short in July and August. Recent
trials at Aberystwyth have shown that a very satisfactory
simple mixture for grazing purposes is one composed pre-
dominantly of indigenous timothy (S.48 and S.51) and indi-
genous meadow fescue (S.53) with rough-stalked meadow
grass and wild white clover. Thus compounded, and without
competitive interference from either rye-grass or cocksfoot,
both the timothy and meadow fescue establish themselves
quite satisfactorily. The sward thus developed is comple-
mentary to a predominantly lye-grass sward (it is equally
palatable), in that it is highly productive during July and
August and indeed retains a high level of productivity
throughout the season.
The Influence of Climate. The rainfall in the Aberystwyth
district is of the order of 40 in. per annum, and consequently
it would be dangerous to assert dogmatically that the practices
here discussed would be equally successful in regions of
materially lower rainfall. We have, however, had our dry
years as well as our wet years, and it is true to say that
during the whole period of our critical experiments with
leys (seventeen years) we have never had an irreparable
failure of “ take.” The ” takes ” are not always perfect,
and it is not always possible to graze within about ten weeks
of sowing, but with a 4-6 year ley it is not very much to
lose the first July- August grazing. From correspondence and
discussion with interested persons, it is, however, quite
evident that practices very similar to those we have discussed
are in fact successfully employed by knowledgeable farmers
operating under a rainfall very appreciably less than that of
the Aberystw3dh area. Be this as it may, in an average
year, 24 per cent, of the land surface of England and Wales
receives over 40 inches of rain, while in a ” wet ” year
the area thus ” favoured ” exceeds 60 per cent. It is true
448
Immature Grass and Young Swards
that a large proportion of the “ 40-inch ” area represents
rough and hill grazings; even so, there remains a very con-
siderable acreage, in the aggregate pre-eminently suitable for
the fanner to avail himself of the innumerable advantages
which first-class and cleverly managed leys offer him. The
ley is the key to bringing the plough as a money-earning
implement into districts where at present it is entirely
unknown or but rarely seen. In an ordinary year 28 per
cent, of the land surface of England and Wales is subjected
to a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches; in all probability it
is this very area which under skilled management affords
the greatest scope for successful and highly remunerative ley
farming.
Thanks are not only due to Professor T. W. Fagan,
but also to my colleagues Mr. lorwerth Jones, Mr. Moses
Griffith and Mr. Milton, who have provided data which have
been drawn upon in the preparation of this article.
[Concluded.']
B
449
RECENT CHANGES IN SHEEP BREEDING IN
THE ARABLE AREAS-I
R. P. Askew, M.A.,
Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Oxford
The decline in the sheep population of England and Wales
is now a well recognized feature of English agriculture. The
fall has been largely confined to the areas of arable sheep
farming and in these districts two fundamental changes have
accompanied it, the first in breeding policy, and the second
in the aims and methods of production.
In 1867, the total number of sheep in England and Wales
was just over 22 millions and numbers declined slowly up
to the outbreak of the War. The fall was then accelerated
and by 1920 the number was reduced to 13,382,673. Since
that time, however, the population has partly recovered and
the figure of 18,495,418 in 1932 was the highest level reached
since 1911. Any comparison between the total numbers of
sheep in recent years, however, cannot be an accurate record
of the change in production. Marketing at an early age has
brought about a striking change in the age distribution. Be-
tween 1910-12 and 1928-30 there was a fall of 42.6 per cent,
in the annual average number of sheep over one year (excluding
ewes) in this country, but sheep under one year old fell only
by 9 per cent. A decline in numbers, in these circumstances,
would not necessarily coincide with a decrease in the production
of mutton and lamb. More lambs might be born, but if this
were offset by their shorter average life, the sheep population
would decline.
The best guide to the broad changes in the industry is the
ewe population, and a comparison has been made over two
periods of three years . In 1910-12 , the annual average number
of ewes in England and Wales was 7,431,995, and in 1928-30 it
was 6,788,268, a decline of only 87 per cent. These figures
indicate that the decline in breeding was less serious than the
fall of 14-9 per cent, in the total number of sheep would suggest.
It is not possible, however, to obtain a true picture of the
sheep farming in this country by reference to the population
figures of England and Wales as a whole. Broadly speaking,
there are two main divisions in the industry, (i) the grassland
sheep industry, which includes the mountain and heath graz-
ings, together with the rich pastures of Northamptonshire,
450
Changes in Sheep Breeding
Romney Marsh and the Devon valleys; and (2) the arable sheep
industry, which covers the chalk belt from Dorset to the Wash,
and the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds, together with tlie
uplands of the Cotswolds.
A recent inquiry was directed to this belt of arable farming,
arid twelve of the more important arable counties, representa-
tive of arable sheep farming, were visited. These were Berk-
shire, Dorset, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Sussex, Hertford-
shire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Lincoln-
shire and the East Riding of Yorkshire.
Before the War these counties fed hurdled sheep as the back-
bone of the farming system, and although the breeds varied,
the central feature of the sheep farming was undoubtedly the
production of crops on arable land for the feeding of ewes
and the winter fattening of tegs. It is true that in Dorset the
native horned breed produced lambs for the Easter market,
and in parts of the southern chalk belt the Hampshire was
sometimes kept for the same purpose, but elsewhere winter
fattening was pre-eminent. In Berkshire, Hampshire and
Wiltshire, the supremacy of the Hampshire Down was un-
challenged; to the north-west, in Oxfordshire and Gloucester-
shire, the Oxford Down shared the premier position with the
Cotswold. In Sussex, the Southdown and its crosses prevailed,
while in East Anglia, the Suffolk had no rival. The popularity
of the Down ewe, however, did not extend north of the Wash;
in Lincolnshire the massive local Longwool was dominant,
and farther north in the wolds of Lincolnshire and the East
Riding of Yorkshire, the Leicester, another Longwool, was the
most popular breed. Thus, .although winter fattening was the
juain feature of arable sheep farming, yet the distribution of
breeds was local, and almost each county was convinced that
its breed was the best adapted to the prevailing conditions.
I'ABLE I. — Showing; Changes in the Number of Kwes in Arable
AND C^RASSLAND C'OUNTIKS IN ENGLAND AND WALKS : lyio-lJ
AND ig 28 -^^o
1910-] 2
Annual Average
1028-30
' Annual Average
Percentage
Change
Arable counties
i,«83.395
j L175.T17 *
- 37 -<>
Grassland counties*
3,S45,b6(>
: 4.148.736
\ + 7'9
England and Wales
7.431.995
j (>,788,205
; - S -7
1
* Wales, Cumberland, Devon, Herefordshire, Northamptonshire.
Northumberland, Somerset, Westmorland, Lancashire and the North and
West Ridings of Yorkshire.
B 2
451
Changes in Sheep Breeding
Recent changes have had a disastrous effect upon
the nvunbers of sheep in the arable areas. Whereas in
the grassland areas the number of ewes increased by 7 9 per
cent. , the decline in the arable areas was no less than 37 6 per
cent. Even this figure is heavily weighted by the inclusion of
the East Riding of Yorkshire, where the number of ewes fell
only by ii-6 per cent. ; without the East Riding, the arable
counties show a decrease of no less than 40 per cent. Berk-
shire shows the largest reduction with a fall of 51-9 per cent.,
followed by Wiltshire, Hampshire and Suffolk, with falls of 50
per cent., 48-4 per cent, and 45 6 per cent, respectively. The
least fall is 21 per cent., in Gloucestershire, explained by the
importance of grass sheep in the western half of the county.
This decline in numbers was accompanied by important
changes in breeds. The Longwool breeds, the Cotswold, the
Lincoln and Leicester have suffered most, but the pure Down
breeds, particularly the Oxford and the Hampshire, have also
declined. The production of arable crops for the breeding
flock has been widely abandoned, and ewes of grass breeds have
become increasingly popular. This has led to a striking increase
in the practice of cross-breeding, and for commercial produc-
tion crossbred ewes as well as lambs arc extensively used.
The changes have gone on side by side with an increase in the
production of early lamb and of summer fat lamb. Generally,
however, changes have been to less intensive systems, for
winter fattening and the maintenance of ewe flocks on arable
crops have everywhere declined.
At present, breeding policy in these areas is in a state of
extreme confusion, but there are nevertheless some general
principles underlying the recent changes. They may be sum-
marized under the following headings : —
(1) The change from the arable to the grassland ewt*.
(j) The decline in Longwool breeds.
(3) 'J'he change in numbers and distribution Dov\n breeds.
(4) The increase in cross-breeding at the ex])ensc of pure breeds for
commercial production.
Arable to Grass Ewe. The distinction between the arable
and the grass ewe is not always well defined. Many breeds of
sheep are highly adaptable; both the Hampshire and the
Suffolk, always associated with arable farming, have proved
satisfactory as purely grazing ewes, while, on the other hand,
the Scotch Half-bred, essentially a grassland sheep, can be
hurdled on roots without difficulty.
452
Changes in Sheep Breeding
The extent of the change has varied with climatic conditions
and local prejudice, but in each of the twelve counties visited
there was evidence of the spread of the grassland ewe. In a
few areas, the popular breed of a quarter of a century ago was
still the most numerous ; in Dorset, for instance, the indigenous
horned breed had no serious rival, and in East Anglia, the
popularity of the Suffolk ewe had not noticeably been affected.
In the Cotswolds, however, the native ewe had virtually dis-
appeared, and the Oxford Down was struggling to maintain a
footing in an area that was once a stronghold of hurdled sheep,
but now maintains chiefly grassland ewes.
In Hampshire and Berkshire, the grass ewe had made con-
siderable process, while in Hertfordshire grassland breeding
flocks were widespread. The greatest change, however, appears
to be in Wiltshire, where hurdled sheep are fast becoming a
rarity. Formerly, this area maintained hardly an5dhing but
flocks of pure-bred Hampshire Downs for commercial produc-
tion, but their place has been taken by breeding flocks of
Cheviots, Scotch Half-breds, Kerry Hills and Exmoors,
together with crossbred ewes of every kind. The following
table, compiled from the catalogues of the ewes offered at the
famous August fair at Marlborough, between 1933 and 1935,
gives some indication of the extent of the change :
TABLE II. — Bref-O of the Ewe.s Offered at Marlborough Sheep
Fair (August), 1033-3.5
1
i C'ross-
bretl
Un-
classilied
. i Kerry
(Jieviot 11,11
Other
Gra.ss
Ewes
j
I lamp- 1 Otlier
shire 1 Down
Down 1 Ewes
Total
Numbers . . | 4,288
Percent .. i
1 ' i
3.191
AV 3
l.Xzl 84Q 1 301
14-5 0.7 1 2-4
1
T,qi6 233
15-2 1-9
12,599
100
Formerly, the ewes offered at this fair were almost entirely of
the Hampshire breed, but in these years all the Downs repre-
sented no more than 17 per cent, of the total. On the other
hand, the Cheviot, the Kerry Hill and other grass ewes, together
with the crossbreds, the majority of which are kept on pasture,
amounted to nearly 60 per cent. It is not suggested, of course,
that these figures are an exact guide to the distribution of the
breeds of sheep in the South of England, but they provide a
concrete illustration of the change.
In the choice of grass ewes, considerable difference of opinion
was apparent even under conditions approximately the same.
453
Changes in Sheep Breeding
The most widespread, undoubtedly, was the Scotch Half-bred,
(Border-Leicestcr x Cheviot), for it had given satisfaction under
a wide range of conditions. It throve on the best pasture of
the Soutli and also in the exposed areas of the Cotswolds. In
East Anglia it had been hurdled successfully on sugar beet
tops, and further north in the wolds of Lincolnshire and East
Yorkshire it had reacted favourably when treated as a semi-
arable ewe for folding on roots. Its fertility, with an average
lamb fall approaching 150 per cent., was a telling point in its
favour as against the Hampshire, with little more than an
average of one lamb per ewe. In addition, the Scotch Half-bred
was very popular for crossing with Down rams in almost all
arable districts. On poor and exposed grazings of the South,
however, the Cheviot proved more hardy, and was well suited
to the extensive system of sheep farming, which was first
adopted, following the failure of the traditional arable sheep
farming methods.
In Dorset, Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, the Kerry Hill was
popular. It has proved fairly adaptable, while its small, com-
pact carcass makes it a favourite with the butcher, particularly
for the fat lamb trade. There was, however, no lack of origin-
ality in selecting grass ewes, and the Exmoor, Ryeland and
Clun Forest were all found in the south. Farther north, the
Mule and Masham, as well as the Half-bred, were spreading
into the East Riding of Yorkshire from the west.
The reasons for the change were eveiywhere the same. Sheep
farming on arable land has always had a two-fold object, the
sale of sheep, and the manuring of the land for com. If sheep
held their own and corn was profitable, the system was satis-
factory, but now heavy cash losses on the arable breeding and
fattening flocks were not recovered in profitable corn prices.
The system of hurdling is expensive, for labour costs are high
at every stage ; it is not merely a question of wages of the
shepherd — for more important are the heavy charges for hand
hoeing swedes and turnips. Again, the difficulties of arable
farming and alternative methods of manuring may have
exerted as great an influence as the fall in prices of mutton and
lamb.
The change from the arable to the grass ewe entailed the
virtual abandonment of the winter fattening of tegs, and a
concentration on the production of fat lamb with its quicker
returns. The ewes were left to fend for themselves on flie
pasture for nearly all the year and much labour was saved.
454
Changes in Sheep Breeding
The flock could be divorced from the management of the arable
land, with its high running costs and low corn prices, and if
the lighter soils suffered, on the stronger lands the chcinge was
sometimes beneficial, for the sowing of spring corn had no longer
to wait upon the convenience of the shepherd, and rotations
could be made more flexible to meet changing economic
conditions.
The substitution of sheep breeding on grass for breeding on
arable is undoubtedly a movement from an intensive to an
extensive system, partly because an equal quantity of fodder
cannot be grown, and partly because of the risk of disease when
the plough is no longer following the flock to sweeten the soil.
It has been an almost universal experience that for the first
two seasons grass ewes have been surprisingly successful, and
the temptation to increase numbers has often proved irresistible.
The following experience of a farmer on the southern chalk
downs is typical. The farm is one of just over i,ooo acres, and
two-thirds were arable in 1920. At that time it carried a flock
of 500 pedigree Hampshire Downs and fattened tegs. A
decision was then made to introduce grass ewes, Kerry Hills
and Cheviots being first tried, and the Cheviot-Ryeland cross
ewe was finally adopted. Meanwhile 350 acres of arable were
put down to permanent grass and the number of breeding ewes
was increased from 400 to 650, but disease set in and the flock
had to be reduced permanently to 400. Even this number
could not be maintained without careful rotation of the grazing,
while a limited amount of arable crops was also found
necessary.
The danger of disease is very real, and it is interesting to
note that many of the grass flocks have been introduced by
migrating Scottish and North Country farmers, who have
brought their native systems of management with them. This
was particularly noticeable in Hampshire, where the local
Down breeder was willing to abandon sheep farming rather
than to change his methods. Indeed, one of the factors limit-
ing the spread of the grassland flocks is the lack of knowledge of
their management among arable farmers. Experts in their own
line, they were not equally well versed in the ways and means
of maintaining the health of grass flocks.
Whatever its immediate success, the grass ewe is not, however,
a complete solution of the problems of sheep farming in arable
areas. Because it can only be successful as an extensive
system, it is unlikely that the spread of grassland sheep farming
455
Changes in Sheep Breeding
will lead to a substantial recovery in sheep numbers. More-
over, the risk of drought and the difficulty of securing good
pastures may be insuperable obstacles to success in the drier
districts.
Again, the high capital cost of establishing a flock of grass
ewes and providing for replacements, particularly if half-bred
gimmers have to be brought down from Scotland or Kerry
Hills imported from Wales, inevitably leads to a heavy charge
for depreciation, which may offset the lower costs of main-
tenance. On the other hand, the attempt to make the flock
self-supporting has two disadvantages. First, the fact that
the grass ewe is crossed with a Down ram makes it imperative
that two separate flocks should be maintained, the one to
provide ewe lambs for the breeding flock and the other for
commercial production. It is no easy matter to carry this out
even on the larger farms, but on the smaller ones it becomes
well nigh impossible. Secondly, in the attempt to make the
farm self-supporting, there is always a danger that the original
characteristics of the ewe may be lost after it has been moved
from its native environment. It insensibly adapts itself to new
conditions and unless periodic introductions of fresh stock arc
made, some of the most valuable qualities of the breed may be
lost.
Longwool to Down Breeds . The spread of grassland flocks
has come mainly from the need for reducing costs of production,
but it has been stimulated by a demand for a smaller joint, a
leaner and better quality carcass. This has particularly affected
the Longwool breeds, which are heavy, fat and slow maturing,
while the fall in wool prices has particularly affected them. The
Cotswold, Lincoln and Leicester have given way before the
Down breeds on many farms. Thus, on the one hand, the
Hampshire is disappearing before the Scotch Half-bred in Wilt-
shire, while at the same time it is taking the place of the Cots-
wold in Oxfordshire; likewise the Suffolk may supersede the
Lincoln in Lincolnshire and yet in its home county it may give
way to the grass ewe.
The Cotswold has suffered the most, and to-day it is virtually
extinct in its native area. It has lost stamina through inbreed-
ing, and now its only commercial use is for rams for crossing
with Suffolk ewes in East Anglia. Even here, however, its
future is doubtful, and the few remaining flocks may shortly
have only an historical interest.
456
Changes in Sheep Breeding
The extensive use of seed leys in the feeding of the typical
flock has made the Lincoln a semi-grass ewe, and further, the
influence of the export trade has helped to check its decline . In
Lincolnshire, though reduced in numbers, it appears still to be
the most widespread breed, but in the East Riding of Yorkshire
it has almost disappeared.
The third Longwool to fall out of favour is the Leicester,
which, though considerably smaller than the Cotswold and the
Lincoln, has the reputation of being the fattest of the breeds.
It is still the most popular ewe in the Yorkshire Wolds, where its
hardiness is a great asset. Elsewhere it has declined, and as a
pure breed its commercial usefulness is limited. Crossed with
the Suffolk, however, it appears to give a satisfactory carcass
and has thus obtained a fresh lease of life in a few areas.
{To be concluded.']
457
THE CULTIVATION OF ASPARAGUS FERN
W. E. Shewell-Cooper, N.D.H., F.L.S., Dip. Hort. (Wye)
The cultivation of asparagus for market has been going on
for over 30 years, and there has sprung up quite a small
industry, which is centred chiefly around the Swanley district,
though the fern is grown commercially also in other areas.
Type of House. The type of house generally used is one
that is 4 ft. 6 in. high to the eaves and 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft. to the
ridge. The house will normally be 100 ft. long by 12 ft. wide,
and six ventilators on either side of such a house should be
quite sufficient. Ventilators are not used as much with
plumosus nanus as they are with other crops; in fact, they are
only used during hot spells when the house gets humid or when
the days begin to shorten. Even at such times, only the venti-
lators at the middle or top of the house are opened, and not those
at the bottom end.
Soil. It is quite evident that the main requirement of
plumosus nanus is a well-drained subsoil, for the actual soil in
which the plants are grown is specially composted for the pur-
pose. The sub-soil in the Swanley District is mainly chalk,
though a good gravelly sub-soil would undoubtedly do as well.
The soil below the made-up bed should be porous and on the
light side, and a light loam would be preferred definitely to
a heavy clay.
Preparation of Soil. The compost of which the main bed
is composed should consist roughly of two parts of well-rotted
loam, one part of leaf mould rubbed through a half-inch sieve,
one part sharp silver sand, one part wood ashes or very old
coal ashes (if well consumed and well weathered), and one part
old mushroom bed or weU-rotted stable manure.
This material is put over the bed to a depth of 4 in. to 6 in. ,
after the original top soil has been removed to a depth of 3 in.
to 4 in. Well-rotted cow manure should be dug in just before
the special compost is placed in position; tons will be suffi-
cient for a house 100 ft. by 12 ft. In addition, i cwt. of
steamed bone flour should be incorporated, though some
growers prefer a coarse bonemeal because they consider it is
more lasting. It must be remembered that the asparagus fern
grower is preparing for a four-years' crop.
The manure is usually dug in 9 in. deep, that is a “ spit ”
deep, and is thus a good way down when ffie planting mixture
is placed on top. Bastard trenching is ffie normal method
458
I { f A J A ««
1 u. I \ MOO,1 liousc of XsjMi.ii^us I’lTii Notr tin* LCiitri' path, Ur* boards
at tlu* sides, .iiul the laisrd heating ])ij)es
1 o Uut 458
Tig 3 Left A bunLli oi best " sliort ” Hi^ht A buiicli of “ selected ”
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
of preparin^the soil. • It needs about 120 barrowloads of plant-
ing mixture per house (the figures given hereafter will refer
to such a house).
Modern thought tends towards the sterilizing of the planting
mixture by baking, because it is feared that chiysalides of
moths may be brought in with the leaf mould. Other insects
and diseases would of course be controlled if the compost were
heated to 210“ F. for 20 minutes or so. Instead of the leaf
mould it is suggested that fine peat might be used, and this
certainly lasts longer in the soil.
Time. It is usual to lay down a house of fern in February
or March because the fern planted at this time gdts away
quickly and goes on cropping in the early autumn.
Planting. In order to make planting easier, it is usual to
place boards on either side of the beds to hold them up. Breeze
blocks are sometimes used, but these are too porous and
take up a good deal of moisture from the soil, so that there is
a tendency for the plants near them to become dry.
The soil should be well watered before the plants are put in,
and should be in such a condition that it is moist but not wet.
The heat should be turned on directly the planting soil has
been wheeled in and spread, and after three or four days the
beds should be sufficiently warm for planting. The tempera-
ture from this time will be about 60° F. during the day and
55“ F. at night.
The central paffi will normally be about 18 in. wide and this
should give about 4^ ft. of border on either side.
The asparagus fern, usually planted out of 3-in. pots, should
be put in rows 6 in. apart, the plants being 4 in. apart in the
rows. Firm planting is essential, and the ball should not be
broken up when planted.
Some growers prefer to plant from boxes, to save labour,
but the results are not so good, and the cutting of the crop is
delayed two months. The plants should be put in a little
lower than the level of the soil, since, as the asparagus grows,
the crown generally rises. Further, deep planting makes it
easier to water the plants. Asparagus fern should alwa)^ be
well watered in.
Watering. From this time onwards, very little water is
necessaiy for ffie first couple of months, provided the atmo-
sphere in the house is kept damp. In fact, if daily dampings or
dampings every other day are given, it may not be necessaiy
459
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
to water for three months, but after the first three months
heavy watering may commence. A regular soaking should
be given once a week, and it may take J hour, with J-in. water
supply, to soak the soil in such a house properly. Very often
such soaking means an application of 500 gallons. This is
the heaviest watering that is normally required.
After this, damping down need only be done, say, every
second day, and this merely means the hoseing of the pathways
and walls, a necessary operation that helps to keep down red
spider and probably thrips.
Temperature and Shading. The temperature is kept as
before, but when April approaches and the brighter days come,
the house needs shading in preference to ventilating. If the
ventilators are opened a darker-coloured fern is produced and
the growth is retarded. A light-coloured fern is certainly pre-
ferred, especially in the London Markets. It is usual to use
hydrated lime and water as a shade mixture and this should
be thin enough to go through an ordinary syringe or sprayer
quite easily. This shading should be removed about the
middle of September when the nights get longer.
Fire heat may be reduced considerably by the end of April,
and a little heat at night only will probably be necessary. Fire
heat may be dispensed with altogether by the end of May,
providing there is no wet cold spell at the time.
The fires should be started up again at the end of September
and the heat used at night only at the outset. This is done to
prevent damping and “ fogging.” Fogging causes the little
tips of the fern to rot and the ” pinners ” are apt to drop from
the lower part of the fern under such conditions. There should
be just sufficient fire heat to take the chill off the pipes and keep
down the damp, say only 50° F. at night.
At the end of October, the heat may be turned on again
night and day, but even then only very little in the day. By
the middle of November the full heat will be on day and night,
the temperatures being kept at 60° F. and 55“ F. as before.
Cultivation. During this time the soil should be cultivated
in between the rows by the use of a light 3-pronged American
hand hoe. This helps to keep down the weeds, aerate the soil
and create a mulch. The borders should never be trampled
on, and as much of the work as possible should be done from
the central pathway. It inay be necessary to hoe every third
week until a good top growth is produced, which may be in
about four months after planting.
460
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
Top Dressings. There should be no need to give top
dressings during the first two years. The base manures origi-
nally given in the compost can produce a really good fern
without any “ extras. ” After two years it is profitable to give
dressings of superphosphate at i oz. to the square yard in
between the rows about March. This should be well watered
in. A dusting of steamed bone flour is sometimes recom-
mended, but this is slower acting.
The main thing is to try and feed Asparagus piumosus with-
out darkening it. It is impossible, for instance, to give nitrogen
or potash without the fronds turning a dark green.
When the third year of cutting is reached, that is, when the
bed is nearly four years old, a top dressing of a similar compost
as originally used may be given. This time fine p)eat should
definitely take the place of the leaf mould in the compost.
Cutting. About four months from the time of planting
it should be possible to make the first cut. This is of course
providing that decent fern out of 6o’s is planted. Cutting
should not be too severe to start with and only the older and
perfectly developed fronds should be removed at this time.
Two or three growing fronds should always be left on a plant.
During cutting a sharp look-out should be kept for red spider
and for caterpillars of the yello\\^ or red underwing. The
biggest flush comes about 6 months after planting and for 6
months after this. The best quality and the heaviest cut con-
tinues for about 12 months, beginning at the sixth month.
After the beds have been established 18 months a grower
can begin to cut more of the longer fronds and less of the
medium-sized ones. At the end of two years the growths begin
to “ trail.”
The trails may be stopped at, say, 2 ft. in length or left to
grow for cutting and marketing as trails, when the growths are
generally 2 to 4 ft. long. Few growers bother to string their
trails, but when this is done they do develop properly. The
time and cost factors, however, need consideration.
Most growers stop the trails rather than allow them to grow,
and at the point of the stopping spring a number of growths,
each of which forms a nice backing to a spray or buttonhole.
Quite heavy cuts will be produced during the second and
third years, and during the fourth year cropping will fall.
General Cultivation. Watering should continue all the
time the plants are growing, although heavy watering is not
necessary during the winter months except near the pipes.
461
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
As the days begin to lengthen the borders should be cleaned.
This is when the crop is at its lowest ebb and before the young
shoots begin to come up from the crown again. The dead
fronds and other matter such as liverwort, etc., should be cut
away and the bed may be lightly “ scratched ” all over.
Removing. The bed should be removed about January
at the end of the fourth year. This will be when the young
plants are ready to take their place, and all the old roots should
be removed because these go down fairly deeply. At this
time the house can be repaired, the glass can be cleaned and
woodwork painted again.
The Seed. In most instances the seed comes from Italy
and the highest germination may be obtained from the first
seeds harvested. It seems that nanus ripens its seeds in
batches and in consequence these are harvested in batches.
The grower should purchase the first batch, which is usually
obtainable towards the first week in March. Occasionally the
seed may not arrive. until the end of April, that is if the harvest
happens to be late abroad.
Seed Sowing. Some growers soak the seeds in warm water
for several hours before sowing, but this is not really necessary.
The seed, whether soaked or not, can be sown in two wa)^ : —
1. In the ordinary seed box, 14 in. x 8 in. x 2 in., 150 seeds to a box-
2. Spaced out in deeper trays, 3 in. to 3J in. deep, from which the
najius are planted into the borders direct.
Seedlings grown in the shallow trays should be potted up into
bo’s directly they are large enough to handle. This is usually
in from six to eight weeks from the time of sowing the seed,
providing the temperature can be kept at round about 6o° to
70° F. It is not at all necessary to have bottom heat.
The boxes should be filled three-quarters full with a suitable
compost, which should be firmed, after which the seeds should
be spaced out and a sifting of the same sandy mixture placed
over them and pressed down. The boxes should tiien be
watered and the seed should germinate in from 3 — 6 weeks.
Composts. Some growers prefer to raise their plants in
sand only, but this is not advised because the plants have
nothing to “grow away ’’ in after the seeds have germinated.
It is preferable to use a light sandy mixture. Tliis should
consist of, say : —
I part ol well-rotted leaf mould.
J ]iart of coarse silver sand.
i part of well-rotted loam.
This compost should be sterilized by baking.
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
A similar compost should be used when potting the plants
up into 6o’s, though most growers reduce the amount of sand
and add i lb. of steamed bone flour to every barrow load of
mixed compost. This mixture should be sterilized also.
Treatment of Boxes. Plenty of coarse material should be
placed at the bottom of the boxes, to ensure good drainage.
The boxes should never be allowed to get dry, and after the
seed has been sown they should be shaded from the sun. This
is usually done by covering them during the day with news-
paper, which should be removed in the late afternoon.
It is possible to stand the boxes above one another for the
first fourteen days. This saves space, watering and shading.
It is a dangerous method, however, where there are crickets,
wood lice or mice, as these are very partial to nanus seeds.
Potting. F irm and deepish potting is essential for plumosus
nanus. The pots should not be too full as the plants need a
good deal of water when well rooted.
Most growers pot one plant up per small 6o, but it is possible
to put two plants into a large 6o. The former method is
preferable, but the latter scheme will do quite well if there is
lack of space, for the plants may be separated carefully when
it is time to plant them out.
After potting, the plants should be watered well and stood
on a well ashed bench or border. At this time the houses
should be shaded, for during June, when this work is usually
done, the sun is rather too bright for them.
There is no reason at all why they should not be stood
“ pot thick,” and if necessary they may be ready for bed-
ding out at the beginning of September. On the other hand,
they are generally kept on in the houses until the following
February. Potting up is often done in batches and it may be
that one batch will be ready in September while other batches
will not be fit for planting out until later.
Watering and Damping. When the plants are in pots,
they should be watered eveiy’ day and a sharp look-out should
be kept for red spider. To keep down this pest and keep the
fronds fresh, overhead damping should be done first thing in
the morning.
Temperature and Ventilation. At this time the tempera-
ture in the houses should be from 6o° to 65° F. The rules for
463
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
firing, etc., will be as advised for the general growing of the
crop. Little ventilation is necessary, as the houses are shaded.
Pests: Red Spider. This may be found at all stages
of the plant's growth, right from the time the seedlings
are first through. The fronds take on a typical grey appearance
and eventually turn yellow, then brown and finally drop off.
The red spider increases and spreads rapidly, not only on
individual plants but from plant to plant. The greatest
increase takes place in a dry atmosphere and in excessive heat.
Regular sprayings and damping overhead are necessary
from the earliest times. The woodwork of the house, the
pillars, walls, etc., all need damping also in an attempt to
prevent this pest from breeding. A nicotine spray has proved
effective, the formula used being i oz. of 95 — 98 per cent,
nicotine to 30 gallons of water. Refined white petroleum oils
have been used with success, but there seems to be a danger
that the plants grow “ hard ” in consequence. White oiling
often means the loss of a week or a fortnight’s cut.
Aphides. Greenfly will attack plants from the time
they first appear. Fumigation with tobacco shreds is
usually advised, though the nicotine spray recommended for
red spider will control aphides also.
Caterpillars. The green caterpillars of the Yellow Under-
wing moth are often a serious pest as they will grow to over
I in. long and are difficult to find.
Hand picking is often practised after damping, when they
are more easily seen, because after syringing they come to the
top. A mixture of equal parts of Brown Treacle and Beer
should be placed in jam jars and be hung in the house. This
attracts and traps the moths.
Thrips. These damage the plants and cause the little pinners
to go brown and die. Whole fronds may be disfigured in this
way. Thrips definitely do not thrive in a damp atmosphere
and regular dampings seem to discourage them. The nicotiiw
sprayings as advised for red spider may be applied.
Acknowledgments. — ^During the last five years the writer has been on
the staff of the Swanley Horticultural College, and has had the opportunity
of studying the growing of Asparagus plumosus nanus in the Swanley
district, which is famous for this crop. He is particularly indebted to his
friend Mr. A. W. Farnfield, who has always welcomed him at his nursery,
has placed his knowledge and wide experience at his disposal, and has
very kindly read the proof of thiS' article.
464
PICTURE-FILMS AS AN AID IN AGRICULTURAL
EDUCATION
John A. Caseby,
Ministry of Agriculture.
The most difficult problem that has to be faced by mem-
bers of County Agricultural staffs when arranging the winter
programme of evening lectures, classes and demonstrations,
is that of securing support by the local people. The most
forceful and enthusiastic lecturer is disheartened when he
arrives at an isolated village to find only 5 or 6 members
of an audience awaiting him. Even gifted lecturers specially
equipped to evoke interest, are not always able to secure good
audiences, because of the average man’s inability to concentrate
for nearly an hour at a stretch. Some lecturers make use of
charts, specimens, models, etc., and although this method
may be commended and arouses some interest, other steps
must be taken in an endeavour to reach people who arc
engaged in rural pursuits.
About two years ago it was decided to trj' the visual form of
instruction. The initial results were so gratifying that the
average attendance at Ticetings was trebled, and at many meet-
ings there was standing 1 oom only for late comers . Attendances
of 150 at very small vilUges to 350 at larger centres not only
make the lecturer enthus astic, but as enthusiasm is infectious
the audiences are responsive and the meetings go with a swing.
The method adopted v as to produce interesting series of
film-slides on poultry husbandry and note how they were
received. The results encouraged the further development
of tile idea, and the list so far comprises nearly 1,000 pic-
tures and captions (descriptive writing) on the following
subjects: —
Poultry husbandry
Breeds of poultry . .
Our breakfast bacon
The story of the honey l>ecs
British breeds of cattle
The milch goat
Rabbits for fur and wool . .
The National Mark
1 films
1 film
2 films
1 film
1
I
I
I
Ten films varying in length from 65 to 158 pictures er»ble
a lecturer to arrange an interesting and educative evemng s
programme with very little trouble. Little or no preparation
465
Picture-films in Agricultural Education
is required in working out notes for the lectures, because,
apart from the preliminary remarks, there is little to do
except to elaborate any interesting features as they pass on
the screen.
The apparatus required is a V.I.S. film projector, tripod
stand, silver screen, and a resistance. Electric power may
be used in one of three ways : (i) from the available electric
supply by using the resistance so that only I2 volts pass to
the lamp; (2) from a 12-volt portable accumulator; or (3)
by plugging in to the small socket on the dash-board of a
motor car. The amount of current used is equal to the side
and tail lamps of the motor car, and the journey home after
the meeting enables the battery to be brought up to normal.
Coloured Films. The idea of using coloured films occurred
when the series of film slides on breeds of poultry was being
compiled. Examples in mind are the beautiful colouring
of a Brown Leghorn cock or a Lady Amherst cock pheasant,
or even the background to a picture of any fowl, duck or
turkey. Hand painting was tried by a processing firm in
London and the results were true to life. Colours, however,
are only practical with certain subjects. Pictures illustrating
the culture of flowers would not be worth while unless colours
were used. Ordinary films cost 2d. per picture and caption
and id. for duplicate or spare copies; coloured films cost
3d. extra per picture.
Not only has this method of imparting instruction proved
a decided success but the films are now used in New Zealand,
Malta, Scotland, England, Wales and the Irish Free State.
Composition of the Films. The poultry husbandry series
in 2 parts comprises typical specimens of standard bred
poultry, incubation (natural and artificial), mammoth incu-
bators; methods of brooding and housing; intensive, ex-
tensive, and backyard poultry keeping; fold units, slatted
floors, hen batteries; diseases and pests; and marketing
under the National Mark, both eggs and table poultry.
The pig film shows a boar and sow of each breed, crosses
for bacon and pork production, breeding, farrowing, rearing,
housing, ringing, anatomy, the administering of medicines,
fattening, killing, curing bacon and marketing.
The bee film covers anatomy of the bee, hives, swarms,
supering, honey extraction, marketing, and diseases.
466
Picture-films in Agricultural Education
The film on breeds of British cattle includes a description
of the various breeds, followed by a picture of a prize-
winning bull and cow, herds of cattle, anatomy, dentition,
and marketing.
The production of the films has been made possible by
the valued co-operation of “ The Farmer and Stockbreeder,”
” The Feathered World,” ” Fur and Feather,” The British
Goat Society and the Ministry of Agriculture. Without the
loan of a large amount of material (photographs and charts)
the production of the series of film-slides would only have
been possible at considerable expense. The result has been
that the films have been produced without a penny from the
public purse.
Inquiries have been received for the hire of certain films,
but it has been considered best not to hire films because some
of them, after loan, have been returned with scratches, and as
the cost is only 2d. per picture or i^d. when a duplicate is
also purchased, they are cheap enough to purchase outright.
For example, the film ” The Story of our Breakfast Bacon:
Pig Breeding from A to Z,” includes 184 pictures and captions,
and at 2d. per picture costs los. 8 d. and 15s. ^d. for a
duplicate. ” British Breeds of Cattle ” costs i6s. 8 d. for
TOO pictures and 8s. 4 d. for a duplicate; ” The Honey Bees ”
i8s. 8 d., and so on according to the number of pictures.
Apart from the value of the film slides for imparting infor-
mation at Farm Institutes, and for lectures at village meetings,
the fact that the films arc having a wide distribution outside
Great Britain should provide useful publicity for pedigree live-
stock from this country, whctlicr it be an Aberdeen Angus bull,
a Large White boar or a White Leghorn cockerel.
It is contemplated having a scries on ” Breeds of British
Livestock,” compiled with titles and captions in foreign
languages, such as Spanish and Portugese, available for distri-
bution abroad. The costs of production, translations, and
distribution would not amount to about 25 copies.
Finally, the total cost: a projector with battery £() 5 ^-’
tripod 4s., screen from los. to 20s. according to type and
quality, spare lamps 5s. 6 d. each, resistance £2 15s. Total
19s. and, of course, any film-slides desired at 2d. per
picture and id. for reserves. Any other information may
be obtained from the writer.
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of pro-
ducer-retailers’ contributions for June, 1937, are given below,
with comparative figures for May, 1937, and June, 1936.
In each month the wholesale liquid milk price was is. per
gallon.
Pool Prices Producer-Retailers' ^
Contributions
June
May
June
June
May
J line
^637
1937
1936
1937
1937
1936
d
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
6i
9l
9
2h
>3
-ft
North-Western
9l
9l
<>
2 A
A
Kastern
<>J
<)l
2 A
2 *
East Midland
9i
<)
2 A
28
West Midland
9
HJ
2 A
2il
North W’^ales
0
A
2«
South Wales
9l
9*
<)
2 A
2»
Southern
9ii
9i
j A
21
Mid-Western
<)
<)
«i'
A
2 A
2 il
P'ar- Wes tern
9
9
H
^ A
2li
South-Eastern
10
10
•4
13
2*
Unweighted Average
9*3^
9 30
yo.")
2 • 26
2*34
2 -.59
These prices arc exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited pro-
ducers’ premium of id. per gal.
The accredited premium was paid on 33,415,442 gal., and
the sum required for the payment of the premium was
equivalent to a levy of o.^;^ 8 d. per gal., on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at id. per
gal., compared with i^d. per gal. in June, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
June. 1937
(estimated)
Gallons
Liquid . . . . . . 48,932,786
Manufacturing . . . . 37,920,364
853, 350
Percentage liquid sulc.s .. 5fi’34
^ Percentage manufacturing sales 43*66
The average realization price of manufacturing milk
during June was 5 4od. per gal. compared with 4-97^. per
468
June, 1936
Gallons
46,672,156
40,891,822
87.563.978
53 - 3 °
46-70
Marketing Notes
gal. for June, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured
into cheese on farms was 3,107,391 gal. compared with
2,946,687 gal. in the previous month and 2,700,394 gal. in
June, 1936.
Direction of Milk Supplies. The Milk Marketing Board
announce that, after consulting the Central Milk Distributive
Committee, they have prepared a plan for allocating milk
supplies on wholesale contracts, which is designed to ensure
that adequate supplies will be available at all times for the
liquid market, and that the higher price-categor}/ manufac-
turing markets will have prior consideration over those
carrying lower prices. Producers’ supplies will be directed
without undue disturbance, and one of the aims of the plan
is to enable a call to be made on manufacturing milk in all
times of shortage of milk for the liquid market.
Milk Scheme Amendments. In accordance with the
Agricultural Marketing Acts a draft of certain of the amend-
ments to the Milk Marketing Scheme, as modified by the
Minister, were laid before Parliament for approval on July 16.
Potato Marketing Scheme. The Farmers’ Marketing
Supply Co., Ltd. The Company’s factory at Wisbech for
the manufacture of cattle food from surplus and undersized
potatoes unsuitable for human consumption was closed down
for the season on June 21, having been open since September
19.36. During the period of its operation, approximately
5,000 tons of potatoes have been processed.
Sale of ” Seconds.” Permits for the sale of “ Seconds ”
— potatoes that pass through a riddle of i| in. but stand on a
riddle of ij in. — up to a total of 27,046 tons have been issued
during the course of the season.
Milk Acts, 1934 and 1936: Manufacturing Milk. The
following tables give details of the advances made in respect
of manufacturing milk for the first three years of the operation
of these Acts. The figures include an allowance for claims
not yet received in respect of milk manufactured up to and
including March, 1937.
469
Marketing Notes
Gallonages of Manufacturing Milk and Advances Made in Respect
OF THE Different I^arts of the United Kingdom
Year
England and |
Scotland
Circat
Northern
United
(April-Mardi)
Wales !
1
Britain
Ireland
Kingdom
Gallonage {million gallons)
18*3
1934-35 • •
172*0 j
26*2
198*2
2i6*5
1935-30 • •
225*7 1
27*8
25 V 5
23-9
277*4
1936-37 • •
183*0 1
20*4
203*4
25-2
228*6
Totals . .
580-7 j
74-4
055 -I
67-4
722-5
1
Advances (thousand £)
1934-35 • •
j 1. 115
T63
1,278
164 j
U442
1935-36 . .
: 1.067 1
123
I, TOO
133 1
1 U323
1936-37 • •
297 1
32
329
94
! 423
Totals . .
2.479 j
318
2.797
1
391 1
00
00
Advances in Respect of Each Product Manufactured
{England and Wales)
Year
(A^l to
March)
Butter
Cheese
—
Milk
Powder
Condensed
Milk for
Export
Tinned
Cream
All
Products
Gal.
, i
Gal.
£
Gal.
£
Gal
£
Gal.
.i
000
Gal.
£
'ooo
*000
’000
’000
'000
*000
'ooo
’000
'ooo
000 ^ 000 j
1934-35 .•!
57,955
395
94,782
624
9.376
36
7,113
46
2,752
11
171,978
1.1X5
1935-36 ..
99.085
486
104,106
490
12,500
43
9.983
48
—
—
225,674
1,067
1936-37 ..|
93.588
158
73,993
116
6,826
9
8,674
14
—
XUSfOSz
297
Totals . .
350,628
1,039
272,881
[ 1,233
28,702
“ i
25,770
108
2J5-J
21
•?8o,73|
2,479
Total Quantities of Manufacturing Muk, Qualities and Per-
centages OF Milk on which Advances Have Been Paid, and
Average Rates of Advance Per Gallon
{England and Wales)
Year
(April-March)
Total of
manufactur-
ing milk
Total on
which ad-
vances have
been or will
be paid
Percentage
of total on
which ad-
vances paid
Average rate
per gallon
on gallonage
subsidized
Average rate
per gallon
on all manu-
facturing
milk
d.
1*06
0*76
0*21
1934- 35 - •
1935- 36 . .
1936- 37 --
'000 gal
253,096
338.889
347.676
’000 gal.
171,978
225,674
183,082
0/
/o
67-95
96-59
52 * 66
d.
1*56
I *13
0*39 J
jjjjjjjjggQPm
61 *80
1*02
0*63
470
Marketing Notes
Milk-in-Schools Scheme. The following figures show the
gallonage of milk consumed in the first seven months of the
third year of the scheme, compared with the corresponding
period in the first and second years. The figures for the
third period will be slightly increased when further returns
are received.
October, 1934, April,
October, 1935, to April,
October, 1936, to April,
Gallons
1935 • • I4,754»o77
1936 . . I3»592>56o
1937 * • 13.675.789
Exchequer
Contribution
£320,070
£308.154
^309,836
Cheese-Milk Price. For the purpose of payments under
the Milk Acts (whether by the Exchequer to Milk Marketing
Boards or by Boards to the Exchequer) in respect of milk used
for manufacture, the cheese-milk price has been certified by
the Minister and the Secretary of State for Scotland to be 6 46
pence per lb. for the month of July, 1937.
Wheat Act, 1932. Sales of Home-Grown Wheal. Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commis-
sion by registered growers during the period August i, 1936,
to July 9. 1937, cover sales of 22,100,155^ cwt. of millable
wheat as compared with 32,544,2721^ cwt. in the corresponding
period (to July 10) in the last cereal year.
Purchase of Stocks of Home-Groivn Wheat. Section i (3)
of the Wheat Act, 1932, empowers the Minister by order to
require the Flour Millers’ Corporation to purchase unsold
stocks of home-grown millable wheat up to a certain maximum
if the Wheat Commission in the month of June in any year
make a representation to the Minister that it is expedient that
this should be done. The Wheat Commission have resolved
that no such representation should be made to the Minister in
respect of the cereal year 1936-37.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936. Reports and
Accounts of British Sugar Corporation, Ltd. The published
results of the first year’s working of the Corporation show a
trading profit for the 12 months ended March 31, 1937,
;^r,245,i43. After providing for all charges and writing off
the whole of the preliminary expenses and the discount on the
471
Marketing Notes
Debenture stock, and after making various appropriations,
there remained a balance of £231,570, In recommending a
dividend of 4 per cent, less tax, which will absorb £150,000
and leave a balance to be carried forward of £81,570, the
directors have advised shareholders that the high profit attained
in the first year is due to exceptional circumstances and that it
would not be prudent to assume that so good a result is likely
to be rejjeated in future years.
Livestock Industry Act, 1937. The amendments made to
the Livestock Industry Bill in the House of Lords were con-
sidered by the House of Commons on July 13, and agreed to.
The Bill received the Royal Assent on July 20.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of pay-
ments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts, IQ34 to 1Q36.
Period
Payments
Animals
Average
Payment per
Animal
April to June, 1935 • •
£
037,280
394.958
£ d.
276
April to June. 1936 . . . . j
085,615
422,044
2 6 8
April to June, 1937 • • • •
971.545
414.497
2 611
Sept. I, 1934* J«ii« 30. ^937
10,851,598
4,582,340
^75
♦ Commencement of subsidy payments.
N ational Mark Cheese Schemes . As the result of a recom-
mendation made by the National Mark Cheese Trade Com-
mittee at its meeting on June 10, 1937, the following amend-
ments have been made to the conditions to be observed by
authorized packers in the National Mark Cream Cheese
Scheme. The requirement that the National Mark shall be
applied only to cheese of certain specified weights has been
withdrawn.
The requirement that each cheese shall be separately wrapped
in metal foil of approved quality or a muslin bandage has been
modified to permit the use for this purpose of any material
that may be approved by the Minister on the advice of the
National Mark Cheese Trade Committee.
472
Marketing Notes
Particulars of the total output of cheese under each of the
schemes for the quarter ended March 31, 1937, are as follows : —
Type of Cheese
Cheshire :
(a) Farm made
(h) Creamery made
Caerphilly
('heddar . .
Lancashirti
Wensleydale
T^eicesler . .
Stilton :
(a) Blue
(h) White
Cream
Derby
Number and Weight of Cheese
Graded
Weight
Cwt.
3,888
No.
8,584
0,894
84,001
•^,484
i‘>.o55
^.517
-’.503
4.473
1,083!
3-3 J 5
190
114J
1,907 240
3,983 594
7-778 I4i
70 20!
National Mark Creamery Butter Scheme. It is, at present,
a requirement under this Scheme that wrappers containing
National Mark creameiy butter shall bear an indication of the
date of packing either in code or in such manner as may be
approved by the Minister. The National Mark Creamery
Butter Trade Committee — the Committee that advises the
Ministry on the general administration of the scheme — recently
came to the conclusion that it would be of advantage for this
purpose if authorized packers were to use a common code.
The Committee recommended, accordingly, that it should be
made a condition of authorization under the Scheme, as regards
any future entrant, that the packer concerned should use the
code dating system drawn up by the Ministry, and that any
packer already operating under the Scheme who uses a private
code should be urged to change over to the Ministry’s code
dating system. Steps are being taken to give effect to this
recommendation .
Fatstock : Carcass Sale by Grade and Deadweight. During
the three months ended June 30, 1937, 2,183 cattle, 3,173
sheep and 2,020 pigs were dealt with under the Grade and
Deadweight Scheme.
In conjunction with the Welsh Agricultural Organization
Society arrangements were completed in June to enable pro-
ducers in Mid- and South Wales to co-operate in forwarding
bulk consignments of lambs and sheep under the scheme to
Birmingham and Liverpool grading centres. The procedure
is similar to that adopted during the 1935 and 1936 seasons,
473
Marketing Notes
and a number of group agents have again been appointed to
deal with consignments in each district.
Marketing Demonstrations. Particulars of exhibits and
demonstrations to be staged by the Ministry during August are
as follows : - -
Shoiv
Royal Lancs, Withington, Mamhcstcr
July nj August 2.
Southport Flower, Soiithprirt
August
Sandy
August 2().
Demonstration
. . Egg-testing and grading, and
livestock demonstrations.
Dairy produce, egg ami
fruit exhibits.
(‘hcese-making demonstra-
t i on . H oney , vegetable and
general National Mark pro-
duce exhibits.
. . National Mark vegetables and
other product-.
474
AUGUST ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Provided the weather is favourable there are no idle months
on arable farms. The pressure of work in the spring and
early summer in getting in the crop and attending to after-
cultivations is no sooner over than the securing of the harvest
becomes a matter of importance. Favourable weather condi-
tions not only reduce the amount of labour involved but also
greatly affect the quality. Even in such circumstances harvest-
ing is a matter that requires attention and skill. Faulty
management may result in inferior samples and reduced values.
This is especially so with barley. In dry seasons a steely
sample, which commands a lower price, may often be avoided
by careful harvesting. Experienced barley growers know
how to make use of any favourable opportunity to improve
condition and mellowness. Mowing and leaving the crop open
on the ground, careful turning by hand, and turning the sheaves
in the stook — all operations that entail extra work — should not
be considered too much trouble if likely to produce a better
malting sample.
The present month is the favourite holiday season for most,
but is one of the busiest on arable farms.
Reference has already been made to the difficulty of getting
in root seeds owing to unfavourable weather conditions earlier
in the season. Continued wet weather in many districts has
made the after cleaning of the crop very difficult, and in these
areas a spell of diy hot weather would be a great boon. In
Britain we are accustomed to changeable weather, but 1937
seems rather abnormal in that districts have varied greatly
in the type of weather they have experienced. The writer
does not remember meeting with so many varied reports from
agriculturists in different parts of the country. From some
j)laces there have been complaints of rather too little rain while
from others reports have been the reverse. In the north of
England on many farms there is an abundance of grass but
the price of stores is such that there is little inducement to
475
August on the Farm
purchase stock to consume it. The seasonal variation in
productivity of much of our grass land is such that good
grazing management is exceedingly difficult. It is a striking
fact that the variation from season to season on our best fatten-
ing pastures is less than on those of a somewhat inferior tj^.
No doubt this factor makes possible better grazing of the good
pastures, and this contributes to their productivity.
Preparing for Next Year. Although we are by no means
finished with the present season’s crops it is not too early to
give consideration to the cropping for next year. On many
farms this is not difficult, as an ordered rotation is followed,
although this is by no means as general as it used to be. Rota-
tions have been much modified during recent years and
farmers now depart from the regular course much more
frequently.
The introduction of new crops, the comparative ease with
which land can be put down to grass, and fluctuations in
values of different crops, are some of the factors responsible
for this elasticity in cropping.
Where an opportunity presents itself after corn has been
cleared, a start can frequently be made with the preparation
for next year’s crop, when harvesting operations are held up.
In a favourable autumn much can be done to clean stubbles,
and, by suitable cultural operations, not only can growing
weeds be destroyed, but, by producing a good surface tilth,
weed seeds are encouraged to germinate and can then be
destroyed. As long as they remain in the soil they are a source
of potential trouble. Farmers in the drier arable areas are
alive to the value of autumn cleaning. It is good to see imple-
ments going as soon as a field is cleared, but it is often an
advantage for cultivation to be carried out between the rows
of stooks while these are still in the field.
The north of England provides little opportunity for cleaning
of this description. The season is later, and if dry weather
prevails the farmer has learned by experience that it is often
wise to get straight on with ploughing under favourable condi-
tions. The advantage of getting land ploughed when dry in
the autumn is too well appreciated to risk delay for other
reasons.
Breeding for Fat Lambs. Rams will be turned out during
the month on farms where January lambs are wanted. The
476
August on the Farm
choice of the ram for early lamb production is an important
matter. Breed will depend on locality, type of farm and
market. It is important, however, that the progeny should
have the capacity to fatten early. Breeders who purchase
rams often remark that they get better fat lambs by using a
lamb rather than a shearling. This is quite understandable.
They would be unlikely to purchase a ram for that purpose
that did not show plenty of flesh. The well conditioned ram
lamb has produced flesh while young and would be likely to
hand on this property to his offspring. As regards the shear-
ling, however well fleshed he may be at eighteen months old,
he may have matured slowly and have shown poor fleshing
properties as a lamb. When choosing a ram for fat lambs it
is desirable to sec the animal when quite young, at about the
age his offsiiring would be marketed . There is much difference
in the relative amount of flesh carried by ram lambs during
their growing period. In flocks where ram lambs are being
prepared for sale no effort is spared to have animals in condi-
tion for the sales.
The need for careful selection of breeding ewes within the
flock, and the popularity of prolific breeds or crosses, were
referred to in the July notes. At Cockle Park for the past two
seasons Romney Marsh ewes have been run along with Half-
bred (Border Leicester X Cheviot) ewes. While the introduc-
tion of Romney Marsh ewes to Cockle Park was for reasons
other than to compare prolificacy, the results in this connexion
are interesting — the lambing percentages of the Romney Marsh
and Half-bred being 122 and 160 respectively. It is noted that
the Half-bred milks better, and the live-weight increase, especi-
ally with twin lambs, is better than with the Romney. On the
other hand, the Half-bred ewes if not on good pasture lose a
little weight, while the Roiiuk'v shows an increase under the
same conditions.
Cattle. Large numbers of grass-fattened cattle have now
been marketed from the grazing districts of the north of
England. Returns based on the purchase prices of last summer
and autumn have been satisfactory. Late spring-bought
cattle, however, arc likely to leave little margin and may even
prove a source of loss if present prices do not hold. The replace-
ment of cattle that have already been sold, which is a
customary practice on many farms in the north, is an
expensive item, for store prices remain high.
477
August on the Farm
The development of the system of fattening cattle on grass
is a striking feature of the farming in north-east Northumber-
land. Much Boulder Clay land of good type, which originally
grew arable crops, is now laid down to productive permanent
grass. Large areas fatten one bullock and in addition graze
a Half-bred ewe and her lambs per acre. Nearly 4 cwt. of
live-weight increase per acre are obtained from cattle grazing
apart from sheep. The art of grazing has been developed to
a high standard on these feeding farms. Practical graziers
have evolved a system that works very well indeed, and there
is no doubt this high output, which is obtained from the best
pastures in Leicestershire and Northamptonshire as well as in
Northumberland, is due, in no small measure, to grazing
management. Most of the cattle fed in Northumberland arc
Angus cross Irish heifers. The quality and finish of the animals
marketed from the end of June to October at Belford and
Alnwick cannot be excelled in any market. The manurial
treatment and type of grazing animal play their part in success-
ful management, but efficient control of the grazing is an all-
important factor.
Milk Yields. During the month there is frequently a falling
off in yield from dairy herds. Several circumstances may
account for this. Close attention to the yield of individual
cows may often throw light on the question. Frequently,
reduced yield may be due to a falling off in the quantity and
quality of the pasturage. Where this is so supplementary feed-
ing may do much to check the fall. Weather conditions,
however, alsp affect yield. Cooler nights and annoyance by
flies during the day may also be responsible for trouble in
this respect. It is noticeable that some animals suffer much
more than others from irritation by flies and this is reflected in
milk yield. Housing in cool cowsheds during the heat of the
day is sometimes advantageous. Blue colouring above the
stall seems to have an inhibitory effect on the activity of flies.
Damping of the floors helps towards coolness in the cowshed,
and also has the effect of keeping down dust. An abundant
supply of fresh clean water should be provided for dairy stock
at all times, but it is particulaijly important during warm
weather. Muddy ponds are unsuitable as the animals carmot
keep clean, and this adds to the risks of mastitis and other
troubles.
478
August on the Farm
Labour. Competitions in connexion with singling and
other cultural operations on the farm deserve the fullest possible
encouragement. Although mechanization has, in some direc-
tions, reduced the need for certain types of hand labour, there
remains much that can only be done by this type of labour, and,
one should add, skilled hand labour.
If production is to be increased or even maintained, an ade-
quate supply of efficient labour is essential. From many parts
of the country there arc complaints of a shortage of workers,
and in not a few instances farmers also complain of the
indifferent quality of the work done.
One very important factor affecting efficiency is the interest a
man has in his work. A marked example of increased interest
begetting efficiency is evidenced by the influence of milk re-
cording, bacterial counts and the like, not only upon the dairy
farmer but also upon the best type of worker.
Agricultural shows and visits to experimental farms may all
serve a useful purposi; in increasing the interest of the men in
their daily work on the farm. One of the most interesting and
interested parties that ever visited Cockle Park was made up
of shepherds and cattle-men, many of whom were required to
make a very early start in order to spend a full day on the
farm. A pleasing feature of the meeting of Agricultural Dis-
cussion Societies during the winter months is the increasing
attendance of farm workers. It is greatly to be desired that
this should be further encouraged throughout the country.
479
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Description
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended July 7
Bristol
Hull
L’pool
London
Costs
per
Unit^
Nitrate of Soda (N. I5i%)
L s.
7 126
£
7 126
£
7 12C
£ s.
7 126
s. d.
9 10
,, ,, Granulated (N. 16%)
7 126
7 126
7 126
7 126
9 6
Nitro-Chalk (N. 15^%)
s*
7 5 ^
7 5 «
7 50
7 5 C
9 4
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20*6%) . .
7
7 50
7 5 ^'
7 .ir
7 0 ‘
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20*6%)
7 5^
7 3d
7 3d
7 5d
7 0
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . \
2 18
2
2 15
2 15
3 II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
1
5 0
4 ^7
4 15
4 17
3 3
„ {Pot. 20%)
1
3 15
3 12
3 12
3 12
3 7
Muriate of Potash (l^ot 50%)
]
»
8 I
7 17
8 I
3 3
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
1 9 15
0 13, ,
9 9
9 13
4 0
Basic Slag (P.A. 15 2 %)
2 lob
2 2 .h \
— -
2 yb
3 0
(P.A. 14%)
2 56
! I 17 b I
I 176
2 36
3 I
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P A 26 ~
27 i%)
2 12a
^ j
2 lOrt
2 5 a
I 8
Superphosphate (S.P.A 16%)
3 4
--- '
3 3 ^
3 0/
3 9
(SP.A 135%)
Bone Meal (N. 3f %, P A 20^%)
3 I
2 17
2 196
2 16/
4 I
—
6 10
7 55
7 0
—
Steamed Bone Flour (N. |%,
P.A. 27 i- 29 i?/o) . . . • '
J
5 5>‘
5 3 0 !
5 og
5 0
—
Abbreviations : N. Nitrogen : 1 \A. - Phosphoric Acid :
S.P.A. = Soluble Phosphoric Acid : Pot. = Potash.
* Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at pureha set’s nearest railway vStatioii
unless otherwise stated. 'Unit values are calculated on carnage-paid prices.
§ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, net cash for prompt delivery f o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
h Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at J 3 ri.stol are for. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is 15 per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 56'. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, I os. extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 5.S. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton, 15s. extra, and
for lots of less than 10 cwt. but not less than 2 cwt , 20s. extra.
c Prices shown arc f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails i.s. '^d. extra.
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bndge.
h Price shown is f o.r. Newport, Mon.
Thciit are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 " units ” (equal parts
of 22*4 lb.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such units ” in a ton. Then, if the price per ion of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a** unit ** of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,'* obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge) .
480
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College.
Poultry Experiments in Northern Ireland. Since the
establishment, by the Ministry of Agriculture for Northern
Ireland, of the Agricultural Research Institute at Hillsborough,
practical feeding investigations with poultry have been con-
tinuously in progress, and have yielded results that have
attracted widespread attention. These results have been em-
bodied in a series of reports, but are now available in
conveniently summarized form in the recently issued Eleventh
General Report of the Ministry, which relates more specifically
to the period 1931-34.
Some of the more interesting conclusions, directly applic-
able on the farm, are summarized below.
Growth of Chickens. The addition of common salt (sodium
chloride) to a ration of cereals improved the growth rate and
condition of the chicks, even when they received separated
milk to drink ad lib. As little as one-quarter per cent, of com-
mon salt in the ration proved fo be adequate, no further
improvement being recorded by increasing the amount. The
deficiency remedied by the salt is primarily one of sodium
rather than of chlorine.
Studies of the level of protein supply that is desirable in
rearing rations gave somewhat contradictory results, but furn-
ished no support to the findings of most American workers,
which fix the optimum protein content as high as 20 per cent.
It may be noted in passing that no pathological effects were
observed when the protein content of the ration was increased
to as much as 28 3 per cent, (equivalent to 49 5 per cent, of soya
meal in the ration).
In the course of the Hillsborough experiments there has
developed a form of leg weakness that was not curable by
cod-liver oil, but could be cured by the use of separated milk,
c 481
Notes on Feeding
Occasionally it could' be alleviated by large doses of bran or
by giving sulphur, but magnesium sulphate had no effect.
The incidence of the leg weakness was more acute when soya
meal or meat meal was included in the mash than when fish
meal was used. It did not occur when dried milk or dried
yeast was included in the mash. Egg white and dried whey
were similarly effective in preventing its occurrence. The use
of dried milk and dried yeast also produced more rapid and
more even growth in the birds.
Laying Experiments. In studies of the mineral require-
ments of laying pullets it was found that when J per cent, of
common salt was included in the mash, and oyster shell or
limestone grit was supplied ad lib. as a source of lime, no other
mineral supplement was necessary, even when the other con-
stituents of the mash were entirely of vegetable origin. Higher
allowances of salt did not give any further increase of pro-
duction.
The use of artificial illumination in winter had no effect on
prod'uction, but it is noted that in this particular test the level
of production in the control pens was of a very high order.
Excellent egg production was obtained from the use of a lay-
ing mash composed of 2 parts by weight of cooked potatoes
I part of maize meal and i part of coarsely-ground oats, when
it was supplemented with separated milk or with common salt
and steamed bone flour. The amount of food consumed,
however, was abnormally high. If the milk (or salt) were
omitted production was poor.
The effects of supplements of fish meal, high grade meat
meal, extracted soya meal, and a mixture of meat and soya
meals were compared and showed no significant differences.
One series in the Irish tests that has attracted widespread
interest is that in which the effect of omitting the usual protein
supplement from the laying mash has been studied, A la3dng
mash consisting entirely of cereal meals supplemented only
with common salt has been fed to nine groups of birds, and
in each instance a high level of production was obtained. Com-
parable groups receiving the same mash supplemented by
protein concentrates did not give any better yields except in
1933, when in each of four experiments the groups receiving
protein gave a slightly higher production than that from the
unsupplemented group. The difference in each exp>eriment
considered separately was small, and probably not
"significant.”
482
Notes on Feeding
Access to grass runs did not appear to affect the number or
size of eggs laid, either with birds receiving protein supple-
ments or with those on the unsupplemented mash. Absence
of grass on the runs had, however, a marked lowering effect
on the fertility and hatchability of the eggs in each group.
Reference is also made in the report to studies on the storage
of calcium and phosphorus in the body by pullets before laying
and during the early stages of laying. One conclusion to be
drawn from these experiments is that part of the benefit derived
from the addition of common salt to a ration of cereal meals
plus soya meal is due to the favourable effect of the salt upon
the retention of calcium in the body.
There seems to be a connexion between shell formation and
loss of phosphorus from the body, at least on certain rations,
but the experiments as a whole suggest strongly that laying
birds receiving correct cereal plus soya meal plus salt rations,
together with lime, do not require any extra source of
phosphorus.
Later Experiments. This brief review of the Hillsborough
experiments may be rounded off by reference to the nutritional
aspects of more recent experimental work at the same centre
reported in the current issue of the Journal of the Ministry of
Agriculture for Northern Ireland (Vol. V, 1937).
Differences in systems of feeding and management such as
are found on good commercial poultry farms did not affect the
quality of the eggs produced to any appreciable degree. The
data raise the possibility that exercise may have a slightly
beneficial influence, but if so it was certainly not large enough
to affect the commercial value of the eggs.
The hens’ rate of production does not seem to have any
effect on the quality of the eggs, but individual hens differed
considerably in this respect. No differences could be observed
between eggs from White Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and
White Leghorns, as regards either quality of eggs laid or keep-
ing qualities.
In an investigation on the shell strength of eggs, in which
more than 5,000 eggs were tested, it was found that the rations
fed to the hens, and the systems of management of which
examples were investigated, were not the causes of any note-
worthy variations in shell-strength. Similarly no breed factor
of importance could be detected, but in each breed there was a
tendency for shell strength to fall slightly during the first half
of the year and to rise again during the second half. The
c 2 483
Notes on Feeding
individuality of the bird seemed to be the most potent factor
in determining shell strength.
In another experiment reported a comparison was made of
the ordinary method of feeding (mash ad lib. along with a
restricted grain allowance) with the alternative method of
rationing the mash and giving grain ad lib. The daily allow-
ance of mash to the second group was fixed at i oz. given once
daily.
The average daily consumption of mash and grain, and the
average egg production in each group are shown below ; —
Average Food Consumption
Grain Rationed Mash Rationed
Mash
ad hh.
Grain
(rationed)
T otal
Mash
(rationed)
Grain
ad lib.
Total
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
Oct. 1934— Sept. 1935
'^*5
2-0
4*5
O'iJ
3*2
4*1
Oct. 1935 — ^Mar. 1930
2*7
20
4*7
0*8
3*8
4*6
Average Number of Eggs Per Bird
Mash ad lib. Grain ad hb.
Grain Rationed Mash Rationed
Oct. 1034 — F'-'l'*' ^<^35 ■ • • • • ^7 • •
Mar. 1935— Sept. i<53.5 13^ ”5
Oct. 1934— Sept. 1035 •• •• •• ••
Oct. 1935— Mar. 1936 53 . . 64
It will be seen that, while a satisfactory level of egg produc-
tion was maintained in both groups throughout the experiment,
the production in the first winter was considerably higher in
the group receiving grain ad lib, than in the other group that
received the more orthodox type of feeding. On the other
hand, during the following spring and summer the relative
positions were reversed, so that for the whole period of 12
months the total production was practically the same in each
group. During the second winter, as in the first, the grain
ad lib. group gave the better production.
There was no difference between the groups at any stage in
respect of the average size of eggs laid, which was 251 oz. per
dozen over the whole period. Similarly there was little to
choose between the groups in respect of body weight or
condition.
The superior winter production from the grain ad lib. group
gave it an advantage of 2s. yd. per head in value of eggs pro-
duced in the whole 18-months period of the test, representing
an extra profit (over cost of food) of 3s. lod. per head when
484
Notes on Feeding
the lower cost of the grain ad lib. feeding is brought into
account.
Attention is drawn in the report on this experiment to the
significance of the latter system to the smaller poultry-keef)er
for reducing feeding costs, since supplies of grain can be pur-
chased in quantity and stored for periods that would be
impossible with meals. It also enables the farmer to utilize
home-grown grain to a much greater extent than the alternative
system. It is emphasized, however, that the experimental
results require to be confirmed before the general adoption of
the system can be recommended.
Another experiment reported in the same place deals with
the possibility of replacing Sussex ground oats in laying mashes
by cheaper substitutes such as bran, maize, and coarsely-ground
oats. In each instance the substitution caused increased food
consumption, but gave a higher rate of egg production, lower
feeding costs, and increased profit over cost of food. The
use of maize meal also produced a greater gain in bodyweight.
Pig Feeding Experiments. From Hillsborough comes also
a report on pig feeding experiments in which comparisons
were made between unrestricted dry feeding and restricted
wet feeding, and also between ground wheat and pollard.
Each comparison was repeated five times, but the duration of
feeding in the individual trials varied from 6-i6 weeks. The
average initial live-weights ot the groups also varied in the
different trials, but except for the second trial (46-51 lb.) was
roughly 90-95 lb. In the first two trials the pigs were fed up
to bacon weights, the average final w'eights per group ranging
from 191 to 236 lb. ; whilst in the other experiments the pigs were
disposed of earlier, the group averages ranging from 141 to
184 lb.
The ration used consisted (in parts by weight) of barley meal
I, maize meal 2, flaked maize 2, pollard (or ground w'heat) 3,
extracted soya meal To this was added a mixture of 3
parts ground limestone and i part of salt at the rate of 2 lb.
per cwt. of mixed meals. All the groups also received separ-
ated milk at the rate of i pint per head per day, and all had
automatic drinking bowls in the pens.
In the dry-fed groups the food was given in automatic feeders
that were always open to the pigs. In the wet-fed groups the
meal was damped in buckets after each meal in preparation
for the next, and the amount was regulated so that the pigs
485
Notes on Feeding
readily cleared up their meal in 10-15 minutes. These groups
were fed three times per day, except that in the last two trials
the mid-day feed on Sundays was omitted. For the purposes
of the food consumption records i gal. of separated milk was
taken to be equivalent to if lb. of meal.
Taking the trials as a whole the dry-fed groups generally
showed higher live-weight increases than the comparable wet-
fed groups, but consumed disproportionately more food, and
therefore took, on the average, more food per pound live- weight
increase. The averages taken over all groups are set out
below : —
Restricted Unrestricted
Wet Feeding Dry Feeding
Ih. lb.
Average hve-wcight gain per pig per da}^ . . 1-32 1- 51
Average meal taken ,, ,, .. 4*70 5‘7A
Average „ ,, per 1 lb. live-weight gam 3 -56 3*78
When account is taken by statistical methods of the influence
of the difference in meal consumption between the two groups
upon the average rates of live-weight gain it is found that there
was no significant difference in the efficiency of conversion of
the food consumed; in other words, for a given increase in the
rate of meal consumption the two methods of feeding would
have given about the same increase in the rate of growth.
With any method of feeding a certain amount of waste of
food is inevitable, which would be higher in the dry-fed groups
than in the wet-fed groups. This accounts for some part of
the extra meal used by the former.
In three of the trials the carcasses were graded, with results
indicating a marked superiority of the wet-fed (restricted) pigs
over the diy-fed (unrestricted) pigs. Thus in the 4th and 5th
trials, in which 62 pigs were graded similarly, the wet-feeding
gave 10 first-grade and 4 third-grade pigs, whereas the diy-
feeding gave only 3 first grade and 17 third-grade pigs.
In the parallel experiments in which ground wheat was com-
pared with pollard, under wet-feeding and diy-feeding
conditions, no appreciable difference was found between the
two feeding-stuffs either in live-weight gain or meal consump-
tion, the average results for all groups being as summarized
below : —
Pollard Ration Wheat Ration
lb. lb.
Average live-weight gain per pig per day . . 1-42 1-41
Average meal taken „ „ .. 5-19 3.21
Average „ ,, i lb. live-weight gain 3*66 3-68
486
Notes on Feeding
Similarly no significant difference was found in the quality
grading of the carcasses.
To those who are accustomed to measure nutritive values
of feeding stuffs in terms of starch equivalents it may on first
thoughts appear surprising that pollard should have given as
good live-weight gains as wheat, but if the total starch equiva-
lent of each ration used in this trial be compared it will be
seen that the difference is very small, and probably not measur-
able by group-feeding methods of experiment, unless carried
out on a very large scale. The close agreement of the two
average results is thus quite in accordance with expectation
based upon the commonly-used methods of assessing nutritive
values.
487
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Manu-
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
cquiv.
per
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
per
100 lb.
unit
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
1 starch! starch
equiv.
ton
ton
1 equiv.
equiv.
£
s.
s.
£
5.
5.
d.
%
Wheat, British . .
9
12
1 ®
8
9
4
72
2
7
1-38
9*6
Barley, British Feeding
8
15
! 0
8
8
7
71
2
4
1-^5
6*2
,, Argentine
9
0
0
8
8
12
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
,, Daniibian
8
lot
i ^
8
8
2
71
2
3
I *21
6-2
,, Iraqian . .
8
7
0
8
7
19
71
2
3
I *21
6-2
,, Persian . .
8
10
1 ®
8
8
2
71
2
3
I- 2 I
6*2
Oats, English, white
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1-65
7-6
„ „ black and
grey ..
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1-65
7-6
„ Scotch, white
10
10
0
9
10
1
(>o
3
4
1*79
7*6
,. Canadian mixed feed
8
17
0
9
8
8
60
2
10
7*6
Maize, Argentine
6
10
0
7
()
3
78
1
7
0-85
7-6
„ Gal. Fox . .
6
5 t
0
7
5
18
78
I
6
o- 8 o
7*6
Peas, Japanese . .
20
5 t
0
15
19
10
09
5
8
3*04
i 8 *i
Dan
Milling Offals
8
i 5 t
0
8
8
7
74
2
3
I -21
7*2
Bran, British . .
6
7
0
16
5
II
43
2
7
1*38
9*9
,, broad . . . . :
Middlings, fine, ini-
6
12
0
16
5
ib
43
2
8
1*43
10*0
ported
8
2*
0
13
7
9
69
2
2
I'i6
I2«l
WeatingsJ
7
12
0
H
6
18
5 (>
2
6
T *34
10*7
„ Superfine^ . .
8
2
0
13
7
9
Og
2
2
I • 16
I 2 -I
Pollards, imported . .
7
2
0
14
6
8
50
2
7
1-38
11*0
Meal, barley
9
12
0
8
9
4
71
2
7
1-38
6*2
,, ,, grade 11 . . '
8
17
0
8
8
9
71
2
5
I • 29
6-2
,, maize . . . . 1
7
0
0
7
6
13
78
I
8
0-89
7*6
„ germ
7
5
0
II
6
14
! 84
I
7
0-85
10*3
,, locust bean
7
15
0
5
7
10
71
•>
I
I *12
3*6
,, bean
8
12
0
17
7
15
66
! 2
4
1-^5
19-7
,, fish (white)
,, Soya bean
M
15
2
2
12
13
59
4
3
2-28
53*0
(extracted) J '
9
2
I
9
7
13
64
2
5
I *29
38*3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .
Linseed cake —
7
10
0
7
7
3
84
I
8
o-8g
9*2
English, 12% oil
9
17
I
0 1
8
17
74
2
5
1-29
24*6
„ 9 % ,, ■ • '
9
5 1
I
0 1
8
5
74
2
3
I -21
24*6
II 0 /O • • 1
9
0 1
I
0 !
8
0
74
2
2
I *16
24*6
Cottonseed cake, English, '
1
Egyptian seed, 4^% oil '
Cottonseed cake, ;
5
17
0
18
4
19
4 ^
2
4
17*3
Egyptian, 4^% oil . . ;
Cottonseed cake.
5
7
0
18
4
9
42
2
I
I • 12
17*3
decorticated, 7% oil . . ;
Cottonseed meal.
8
lot
I
8
7
2
68
2
I
I • 12
34-7
decorticated, y% oil . . i
8
ot
I
8
6
12
70
I
II '
1*03
36-8
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
Ground nut cake,
7
7
0
18 :
1
6
9
77
I
8 ,
0*89
i6*4
decorticated. 6-7% oil
8
I2§
I
® I
7
4
73
2
0 I
I *07
41-3
488
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS [continued)
Manu-| Cost of i starch ‘ Price
Price rial | food ' gquiv | per per i Pro-
])e‘^cnptl()ll per , value | value | p^^j. * I unit ■ lb. ' teiii
ton per : per \ i starch! starch eqiin
ton i ton ‘ , equiv.' equiv.
/
s.
L
S .
£
5.
5.
d.
d.
0 '
/O
Ground nut cake.
imported decorticated,
6-7% oil
7
15
I
8
6
7
73
' I
g
0-94
41*3
Palm-kernel cake,
1
4 l- 5 i% f'll • •
Palm-kern<d cake, meal.
7
7 §
0
II i
1
6
16
73
I
10
00
6
16-9
4J% oil
Palm-kernel cake meal.
7
17 §,
0
II !
7
6
73
, 2
0
1-07
i6*9
1-2% oil
6
15
0
12
6
3
71
I
9
0-94
Feeding treacle . .
Brewers' grams, dried ale
.5
0
0
« i
4
12
51
i
10
0*98
, 2*7
5
L 5
0
II ;
5
4
48
1
2
I • 16
12*5
Brewers’ grains, dried
!
porter . .
5
7
0
11 1
4
lb
48
* 2
0
1-07
' 12*5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . . From £$ ys. 6 d. to 15s. od. per ton ex-factory
(according to factory).
* At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
J In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note. — The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise
stated, and refer to the price ex-mill or store. The prices were current
at the end of June, 1037, ^re, as a rule, considerably lower than the
prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage and
dealers' commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative
values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the method
of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake is offered locally
at /ii per ton, then since its manurial value is per ton as shown above,
the co.st of food value per ton is £10, Dividing this figure by 74, the
starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table, the cost per unit
of starch eejuivalent is 2s. Hd. Dividing this again by 22.4, the number of
pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent
is I *43^^. Similar calculations will show the relative cost per lb. of starch
equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the same local market. From the
results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives
him the best value at the prices quoted on his own markets. The figures
given in the table under the heading manurial value per ton are calculated
on the basis of the following unit prices : — K , 75. 3^. ; PaO^, 20. ^d. ;
KgO, 3s. bd.
489
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comi>arison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations arc as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
1 5 .
Barley (imported) . .
.. 71
6*2
8 12
Maize
.. 7 «
7-6
6 10
Decorticated ground-nut cake
73
41-3
8 3
,, cotton-seed cake
68
34*7
8 10
(Add 105 . per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*09 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent o • 77 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The " food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy coavs, arc given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Wheat
Per cent.
72
Per cent.
9-6
L
7 18
Oats . .
60
7*6
6 II
Barley
71
6*2
7 13
Potatoes
18
0*8
I 18
Swedes
7
0-7
0 15
Mangolds
7
0-4
0 15
Beans
66 ;
1 7 13
Good meadow hay . .
37 i
1 4 '^ i
i 4 I
Good oat straw
20 '
o-u
1 2 2
Good clover hay
38 ,
70
4 5
Vetch and oat silage
13 '
I -6
1 8
Barley straw
! 23
0-7
i 2 9
Wheat straw
i 13
0-1
I 7
Bean straw . .
23
1 '7
1 '
i -2 9
* Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Afiastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price bd., post free jd.
490
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for June is 131 (base, June, 1911 — 13 = 100) or 2 ponits lower
than for May but 15 points higher than that for June, 1936.
If allowance is made for payments under the Wheat Act, 1932,
and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934,
the revised index for the month under review becomes 134.
Many of the average prices of commodities used in the compila-
tion of the index number were slightly lower in June than in
May; milk, however, was unchanged while eggs were higher
in price.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. {C or responding
months of 1911-13 -- 100 )
Monti 1
1932
1*^33
1934
1935
i 93 f>
1937
January
122
107
114
117
no
130
Februarv . . . .
106
’ 112 '
118
129
March
113
102
108
112
116
130
April
117
105
III
119
123
140
May . .
T15
102
112
III
113
133
June
11 1
100
no
III
116 :
^ 3 ^
July
loh
101
114
114 :
117
August
105
1 no
113 '
T19
—
September . .
104
107
1 119
120
127 ,
— .
October
100
107
' 114
113 ;
125
—
November . .
101 ,
109
i 114
T13
125
—
December . .
103
110
113 '
1 14
126
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act (b).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1930
1937
January
.
ni
119
124
125
133
February
no
117
122
J 23
133
March
—
106
112
118
122
134
April
.
109
116
I2()
128
143
May . .
105
1 16
117
120
136
June
.
I 1^4
114
117
121
^34
July
. ' —
104
117
120
121
August
108
108
122
120
124 1
—
September . .
108
III
' 125
1 128
133
—
October
104
1 12
121
119 ;
129
November . .
105
I13
120
119
129
December . .
• 107 1
114
120
120 !
130
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (b) Commenced September, 1934.
491
Miscellaneous Notes
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of March
to June, 1937, and June, 1936, and June, 1935; base, the
corresponding months of 1911—13 = 100.
Commodity
1937
193C
1935
June
May
Apr.
Mar.
June
June
Wheat
123
124
131
121
84
69
Barley
129
133
13^
124
! 92
94
Oats
120
119
119
115
82
98
Fat cattle . .
III
112
106
102
98
90
„ sheep . .
T52
160
153
145
131
124
Bacon pigs . .
114
118
119
122
119
105
Pork „ . .
1^3
116
117
124
1 II 2
103
Eggs
129
112
112
121
”4
107
Poultry
132
122
113
123
1 124
123
Milk
162
162
215
171
i 162
162
Butter
109
106 1
104
100
: 98
89
Cheese
J22
112 j
109
no
\ 108
98
Potatoes
.. 1
189
196 1
191
200
. 160
137
Hay .
. . i
98
100
100
lOI
I 83
100
Wool
1
>38
141 i
138
130
; 94
85
Dairy cows . .
112 ‘
112
III
: 103
100
Store cattle
II7
115 i
109
105
1 96
92
„ sheep
. . 1
132
133 j
128
117
! 119
100
,, pigs . .
127
125 >
126
129
1 122
115
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and the
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act.
Wheat
1
• 1 125
—
125
I3I
134
II5
Fat cattle . .
126
120
mgm
General Index
134
136
143 :
HqI
Bl
Grain. Wheat averaged 9s. gd. per cwt. in June or id. per
cwt. less than in May, and the index declined by i point.
Barley at 9s. yd. per cwt. showed a fall of yd. per cwt. on
the month, and this is reflected in a reduction of 4 points in
the index. On the other hand, oats at 9s. per cwt. rose by 2d. ,
and the index is slightly higher than in May. In June, 1936,
wheat averaged 6s. 8d., barley 6s. lod., and oats 6s. 2d. per
cwt.
Livestock. After rising almost continuously for over six
months prices of fat cattle fell during the early part of June and
then recovered. The monthly average of second quality fat
cattle at 41s. ^d. per live cwt. was xd. lower than in May, and
this, combined with a slight rise in the base price, was sufficient
492
Miscellaneous Notes
to reduce the index by i point. The addition of the subsidy
under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934,
brings the index from iii up to 125. The seasonal fall in
prices of fat sheep continued during June, and as the reduction
of id. per lb. for second quality was greater than in the base
period the index moves downwards by 8 points. Baconers
and porkers at iis. id. and iis. 'jd. per score of 20 lb. respec-
tively, both declined by 'jd. per score; the index for the former
falls by 4 points and that for the latter by 3 points.
Dairy cows and store Cattle were dearer than a month
earlier and the indices move upwards by 3 and 2 points respec-
tively. Store sheep were cheaper, and the index falls by i
point. The average price of store pigs declined from 30s. 3d.
to 2gs. lod. each, but as the reduction was less than in the base
period the index rises by 2 points.
Dairy and Pouliry Produce. The regional contract price of
liquid milk was unchanged in June and the index continues at
162. At IS. o\d. per lb., butter was \d. per lb. lower than in
May compared with a reduction of \d. per lb. in the base
months; in consequence the index number is 3 points higher
than in May. 1 'he seasonal rise in the price of eggs continued
during June, and the average of second quality eggs at iis, 3d.
per 120 was 2s. id. per 120 more than a month earlier. This
increase was considerably greater than in the base period and
is reflected by an upward movement of 17 points in the index.
At ;^4 5s. per cwt. cheese was 3s. 6d. per cwt. higher than in
May and the index is increased by 10 points.
Other Commodities. Prices of potatoes rose slightly during
June to £8 17s. 6d. per ton, but the index declines by 7 points
owing to a greater increase in the corresponding months of
IQII-13. Both clover and meadow hay were slightly lower in
price, and the combined index shows a fall of 2 points. Wool
at an average of I 5 . 5 fd. per lb. was reduced by \d. per lb.,
and the index moves downwards by 3 points.
The Agricultural Economics Society's Essay Competition
The results of the 1936-37 Essay Competition of the Society
have been announced as follows: —
The first prize of £10 has been awarded to Mr. R. G.
Betterton, The Institute of Agriculture, Moulton, Northamp-
ton, for an essay on “ The Stimulation of Consumption rather
than the Restriction of Supplies must be the basis of British
Agricultural Policy.”
493
Miscellaneous Notes
The second prize of ;£5 has been awarded to Mr. W. E.
Richards, Agricultural Economics Department, Reading
University, for an essay on “Changes in the Value of the Agri-
cultural Output of Great Britain in Relation to the Number of
Persons Employed and the Earnings of the Employees.”
Advisory Leaflets
Since the date of the list published in the April, 1937, issue
of this Journal (p.95), the undermentioned Advisory Leaflets
have been issued by the Ministry : —
No. 50. — Thistles in Grass Land (Revised).
No. 51. — Thistles on Arable Land (Revised).
No. 109. — Flea Beetles (Revised).
No. H2. — Rearing and Marketing of Geese (Revised)
No. 154. — Fruit Tree Capsids (Revised).
No. 254. — Tawny Owl and Little Owl (Revised).
No. 282. — Allotment Cultivation.
Copies of any of the above-mentioned leaflets may be pur-
chased from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House,
Kingsway, London, W.C.2, or at the Sale Offices of that
Department at Edinburgh, Manchester, Cardiff, and Belfast,
price id. each net {i\d. post free), or ()d. net per doz. {lod.
post free).
Single copies of not more than 20 leaflets may, however,
be obtained, free of charge, on application to the Ministry.
Further copies beyond this limit must be purchased from
H.M. Stationery Office, as above.
A list of the Ministry’s publications, including leaflets, on
agriculture and horticulture may be obtained free and post
free on application to the Ministry.
The Jones-Bateman Cup for Research in Fruit-growing
The Royal Horticultural Society has intimated *that the
Jones-Bateman Cup is available for award this year. The
Cup, a valuable silver-gilt replica of the Warwick Vase, was
presented to the Society, in 1920, by Miss L. Jones-Bateman,
of Cae Glas, Abergele, as a trophy to be used for the encourage-
ment of fruit production. The Society accordingly decided to
offer it triennially for researches in the growing of hardy fruits,
figs, grapes and peaches in the open or under glass.
494
Miscellaneous Notes
Candidates for the award must submit accounts of their
work by October 30, 1937, addressed to the Secretary, Royal
Horticultural Society, Vincent Square, Westminster, S.W.i.
Three assessors, two appointed by the Society and one by the
National Farmers' Union, will report to the Council of the
Society upon the originality and comparative potential value
to the fruit-growing industry of the work of the respective
candidates. The Council will award or withhold the Cup at
its discretion.
A successful candidate will hold the Cup for three years,
giving a bond for its safe return; and, on returning it to the
Society, will receive a Hogg medal specially struck in gold.
Winners of the award are eligible to compete on the next or any
subsequent occasion.
Advice on Camps for Hop-pickers
The Ministry of Health has issued an attractively printed
booklet* for the use of hop growers who are responsible for
hop-pickers’ camps during the season of hop-picking. Model by-
laws, issued for the use of local authorities, and concerning
all growers, not only of hops but of fruit and vegetables, who
are interested in providing lodging and accommodation for
persons engaged in picking those crops, w'ere issued earlier in
the year and appeared in this Journal for June, 1937.
The booklet deals fully with such matters as lodging, cooking,
drying, water supply and sanitation. District Councils are
responsible for seeing that a satisfactory standard of hygiene
is maintained in such camps and they have power to make
bylaws on the subject. The Ministry of Health’s model
bylaws, referred to above, have helped Councils in many
instances to draw up satisfactory bylaws for their districts, But
in some other districts it will be found that the local bylaws
vary from the model. Growers should, therefore, in their own
interests, get from their own District Councils a copy of the
bylaws in force locally and so ascertain the precise require-
ments they have to meet.
♦ To be obtained free of charge from The Secretar>% Ministry of Health,
Whitehall, London, S.W.i.
495
Miscellaneous Notes
Foot>and-*Mouth Disease. No further outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth
Disease occurred in either the Devon or the Surrey Infected Area and
consequently these Areas were released from restrictions on June 28 and
July I, respectively.
An outbreak was confirmed at Eyemouth, Aytt)n, Berwickshire, on
June 28, and the usual restrictions w'cre imposed over an area of approxi-
mately 15 miles radius round the infected premises. The Infected Area
covered parts of the counties of Berwick, East Lothian and Northumberland.
Three further outbreaks 111 the same Infected Area were confirmed, on
July 2, 3 and 4 respectively, and an extension of disease on one of the
premises where disease had previously existed was confirmed on July 9.
These outbreaks did not, however, make any extension of the Infected
Area necessar>^ The Area was reduced to one of approximately 5 miles
radius round the Infected Premises on July 17. Provided the disease
position remains satisfactory, the area will be released from restrictions
on July 30.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. During the month ending
July 12, 1937, l^gal proceedings were taken against three employers for
failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
^ Costs
j Allowed
1 Arrears of 1 No. of
Wages I workers
j ordered 'involved
Cheshire
Winsford .
£ s. d.
20 0 0
£ s. d.
! £ s.
\ Ai 14
I
8 . I
Lancashire . .
Leigh
•, («)
j
18 10
8 1 I
Yorkshire,
West Riding
Doncaster
12 0 0
1
! 53 13
^ i 3
1 32 0 0
1 _
;ii5 18
b 5
(a) Dismissed under the Probation of Offenders’ Act.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS: ENGLAND
Leicestershire : Mr. H. R. Kirby, N.D.A., has been appointed Assistant
Agricultural Organizer, vice Mr. L. E. Edney, B.Sc.(Agric.).
Lincolnshire (Holland) : Mr. J. Hargrave, B.Sc., has been appointed
Chief Agricultural Chemist, vice Mr. F. W. Handley, B.Sc., Ph.D.
Mr. F. C. Thompson, B.Sc., has been appointed Assistant Agricultural
Chemist.
Middlesex : Mr. R. Duncan, N.D.H., has been appointed Superintendent
of Commercial Horticulture, vtce Mr. P. E. Cross, N.D.H.
Somersetshire : Mr. J. L. Congdon, N.D.H. , has been appointed Assistant
Agricultural Organizer, vice Mr. A. T. G. Trew, N.D.A., N.D.D.
STAFFS OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES
Studley College, Warwickshire: Mr. H. Montgomery, N.D.A., has been
appointed Farm Manager in succession to Mr. E. Duddles, C.D.A,
496
WIRELESS TALKS, AUGUST, 1937
AGRICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time .
P m.
Speaker
Subject
National,
Midland and
Scottish :
--
No talks in August
North ;
August 2
6-50
Professor J. A Hanley.
Account of the Durham
County Show
>, 1 1
7* 10
Professor J A. Hanley.
Account of Northumber-
land Agricultural Show
West :
August 12, 20
8*0
—
Fortnightly T.etter to
W'estern Farmers.
Northern
Ireland :
August 27
—
Mr l\‘ier l itzpatrick
Farmers' Work and
Worry
HORTICULTURAL
Station and
int,
Time
p m.
Speaker
Subject
National
August
7 -
Mr T Hay
In Other Cardens
.. 1 ^
7-15
Mr. ( larciiLC Elliott
In Other (xardeiis.
7-15
Not fixed 1
In Other (hardens
North ;
August 20
70
Messrs. K. A Therkildsen 1
andW 1 ^ Shcwell-Cooper
Climbing Plants
West:
August 17
Scottish ;
9*30
Not fixed
For Western (iardeiiers
August 4
,, 2<»
6 -JO)
0-4o(
Mr. Alexander Keith ,
August in the Garden.
Northern
Ireland :
August 4 \
.. 30 /
8-45
1
Mr H G. ricet i
An Ulster Garden.
497
SELECTED CONTENTS OF PERIODICALS
Agriculture, General and Miscellaneous
Developments Tending towards an Improved Utilisation of the
Horse, Kecent Studies in the Construction of Farm Carts and
their Improvement. E. Moskovits. (Int. Rev. Agnc. Mon. Bull.
Agric. Sci. and Pract. 28, 4. (April, 1937), pp. 121T-132T.)
Dormant Roots and Buds of the Cricket Bat Willow — Salix Caerulea
— and their Effects on the Wood. H. P. Hutchinson, (J. Bath
W.S. Co. Ass. 6th Senes, xi (1936-37), pp. 98-101 + 3 plates.)
The Effects of the Removal and Retention of Lateral Branches in
the Production of Sets of the Cricket Bat Willow. H, P. Hutchinson,
(J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi (1936-37), pp. 101-104.)
Agricultural Economics
Agricultural Indebtedness: (1) General Survey of the Que.stion ;
(2) Agricultural Debts and their Adjustment. G. Costanzo,
(Int. Rev. Agric. Mon. Bull. Agnc. iCcon. and Soc. 28, i (Jan.
1937). pp- iE-^ 33 £-)
Agricultural Indebtedness, (B) Scandinavian Countries. G. Costanzo.
(Int. Rev. Agnc. Mon. Bull. Agnc. Econ. and Soc. 28, 2 (Feb. 1937),
pp. 4512-52E.)
Agricultural Indebtedness, (C) Countries of Central and Eastern
Europe. G. Costanzo. (Int. Rev. Agnc Mon. Bull. Agric. Econ.
and Soc, 28, 3 (March, 1937), PP- 73F'“97 k )
Economic Conditions and Policies Affecting Agriculture During the
World Economic Dcprc.ssion. A. Emanuel. (Int. Rev. Agric.
Mon. Bull. Agric. Econ. and Soc. 28, i (Jan. 1937), PP-
and 28, 2 (Feb, 1937). PP- 53E™66e.)
Agricultural Education
Technical Instruction and the Agricultural Worker. W. R. Seward.
(J. Fmrs.* Cl., Lond., Pt. 3 (April, 1937), PP- 37-53 )
In the Beginning : A Series of Articles Dealing with the Development
of Agricultural Educational and Research Institutions.
I. Rothamsted Experimental Station. Sir E. J. Russell. (Agric.
Progr. 14, I (1937), PP- 1-13 )
Botany and Plant Physiology
A Review of the Problem of Bud Dormancy. R. H. Stoughton.
(Sci. Hort. 5 (1937)* PP- 1 15 -125 + 2 plates.)*'
Plant Hormones and their Possible Importance in Horticulture.
M. Thomas. (Sci. Hort. 5 (1937), PP- 141-152 + 4 plates.)
Crops
Grass Drying. The Earl Waldegrave and W. T. Price. (J. Bath W. S.
Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi (1936-37), pp. 11-31 -f- 3 plates.)
Keeping Quality of Sugar Beets as Influenced by Growth and
Nutritional Factors. E. G. Larmer. (J. Agric. Res. 54, 3 ( i Feb.
1937)* PP- 185-198.)
498
Selected Contents of Periodicals
Dairying and Milk Products
Some Observations on Grade ** A ** Milk. J, O. Eastback and E, J,
Sherwood. (Fm. Econ. No. 99 (Feb. 1937), pp. 2419-2426.)
The Problem of Proving Dairy Bulls. St. Taussig. (Int. Rev. Agric.
Mon. Bull. Agric. Sci. and Pract. 28, 3 (March, 1937), PP- 69T-81T.)
Mastitis Milk in Cheese-making. R. H. Leitch. (Agric. Progr. 14, i
(1937). pp- 40-43 )
Grassland Dairying in the Blackmore Vale. E. Thomas and F. H.
Vxlliers. (J. Bnt. Dairy Fmrs’. Ass. 49 (1937), pp. 9-25.)
Dairy Changes in Village Life. E. Walker. (J. Brit. Dairy Fmrs'.
Ass. 49 (1937). PP- 38-48.)
Applied Bacteriology in Dairying. A. T. R. Mattick. (J. Brit.
Dairy Fmrs.' Ass. 49 (1937). PP- 49 - 5 ^.)
The Present State of the Dairying Industry in the Various Countries :
(9) Poland, (10) Bulgaria, (ii) Latvia. E. Gasser. (Int. Rev.
Agric. Mon. Bull. Agric. Sci. and Pract. 28, 2, 3 and 4 (Feb., March
and April, I937)» PP- 51-62. 89-97 and 133"I39.)
Diseases of Animals and Veterinary Science
Poisonous Plants. A. R. Norwood. (J. Land. Agents' Soc. 3O, 3
(March. I937)» PP-
Sheep Scab: Remedial Measures Reviewed. E. A. Lewis. (Bull.
ent. Res. 28, i (March, 1937), pp. 11-28 -f i plate.)
Causes of Loss m Sheep. J. F. H. Thomas. (J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass.
6th Series, xi (i936"37). PP- 34-4^.)
Fertilizers
Peat and Its Uses in Horticulture. W. G. Ogg. (Sci. Hort. 5 (1937),
pp. 153-161.)
Formamide as a Nitrogenous Fertilizer. C. J. Rehling and J. R.
Taylor, Jr. (J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29, 2 (Feb. 1937). PP- 134-144-)
Manuruil Experiments on Vegetable Crops in Lancashire. W. L.
Steer (Sci, Hort. 5 (i937)» PP- 34-3^-)
The Necessity of Livestock and Organic Manure in Mechanical
Farming. W. D. Hollis. (J. Fmrs.' Cl., Lond., Pt. 2 (March, 1937),
PP- 21-36.)
Food, Nutrition and Preservation
The Keeping Qualities of Apples m Relation to their Maturity when
Gathered. F. Kidd and C. West. (Sci. Hort. 5 (1937), pp. 78-86.)
Bacteriological Aspects of Refrigeration in the Dairy Industry.
J. G. Davis. (Proc. Brit. Ass. Refrig. 33, i (1936-37). pp. 125-134.)
The Relative Potency of Vitamin l5 from Different Sources. E.
Margaret Hume. (Nutr. Abstr. Rev. 6, 4 (April, 1937), pp. 891-901.)
Fruit Culture and Horticulture
Grafting Fruit Trees. W. E. Shewell-Cooper. (Estate Mag. 37, 4
(April. 1937), pp. 297-301,)
A Survey of the Soils and Fruit in the Vale of Evesham, with Special
Report on Vegetable Crops (Summary). T. Wallace. (J. Bath
W. S. Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi (1936-37), pp. 81-97 + 4 plates.)
Science Progress Applied to Horticulture. G. Truffaut. (J. Roy.
Hort. Soc. 62, 3 (March, 1937), PP- loo-m.)
The Potato in Its Early Home and Its Introduction into Europe
(contd.). R. N. Salaman. (J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 62, 3 (March, 1937),
499
Selected Contents of Periodicals
pp. 1 1 2-1 23 +4 plates and 62, 4 (April, 1937). PP* 153-1^2 -f- 6
plates) — (to he continued.)
The Pot Plant Indust^3^ W, Corbett. (Sci. Hort. 5 {1937),
pp. 98-106 4- 2 plates,)
Timber for Glasshouse Construction. J. Bryan. (Sci. Hort. 5 (1937),
pp. 107-114.)
Recent Dutch Research on the Growth and Flowering of Bulbs.
I. The Temperature Requirements of Hyacinths. Miss O. N.
Parvis. (Sci. Hort. 5 (i937). PP* 127-140.)
The Routine Management of Lawns. R. B. Dawson. (Sci. Hort. 5
(1937). PP* 167-178 -f 4 plates.)
The Care of Ornamental Trees. A. D. C. Le Sueur, (J. R. Hort.
Soc., 62, 4 (April, 1937). PP* 141-152.)
Livestock, Breeding and Feeding
Cacao Shell as a Foodstuff for Cattle. J. Golding and H. Burr,
(Agric. Prog. 14, i (i937). PP* 44-52.)
Sheep Nutrition. I. Measurements of the Appetites of Sheep on
Typical Winter Rations, Together with a Critical Study of the
Sheep Feeding Standards. 11. Determination of the Amounts of
Grass Consumed by Sheep on Pasturage of Varying Quality.
H. E. Woodman, R. E. Evans and A. Eden. (J. Agric, Sci. 27, 2
(April 1937). PP* 191-223.)
Grass Silage — A Comparison of the Changes Involved in the Ordinary
Molasses, and A.I.V. Processes. W. M. Davies, G. H. Botham and
W. B. Thompson. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 2 (April, 1937), PP* 151-161.)
The Time of Cutting Hay, and the Losses Entailed During Hay-
making. 5. J. Watson, W. S. Ferguson and E. A . Horton. (J. Agric.
Sci. 27, 2 (April, 1937), PP* 224-258.)
The Effect of the Addition of Various Materials and Bacterial Cultures
to Grass Silage at the Time of Making on the Subsequent Bacterial
and Chemical Changes. L. A. Allen, S. J. Watson and W. S.
Ferguson. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 2 (April, 1937), pp. 294-308.)
Plant Diseases and Pests
Amillaria mellea. — “The Death" — A Trouble of Fruit Trees Due
to Root Suffocation. B. S. Furneaux and W. G. Kent. (Sci.
Hort. 5 (1937), pp. 67-77.)
Aecidium Grossularia DC (Puccinia Pringsheimiana Kleb). — On the
Control of Gooseberry Rust. W. R. Saunderson and H. Cairns.
(Ann. Appl. Biol. 24, i (Feb. 1937), pp. 17-25 + 1 plate.)
Phytophthora infesians. — The Control of Blight in Seed Potatoes by
Tuber Disinfection. T. N. Greeves. (Ann. App. Biol. 24, i (Feb.
1937)* PP* 26-32 + I plate.)
Notes on Apple Canker. R. W. Marsh. (J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass.
6th Series, xi. (1936-37), pp. 42-47.)
Anguillulina dipsaci (Kuhn) as a Cause of Parsnip “ Canker." C. h.
Walton. (J. Bath W. S. Co. A.ss. 6th Series, xi (1936-37),
pp. 111-114 -f- 2 plates.)
Experiments on the Control of Lichen on Apple Trees by Means of
Tar Oil Washes. J. E. Forshaw, H. G. Kearns and H. Martin.
(J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi (1936-37), pp. 114-119 •+•
I plate.)
The Control of the Insect Pests of Nur.sery Fruit Stock. H. G. H.
Kearns and E. Umpleby. (J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi
(1936-37). PP* 120-128.)
500
Notices of Books
Hetevodera schachtii. — The Effect of Nitrogenous Fertilizers on
Potatoes Affected with Potato Sickness. C. L. Walton, L, Ogilvie
and C. J. Hickman. (J. Bath W. S. Co. Ass. 6th Series, xi (1936-37).
pp. 1 29-134.)
The Incorporation of Direct with Protective Insecticides and Fungi-
cides, II. The Effects of Spray Supplements on the Retention
and Tenacity of Protective Deposits. E. Fajans and H. Martin.
(J. Pomol. 15, I (April, 1937). pp. 1-24.)
Bacteriosis of Cherry Trees : Relative Susceptibility of Varieties at
East Mailing. N. H. Grubb. (J. Pomol. 15, i (April, 1937)*
pp. 25-34.)
Bacteriosis of Stone Fruit Trees in Britain. VI. Field Observation,
on Bacteriosis of Sweet Cherry Trees. H. Wormald. (J. Pomol.
15, 1 (April, 1937), PP- 35-48 •+• 4 plates.)
Investigations on Egg-killmg Washes. II. The Ovicidal Properties
of Hydrocarbon Oils on Aphis Pomi de Geer. H. G. Kearns,
H. Martin and A. Wilkins. (J. Pomol. 15. i (April, 1937),
pp. 56-68.)
Recent Research on Wood ’Destroying Insects. R. C. Fisher. (J. R.
Soc. Arts, 85, 4400 (March, 1937), PP- 407-425.)
The Insects Associated with Bracken. A. A. Meikle. (Agnc. Progr.
14. 1 (1937). pp- 58-60.)
Soils and Weeds
Problems of Horticultural Soils. G. W. Robinson. (Sci. Hort. 5
(i937)» PP- 162-166.)
The Bracken Eradication Problem. K. W. Braid. (Agnc. Progr.
14. 1 {1937). pp- 29-39)
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Agricultural Survey of the Northern Province, the Counties of Durham,
Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmorland.. By J. A. Hanley,
A. L. Boyd and W. Williamson. Pp. 123. (Newcastle-upon-Tyne:
Department of Agriculture, Armstrong College. 1936.)
This is the second agricultural survey, dealing with a particular area
of this country, which has come to hand recently. The first was
Professor Stapledon's Survey of Wales. The present one deals with an
area which has, from the agricultural point of view, much in common
with Wales. The survey has examined the type of holding, livestock
population, the system of cropping, soils, water supplies, and meteoro-
logical data of Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland,
and has given careful consideration to the economic factors that affect
the farming of particular regions and its variation throughout the region.
The survey forms a useful basis for future work since it divides the whole
area into districts in which the farming system is fairly uniform, and
which may be expected, as the authors indicate, to form units for some
future and more intensive inquiry.
Among the conclusions reached by the authors as a result of the survey
may be noted the one that “ improved utilization of land with increased
output is possible in most districts . . . but the suitability of districts
for an increase in output by the use of intensive methods varies
considerably.*'
501
Notices of Books
An Outline of Gytological Technique for Plant Breeders. Foreword by
Sir A. Daniel Hall. Pp. 14. (Cambridge : Imperial Bureau of Plant
Genetics. 1937. Price 15. 6^?.)
A knowledge of cytology and some acquaintance with its technique
has now become essential to the plant breeder. This bulletin gives an
account of the standard methods used in plant cytology, based on practical
experience rather than a survey of the literature of the subject. The
introduction deals with the value of cytology in plant breeding, and is
followed by general remarks on technique and descriptions of the paraffin
method, including staining with iron alum-hiematoxylin and with gentian
violet, the aceto-carmine technique (a method particularly useful for
plant breeders) and smears with standard fixatives and stains. Hints
are given on the use of the microscope, and the bulletin concludes with a
list of fixatives, with formulae and a brief bibliography. While this
publication is primarily intended for plant breeders, it will be foun^
useful by all who desire an acquaintance with the standard methods
employed in plant cytology.
Le Soja dans le Monde. ( 2 'he Soya Bean all over the World). Pp. viii + 2S2.
(Rome : Institut International d 'Agriculture, Villa Umberto i.
1936. Price 10 lira.)
The origin of this work was a questionnaire which was sent out by the
International Institute of Agriculture to secure information on the cultiva-
tion and utilization of the Soya Bean in all the countries where it is
cultivated. The replies to this questionnaire have been condensed and
are now published in a readily comprehensible form. Perhaps the most
important part of the book, from a British point of view, is that 'which
deals with the cultivation of the bean. The conclusions which arc come
to are that, generally speaking, the Soya Bean demands the same sort
of soil as maize, but that it grows better than maize in less fertile soils it
they have been inoculated. As far as cultivation is concerned the soil
should be prepared in much the same way as it is for maize and the bean
responds to extra cultivations as does maize.
As with other legumes the Soya Bean can use atmospheric nitrogen
by means of the nodule bacteria of its roots, and for this reason inoculation
of the soil is recommended. The bean is usually sown in drills to allow
of after-cultivation, but the yields are not very high in any of the
countries where it is grown. For instance, in Manchuria, where it is
indigenous, the average yield per acre is 20 bushels, while in Japan, Korea,
and China the average yields respectively are 16, 10 and 15 bushels per
acre. However, on the experimental farms in South Africa 34 bushels
have been obtained, and in Canada 36, while in the United States of
America yields varying between 30 and 40 bushels have been obtained,
and in North Carolina a maximum of 50 bushels. If an acclimatized variety
can be discovered which will give yields of this order in this country , there
is undoubtedly a future for the crop in the farm economy of Britain, but
a perusal of this publication does not for the present hold out very much
hope in this direction.
German Agricultural Policy, 1918-1934. By J. B. Holt. Pp. x -f 240.
(Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press ; London : Oxford
University Press. 1936. Price 115.)
This book, based on the author's Ph.D. dissertation submitted to
the University of Heidelberg, treats of agricultural policy along lines
of thought probably more familiar in Germany than here. British writers
have usualty discussed agricultural policy in the light of what any given
policy has attempted, of its success in those attempts, and of what it
502
Notices of Books
might alternatively have aimed at. Dr. Holt's treatment, on the other
hand, might almost be described as etiological ; he is concerned primarily
with that succession of political environments which in Germany favoured
first the predominance of one form of agricultural policy and then another.
Each of these political environments is dissected down to its essentials —
the prevailing balance of voting power among the groups representing
the material interest of the urban working classes, the industrialists, the
large landowners and the small farmers. In the study of a country like
pre-National-Socialist Germany, where the rival interests were generally
of comparable strength, and Governments were based on coalitions of the
various interests, this method has a purpose worth serving.
From the point of view of the British reader, the book at many points
presupposes an acquaintance both with German politics and with German
agriculture that is not likely to be often combined in the same individual ;
but to any reader it will be useful in that it does, in general, adequately
describe and account for the increasing emphasis in German agricultural
policy of the motive of self-sufficiency. The political transition from Social
Democracy immediately after the war to National-Socialism in 1933,
seems to have been accompanied by a steady increase in the influence
commanded by agriculture as a claimant for special rights and privileges
within the general economy, and by a like increase in the influence of
those political groups that have been most concerned with safeguarding
Germany against a recurrence of the food shortage that contributed to
her defeat in 1918. As far as agriculture is concerned, the reader will
particularly notice that the trend of policy has been continuous— the
special place now occupied by agriculture in the Four Year Plan of self-
sufficiency represents no innovation, but is the culmination of some
fifteen years of special attention given to the increase of agricultural
output, without too much regard to the cost of living.
This .steady progression in the development of German agriculture did
not, however, prevent the emergence of a conflict of interest between
gram growers and animal feeders , and, as in other countries, this conflict
became acute when the decline of grain prices turned into a collapse
shortly before the general depression. For reasons which the author
adequately describes on the political side, the decision on this matter was
given in Germany in favour of the growers, and tariffs on grain were
raised pari passu with the descent of external prices. Although the author
brings his study down to 1934, has perhaps missed an opportunity in
not more fully describing how this and many other conflicts of agricultural
interest have now been resolved by the National-Socialist regime under
its system of generalized price and production control. Nor docs he in
any detail describe the post-1933 agricultural policy by reference to what
might be considered the vital factor of foreign exchange stringency.
The angle from which the latest phases of German agricultural policy
are approached is perhaps best indicated by the sub-title used — The
Yeoman Nobility of National-Socialism." Under this general heading
the author provides an account of the " Inherited Freehold Policy," and
of the National-Socialist policy regarding land settlement and agricultural
credit. The two last topics are not, however, discussed very fully, and
there is more of interest in the examination which is made of the Inherited
Freeholds and of their origins m the ideology associated with the words
" Blood and Soil."
The Profitable Culture of Vegetables. By T. Smith. Revised by W. E.
Shewell-Cooper, N.D.H., F.L.S., Dip.Hort. l?p. xiv -j- 334. Ulus.
(London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1937. Price ys, 6d.)
Issued first in 1911 this book has remained a favourite with vegetable
503
Notices of Books
growers for reference purposes. New impressions appeared in 1913,
1919 and 1932. The present impression has been prepared by the
Horticultural Lecturer at Swanley Horticultural College, who has brought
the information up to date. The chapters on intensive gardening,
mechanical cultivation, transplanting machines, overhead irrigation,
sterilization of the soil by baking, and the protection of crops by the use
of heaters contain very modern ideas on the subjects. Details for
individual vegetables arc given at some length so that the cultivation
for each one can be followed. There are numerous illustrations, many of
which appear for the first time in this edition. In its new form the book
should remain a standard work for the industry".
The Hill Country of Northern New England : Its Social and Economic
History, 1790-1930. By Harold Fisher Wilson. Pp. xiv -f 455.
Ulus. (New York: Columbia University Press ; London: Humphrey
Milford. 1936. Price 215.)
It is impossible to do any bettor in reviewing this work than to quote
extensively from the Editor’s foreword. The northern part of New
England was settled at a comparatively early date in the history of the
United States, and the land was reclaimed and broken up into small self-
sufficient farms. The district was isolated from markets by the lack of
good roads and by the difficulties of the climate, but it was possible for
the hardy settlers to grow enough food for themselves and their animals.
The few things that were exported in the summer made it possible for
them to buy the manufactured necessities that were essential to their
continued existence. With the exploration of the Middle West the young
people on the farms of Northern New England went West to find more
fertile farms and a better chance of life. This was very bad for Northern
New England in two ways. It took away the basis of its population and it
created a more severe competition for the exj)ortable commodities.
Soon after the end of the Civil War matters reached a climax. In spite
of the attempts that had been made to develop commercial agriculture
in the district, the difficulties proved too great to combat. There was a
widespread desertion of farms, and a pronounced decline m population
during the closing decades of last century. It looked as if the countryside
would be permanently deserted, but the first three decades of the twentieth
century proved this to be incorrect. By turning to dairying, fruit, potato,
poultry and garden produce the Northern New England farmer has
survived, and the development of modern conveniences has tended to
make his farming technically more efficient. In addition, the country-
side has become popular as a recreational district, with a resulting increase
in the farmers' income.
The story of Northern New England is, that it has been repeatedly
compelled to readjust itself to changing conditions, and the story of these
readjustments and the conditions which caused them as a whole are well
told in Dr. Wilson's book.
Agricultural Prices. By F. L. Thomsen, Ph.D. Pp. x -f- 471. (London :
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1936. Price 24s.)
In the course of his duties as Professor of Agricultural Economics at
the University of Missouri, Dr. Thomsen has come to realize the need
for a text-book on agricultural prices. During the past decade much
progress has been made in price analysis, with the result that a large
amount of information on the subject is scattered about in mimeographed
memoranda, scientific periodicals, bulletins, works of reference and other
publications. This volume represents an attempt to supply the need by
assembling the most usable of these materials in a form convenient for
504
Notices of Books
educational purposes. The author recognizes the difficulties of his task
and does not expect that, in the present state of knowledge, any book on
the subject can be entirely satisfactory. Relerence to local and con-
temporary conditions has been omitted except where these serve merely
to illustrate matters of principle, and wisely no attempt has been made
to evaluate current trends in commodity prices or to predict future events.
The book is designed for the classroom, but should also prove helpful to
farmers, business men, officials of co-operative organizations and others
who desire to familiarize themselves with the elements of this very
practical study.
Tuberculin- tested Milk : A Study of Reorganization for its Production.
By R. N. Dixey. Pp. iir. (Oxford: Agricultural Economics
Research Institute. 1937. Price 2s. Od )
The introduction of a Marketing Scheme for milk, together with a
substantial revision of the Milk (Special Designations) Order, 1936, has
given widespread publicity to the present standard of milk production,
and to the unique value of milk as a human food.
The production of tuberculin-tested milk, although still representing
a small percentage of the total output, is being attempted by an increasing
number of producers, and for this reason the publication of a record of
the experiences of pioneer producers is particularly opportune. It contains
a record of the reorganization undertaken on some 180 farms and of the
extra capital involved It was found that no fewer than 84 per cent, of
the cowsheds needed alteration or rebuilding, and new sheds, at an average
cost of nearly £20 a stall, were built on 9 per cent of the farms. The
average costs incurred in bringing the cowsheds to the required standard
amounted to £^ 165. per stall. Three farms out of every four needed
improved milk-room accommodation, and the average cost is calculated
at £j 4s. ^d. per cow\ Similarly, the extra equipment for washing and
sterilizing, and the supply of clippers, brushes, smocks, towels, covered
pails, etc., added a further cost of ;^2 1 15. per cow . I'he extra cost involved
through the replacement of reacting cow’s by cows in sound health is
discussed at length, and, subject to reservations, is given at £^ gs. gd, per
cow. The average cost of all these requisites m the production of this
grade of milk w^orks out at ;fi3 ia'. per cow\
These are merely the hard financial facts, but the wider knowdedge of
the author, together with his close contact with many of the producers
concerned, has enabled him to include much information of a valuable
nature drawn from the personal experiences of these producers.
Finally, an attempt is made to estimate the probable cost of establishing
a liquid milk supply on the basis of a tuberculin- tested milk standard.
It is appreciated that many problems are involved, and that it is a
(|uestion of general and national policy affecting not only the w^elfare of
dairy herds and milk producers, but also the general health of the nation.
National Income and Outlay. By Colin Clark, M.A. Pp. xix + 304.
(London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 193 7- Price 125. bd.)
In 1932 Mr. Clark published The National Income, 1924-1932. He has
now brought his former calculations up to date and considerably extended
their range, the result being a comprehensive treatise of unquestionable
importance to all who are interested in the quantitative study of economic
data. In addition to the estimate of the national income, wffiich is reached
by a combination of several independent methods, the book includes a
study of historical statistics on the subject (starting from Gregory King's
estimate of 1696), an analysis of the productive sources of income at
505
Notices of Books
different periods, a detailed treatment of changes in consumption, invest-
ment, prices, and costs during the trade cycle 1929-36, and a final chapter
embodying a general review of the rate of economic progress, past and
present.
It is impossible in a brief space to summarize all his conclusions, still
less to detail his methods. He finds that between 1929 and 1932, the net
national income fell by 12 per cent., but that it has since regained the
1929 level, the latest figures given (relating to the first six months of 1936)
being about 3 per cent, above the figure for 1929. The quantity of goods
and services produced per person in work has risen since 1929 by almost
12 per cent. Against this has to be set a loss of income from overseas
investment, but this is much more than balanced by the cheapening of
imported goods relatively to the exports exchanged for them, so that real
income (as opposed to output) per person in work has risen by as much
as 13* 2 per cent. This increase, however, is very much lessened when
account is taken of the rise in unemployment ; in fact, Mr. Clark’s figures
lead him to the conclusion that nearly the whole of the increase (of
15 to 20 per cent.) in productivity per person in work since 1913 has been
absorbed by increased unemployment. The relative fall in import prices
has nevertheless permitted a considerable rise in consumption, and “ during
recent years of low food prices it has been about true to say that an
unemployed man with a wife and two children drawing benefit has been
better off than an unskilled labourer in full work in 1913.”
The author’s estimates of the net output of agriculture will, of course,
be of particular interest to the readers of this Journal. The latest official
estimate of £i<^i * 7 millions relates to Great Britain and is an average for
the years 1924-25 to 1927-28 (not 1924-25 only, as Mr. Clark states).
His estimates for the United Kingdom for the calendar years 1924 to
1928 work out at an average of /119 millions. The difference is accounted
for partly by the fact that he deducts from the gross output the estimated
expenditure on machinery, tools, tackle hire, fencing and draining, and
other miscellaneous requirements, and also the estimated cost of land-
lord’s repairs to buildings and costs of management. His figure for 1908,
however, is millions for Great Britain and Ireland together, against
the official estimate of ;^io8-6 millions (net) for Great Britain alone and
of ;^45‘6 millions (gross) for Ireland. Mr. Clark gives yearly estimates
of the net output from 1924 to i933- figures for 1929 and following
years are as follows (in millions): /no; /137 ; /119; /no; /121.
Estimation of the net output of agriculture is notoriously a difficult
matter, owing to the lack of reliable information on many important
points. Mr. Clark's results, however, are extremely interesting and
suggestive.
By the use of previous estimates, the author calculates that the net
output per person occupied in agriculture, measured at 1913 prices, rose
from /48-3 in 1688 to / 74-3 in 1867 and /85-2 in 1908 Even in 1688,
at the prices then prevailing, agriculture contributed less than half the
national income. In 19H it contributed 8 per cent., in 1924 only 3*4 per
cent., the drop being partly due to the exclusion of the Irish Free State.
1934 its share had risen to 4 - 1 per cent. On page 76 Tables 29 and 30
are erroneously referred to as Tables 23 and 24.
Canning Practice and Control. By O. Jones, F.I.C., and T. W. Jones,
B.Sc. Pp. xii-254 and 74 Figs. (London : Chapman & Hall, Ltd.
1937- Price 25s.)
The need for a modern English text-book on canning has been felt for
some time, and from the title of this volume it might appear that the
need is now filled. Actually a more accurate description would be “ The
506
Notices of Books
Industrial Chemist in the Cannery.” At least i88 pages deal with Food
Laboratory Control. This section of the work bears the impress of know-
ledge and experience of the subject, while the chapters entitled
“ Preliminary Statistics,” “The Cannery and Preliminary Equipment”
and “ Canning,” suffer by comparison ; in these chapters there is a lack
of order, and some inaccurate statements occur.
On page ir m a section on “ Site Value ” is interpolated a paragraph on
the pros and cons of refrigeration. Similarly, advice about can washing
(page 31) is interpolated between a paragraph headed “ Can Sizes ” and
a table of can capacity. A section entitled “Food Preparation”
(pp. 13-24) deals with such diverse subjects as descriptions of machinery,
standards, quality factors and control tests. The section on “Canning
Operations ” is followed by one on “ Flooring,” which one would expect
to find near discussions on sites and buildings. These chapters require
rearrangement. References to can-making on pages 8 and 29 leave the
impression that most firms in this country manufacture their own cans,
whereas most canners purchase their cans from specialist manufacturers.
On page 23 there is a recommendation relating to the use of “ sodium or
potassium nitrite m hot pickle ” although nitrites may not be added to
food in this country. On page 41 certain'centres of the can temperatures
are referred to ; these seem to be high for centre can temperature, par-
ticularly in the case of fruits, although correct as processing temperatues.
On page 51 the occurrence of flat sours is incorrectly attributed, in one
sentence, to can leaks , w'hile a section on air conditioning for canneries
IS illustrated by photographs of a chewing-gum factory.
This is a useful manual for the young chemist who has had some
experience in canning ; for one w^ho has not, a study of the references
contained in the bibliography is an obvious necessity.
Corn and Corn Growing. By H. A. Wallace and E. N. Bressman. 4th
Edition. Pp. 436 and 117 Figs. (London. Chapman & Hall, Ltd.
1937. Price 13s. 6 d )
Moderate qualities of maize or Indian corn have been growm in this
country for fodder during the pa.st fifty years, but under quite different
conditions from those obtaining in the United States of America, w^here
the crop grown for grain holds a position of great economic importance.
This work deals with every aspect of the subject, and has been recognized
as an authoritative text-book since its first appearance in 1923. It is
now reissued in a revised and enlarged edition, embodying numerous
corrections and adjustments, especially in the sections on economics and
genetics. The statistical tables have been amplified and modernized, and
a useful chapter lias been added dealing w ith various commercial products
and by-products.
The Preservation of Our Scenery. By V. Cornish, D.Sc. Pp. xiii + 91,
and 12 Figs. (Cambridge University Press. i937- Price ys. bif.)
This volume of essays and addresses includes the proposals made by
the author on behalf of the councils for the Preservation of Rural England
and Wales to the Government Committee on National Parks, and addres.ses
to the British Association and other scientific bodies on measures for safe-
guarding scenic amenity in towm and count^>^ Dr. Cornish regards the
preservation of scenery as “essential to the national w^ell-being,” and
w^hile recognizing that industrialism is a permanent feature of our national
life, he makes a special plea for the preservation of the more notable
scenic regions, and in particular for the preservation of a belt of open
land along the 500 miles of cliffs for which our shores are so justly famed
The author’s pencil drawings are of considerable merit, although not all
of them have direct relevance to the title of the book.
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Notices of Books
Deutsche Siedlung Raumordnung und Siedlungswesen im Reich und
in den Kolonien (German Land-Settlement at Home and in the Colonies ) ,
By Dr. J. H. Schultze. Pp. viii 4 - 158. (Stuttgart : Ferdinand
Enke Verlag, 3 Hascnbergsteige. 1937. Price RM.6-20.)
In this work Professor Schultze discusses the necessity of settling
German nationals in the Reich and in some of the former German colonies.
He defines “ settling" as a redistribution of the population in such a
manner as to secure that they become attached to their new environment.
The suggested redistribution in Germany itself, he claims, should be
helpful to the peasantry ; it would relieve the pressure of population in
the large cities and lead to the decentralization of industry. The author
states that Germany requires 7*5 million hectares of land (some 18
million acres) for 500,000 small holdings and 0*75 million hectares (say
2 million acres) for 4J million homesteads. Settlement on such a scale —
even after the reclaiming of land on the coasts and cultivating moors
and other barren lands — is an impossibility within Germany itself, conse-
quently action must be amplified by development in German colonies
overseas, especially in Africa.
Conditions de Production, Organisation et Rteultats des Exploitations
Agricoles en Tch^coslovaquie. Edited by Dr. V, BrdHk. Pp. xxvii +
342, and I Map. (Prague: Institute of Accountancy and Rural
Economy. 1935. Price Cena Kc 100 )
This publication summarizes in statistical form the results of an official
inquiry into the conditions of agricultural production and organization
in Czechoslovakia from 1926 to 1930. The results are given in Czecho-
slovakian, French and German, and are followed by an appendix in each
of the three languages stating the principles on which the investigation
was conducted. A detailed map indicates the districts in w'hich the various
agricultural enterprises are carried on.
Parliamentary Land Enclosures in the County of Nottingham During
the 18th and 19th Centuries, 1743-1868. By W. E. Tate, F.R.Hist.S.
Pp. XXV 4-215 Maps. Thoroton Society : Record Series, Vol. V
(Nottingham : Thoroton Society, Bromley House, Angel Row. 1935.)
The compiler of this volume has spent a number of years studying the
progress of land enclosure in Nottinghamshire, and this volume contains
summaries of the available information as to the methods by which
application was made for enclosures and by which the physical facts of
enclosures were earned out. The w^hole is illustrated by maps and a
foreword by the general editor of the series, and a preface and introduction
by the author.
The information provided supplements very extensively, as far as
Nottingham is concerned, that contained in general works dealing with
enclosures in the country as a whole, and will provide, as Mr. Tate hopes,
a mine in which future scholars can delve to formulate their opinions on
the many points of controversy which still exist regarding the merits of
enclosure and the methods w'hich were adopted to carry it out. Both the
author and the general editor clearly hold emphatic opinions on these
subjects and not without justification in the light of the documentary
evidence presented. These opinions will be combated in some quarters,
but on the whole, perhaps the general trend of modern opinion amongst
economic historians is on their side. It is beginning to be believed that
far less legal inju.stice was involved in the parliamentary enclosures than
was formerly held, and that the marked advantages from a practical point
of view w'hich resulted far outweighed them, while any unfortunate
results w^hich may have accrued, affected only those who had no legal,
but may have had some permissive, rights in the village community.
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Notices of Books
Scientmc Horticulture. Vol. V. Ed. R. T. Pearl, B.Sc., A.R.C.S.,
D.I.C. Pp. xxxii 4“ 196, and 40 Figs. (Published by the Horti-
cultural Education Association. Obtainable from the Editor,
South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. i937- Price
35. 6 d.)
The horticulturist who desires to keep in touch with recent develop-
ments in research and practice will find much to interest him in the new
issue of this annual publication. The contributions cover a wide range of
subjects, including articles on commercial horticulture in Essex and
Middlesex, manurial experiments on vegetable crops in Lancashire, the
virus problem m relation to seed potato production in North Wales, aphis
migration and distribution in relation to seed production, fruit growing
in North Wales, recent American research in copper fungicides, root
suffocation of fruit trees, the keeping qualities of apples in relation to
their maturity when gathered, the pot-plant industry, timber for glass-
house construction, the problem of bud dormancy, the temperature
requirements of hyacinths, plant hormones and their possible importance
in horticulture, the uses of peat in horticulture, soils and lawns. Mr.
W. J. C. Lawrence, F.L.S., contributes an interesting account of “ Twenty-
five Years Research at the John Innes Horticultural Institution,’* of which
he IS Curator. The number concludes with progress reports of that
institution and of the St. Ives Research Station, and reviews of recent
books of horticultural interest.
Solon Robinson, Pioneer and Agriculturist. Selected Writings edited
by H. A. Kellar. Vol. I, 1825-45 I’p xxv -H 582, and ii Figs.
Vol II, 1846-51. Pp. xvii -f 556, and 13 Figs. (Indianapolis:
Indiana Historical Bureau, 140 N. Senate Avenue. 1936.)
The publication of historical sources in America is becoming popular,
and the variou.s series which have been started show promise of being
exceedingly valuable for future students of farming history in the United
States.
The story of farming there is so romantic that it has not seemed at
all similar to our own history, but even in a continent where pioneers
were gradually extending the frontier, there was a need for leadership.
The history' of the leaders is usually an indication of the history of the
communities in which they flourish, although the general members of
these communities usually follow their progress at a slower rate. Solon
Robinson was, in the truest sense of the word , a pioneer. He was descended
from the Pilgrim Fathers themselves, and he was born in 1803. His life
was as varied as that of most Americans who went West, but in another
sense it was stable with the stability of a farmer, although he had the
ingrained American habit of moving on. He tried many things, farming,
store-keeping and country newspaper work, and he wrote extensively about
agriculture. He travelled extensively throughout the parts of the States
inhabited by Europeans in his time, and he recorded his impressions in
the public press as well as in his personal letters. From 1852 to 1868 he
lived in New York, where he devoted himself to writing stories as well as
works on agriculture. In 1868 his poor health led him to resign his position
as agricultural editor of The New York Tribune and to retire to Jackson-
ville in Florida, where he continued his activities on behalf of improved
agriculture in his country. The collection of documents which is presented
by Mr. Herbert Anthony Kellar in these volumes covers the period from
1825 to 1851, and a perusal of them will show how wide were the interests
of the intelligent pioneer in the early half of the nineteenth century.
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Notices of Books
Vegetable Grope for Market. By A. H. Hoare. Foreword by Sir William
Lobjoit, O.B.E., J.P. Pp. 198 and 36 Figs. (London:
Crosby, Lockwood & Son., Ltd. 1937. Price ^s. 6d.)
The author commences by giving a survey of vegetable production and
points out that intensive production on market garden lines, once the
outstanding feature of the industry, has now largely given way to extensive
production by farmers, either on mixed farms or on very large holdings
almost entirely cultivated with machinery.
The principles of manuring are explained from the angle that in the
production of vegetable crops the use of a complete fertilizer, such as the
I — 2 — I analysis ratio, is nearly always justified, though some vanation
with particular soils and crops is stressed. Fertilizers, however, do not
contribute to the humus contents of the soil and all land devoted to
vegetable growing will sooner or later require applications of dung, or its
equivalent.
Tillage by modem motor implements is said to be efficient and brings
about a considerable reduction in production costs. Good seed is regarded
as of supreme importance and a chapter is included on seeds and plant
breeding.
In the remaining chapters the various types of vegetables, salads and
herbs suitable for market, together with methods of production, are
described in detail. Finally, there is a chapter devoted to the production
of early and forced crops in glass frames and cloches. There are numerous
photographs — many of which are excellent. The book should be of real
value to horticultural students and should serve as a useful guide to
commercial growers.
Comment on Soigne son Jardin (How io Cultivate the Garden), By G.
Truffaut. 7th Edition. 478 and 217 Figs. (Versailles : Georges
Truffaut, 90 Avenue de Pans. 1937. J'rice 10 frs,)
The well-knowm nurseries of Georges Truffaut at Versailles have for
many years published a volume on gardening, which has no\v reached its
seventh edition. The book, which is copiously illustrated with photo-
graphs and sketches, deals very fully with the garden of the amateur.
The section on the vegetable garden contains a brief account of each
vegetable, and forms an excellent exposition of the subject. The chapter
on the fruit garden elaborates the method for training the wonderful
pyramids that are common in the private gardens of France. Flowers
are dealt with extensively, especially rose trees and fiow'ering shrubs.
Gardening under glass is mentioned, whilst finally the book gives a long
account of the enemies of plants. Those who read French and arc inter-
ested in gardening as earned out by our neighbours across the Channel
w’ill find this book extremely useful,
Jahresbericht fttr Agrikultur-Ghemie (Annual Report on Agricultural
Chemistry). 4th Series, Vol. XVI. Edited by Dr. F. Moch. Pp. 538.
(Berlin : Paul Parey, 28 Hedemannstrasse, S.W.ii. 1936. Price
Rm. 86.)
With the rapid growth of agricultural research in the years immediately
following the Great War, it became necessary, in order that the agricultural
research worker should be kept in touch wuth the results of other investi-
gators in the same field of inquiry, to begin the publication of journals
devoted entirely to short abstracts of research papers appearing in scientific-
agricultural periodicals in all parts of the w’orld. The agricultural
investigator does not need to be reminded of the useful role that these
journals play in his daily activities, since through their agency he is
510
Notices of Books
enabled to ascertain without difficulty the progress tliat has been made
in any branch of agricultural research in which he may be interested.
Although many of these journals of abstracts have made their appear-
ance since the Great War, there are one or two classic instances where the
original publications date back to the middle of the last century. Such
a case is the German journal under review, which deals with progress
in the domain of agricultural chemistry. The first number was published
by Dr. R. Hoffmann as long ago as 1858, and the present annual report
is the seventy-sixth of the series !
As an instance of the vast amount of work involved in the production
of these reports, it may be pointed out that although the present volume
is dated 1936, it actually deals with the results of research published in
1933- It IS scarcely an exaggeration to assert that every paper dealing
with original research in agricultural chemistry, and published during
that year in no matter what scientific journal in any part of the world,
is listed, with full references, in this volume. Adequate summaries of a
very large number of these papers are also given.
The report is divided into the following main sections : (i) crop pro-
duction ; (ii) animal production ; (iii) technical processes connected with
agriculture ; (iv) analytical methods and experimental technique. Each
section in its turn is divided into numerous sub-sections, and by this
means the entire field of agricultural-chemical progress during 1933 is
surveyed with the utmost thoroughness.
The subject treatment is necessarily concise and severe, and it is perhaps
desirable to point out that the work is by no means intended to provide
easy reading for the casual student of agriculture. It is on the shelves
of the research institute libraries that this and similar reports will find a
suitable resting place.
The Feeding of Crops and Stock : Part II, Soils and Fertilizers. 2nd
Edition. By Sir A. D. Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S. Pi\ x -f 122, 9 Figs,
and 5 Tables. (London : John Murray. 1937. Frice 3.9. 6 d.)
** It has been my endeavour,*’ says the author, to leave out all that
is unessential to the practical farmer and gardener or that requires a know-
ledge of chemistry to be intelligible. Little is said as to the origin of
soils, nothing about the sources and methods of manufacture of fertilizers
but the farmer and the gardener, who have to use soils and fertilizers,
wdll here find a reasoned basis for their practice, and the student at a farm
institute, and the young gardener who is preparing himself for the national
examinations in agriculture will find as much science as matters, though
possibly examiners with their fondness for irrelevant bookwork will
demand more.'*
No writer is more competent than he to achieve this aim, were it attain-
able, but we venture to think that with all his skill Sir Daniel Hall has
not quite solved the problem of making applied chemistry and physics
really intelligible to the farmer unversed in the very elements of these
sciences. One may sympathize heartily with his jibe at the examiner,
and commend his book most warmly to the farm institute students and
others whose reading can be supervised and interpreted by a teacher, but
what will the average ** practical farmer,** ignorant of chemistry and its
jargon,” make of statements such as (p. 19) ” Chemically, the finer clay
particles are complex substances in which silicates of alumina are combined
with bases ” ? Does the word ’* base ” convey any real meaning to his
mind ? Does he even understand what a ” wash-bottle ** (p. 65) is ?
After all, it is only a modicum of chemical knowledge, easily imparted in
simple language, that the farmer requires in order to obtain a broad
Notices of Books
understanding of the chemical phenomena with which so much of his
practice is concerned. One introductory chapter, or at most two, giving
a simple exposition of the chemical conception of the nature of matter,
and of chemical combination and interaction, would go far to ease the
task of the farmer reader.
This volume is part of the well-known complete work that hitherto has
been issued in one complete volume. It retains the basic features of the
original edition, but in details has been thoroughly revised and modernized.
Its science is practical and its practice teems with valuable information.
It ought to be on the desk of every farmer who is alive to his obligation
to make the most efficient use of his facilities, and in the hands of every
young farmer who is preparing to assume this obligation.
Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, yth Edition. By Sir E. John
Russell, D.Sc,, F.R.S. Pp. viii + 655, 65 Figs, and 108 Tables.
(London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1937. Price 215.)
This classic monograph was first issued in 1912, so that the present issue
ranks as a Silver Jubilee edition. Its steady expansion in size from a
modest volume of about 180 pages to its present rather awesome dimen-
sions reflects faithfully the remarkable expansion of activity in research
on soil and kindred problems during the quarter centurj' of its history.
A ** curtailed " bibliography of some 400 items and an author index of
some 1,400 names implement the picture of this expansion, and testify
to the monumental labours of compilation throughout the years that have
brought the work to its present form. Its rank as a classic has long
received world-wide recognition, and the issue of a new edition must
always rank as an event of major importance in the progress of soil science.
Despite this ever-increasing mass of material to be digested and
absorbed, the original purpose of providing a book to be read rather
than probed for information has been preserved to a degree that is rare
in scientific words of reference. This must ha\'e been greatly facilitated
by the innumerable personal contacts that the author has established with
research workers in all parts of the world, which impart a sa\'our of first-
hand knowledge to his reviews of their work.
This new edition is no mere reprint of previous editions with supple-
mentary matter, but incorporates changes so considerable that much of
the book has had to be rewritten. Were there degrees of indispensability
it might well be described as even more indispensable than ever to the
research worker, the teacher and the aspiring student.
The British Goat Society’s Yearbook for 1937. Pp. 188 and 60 Figs.
(Compiled and issued by the Secretary, H. E. Jeffery, Roy don Road,
Diss, Norfolk. Price 15. 6ef.)
Nearly 60 years have elapsed since the British Goat Society entered
upon its mission of educating the public and popularizing the goat, and
during the past 17 years it has been ably assisted in its difficult task by
this annual publication. The present issue opens with an interesting
account of the early days of the Society, whose founder, Mr. H. S. Holmes
Pegler, still serves in the capacity of Honorary Treasurer. Practically
every aspect of the subject receives attention, and excellent illustrations,
statistical tables, hints on butter and cheese-making, and other data
combine to make this a useful publication for all who are concerned with
goats.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationeky Office,
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 6 September, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Progress in the Transport and Storage of Foodstuffs
The work of the Food Investigation Board of the Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research, whose Annual Report*
for 1936 has just been published, is carried out in the interests
of the general body of consumers in this country, and is directed
to reducing waste and improving the variety and quality of
foodstuffs generally available, by the application of scientific
knowledge to the problems of transport and storage.
Possibility of Increase of Home Production of Pears. One
of the most important achievements of the work of the Depart-
ment on the storage of fruit has been the development of gas-
storage. In this method the atmosphere of the store is altered
to contain more carbon dioxide, the gas breathed out by the
fruit and by human beings alike, and less oxygen, the correct
proportions for any variety of fruit being carefully determined
by experiment. The latest work on the gas-storage of pears
seems to indicate that there is scope for a considerable increase
in the home production of pears, for which technical informa-
tion, both as regards production and storage, is now available.
" It appears,” the Board state, ” from the results of the investi-
gations carried out at the Ditton Laboratory during the past
few years with the Conference and Williams’ Bon Chretien
varieties, that the pear responds even more favourably than
the apple to gas-storage. These two varieties, at least, can be
gas-stored most successfully for several months. After removal
from gas-storage, the fruit ripens more slowly, and therefore
allows more time for marketing, than fruit that has not been
stored in this way. The production of pears in the United
Kingdom has been regarded by growers as a specialized and
limited activity; and some years ago, when inquiries were
made as to the desirability of investigating methods for storing
pears for long periods, it was found that the climatic conditions
• Report of the Food Investigation Board for the Year 1936. Published
by H.M. Stationery Office, 3s. 6 d. net.
A
513
Notes for the Month
were unsuitable, except in certain localities. To-day, as a
result of recent progress in horticultural research, a more hope-
ful view can, it is believed, be entertained of the cultural side
of the industry. The annual value of the pears eaten in the
United Kingdom is approximately £2,000,000, and the position
as regards production and consumption may be brie% sum-
marized as follows : In 1934 — a good year from the growers’
point of view — home production was 413,000 cwt., equivalent to
29 per cent, of the consumption. In 1935 — a poor year —
the quantity grown was 191,000 cwt., or approximately 13
per cent, of the consumption.”
Storage of Plums. The problem of successfully storing
Victoria plums for a short period is also one of considerable
importance to the grower and distributor. A comprehensive
series of experiments, commenced in the past season, has
shown that, at 32°-34'’ F., a life of 3-4 weeks may be expected.
Higher temperatures accelerate an abnormal softening of the
fruit, and are only suitable for storage for a few days. Close
attention must be paid to the degree of ripeness at picking if
good quality is to be attained during ripening after storage.
If the fruit is picked too green and hard, the flesh becomes soft
and jellied at an early stage, especially at 40® F., and though a
temperature of 32° -34® F. holds the change in check to some
extent, really good quality cannot be attained. Fruit that
was sufficiently mature when picked ripens well after cold
storage at any temperature from 50° F. upwards; if the fruit
was immature when picked, a great improvement in colour,
and some improvement in quality, can be secured by ripening
it at 70° F.
Relationship between Production and Storage Research.
The Board comments on the relationship between the problems
of production and those of transport and storage, and other
post-production processes. “ It is obvious,” the Report states,
” that where the agricultural product is to be stored or to
receive other special treatment, production and research on
production must have that end in view. For instance, the
storage of fruit and eggs and the manufacture of bacon from
pork clearly introduce new considerations into production that
may have an important effect on the course which production
takes. Producers, therefore, and those responsible for
research on production require a specification towards which
to work, and the preparation of that specification becomes
514
Notes for the Month
our task. We do not suggest that research has gone far enough
to make such specifications yet possible to any great extent.
Nevertheless, it is already possible in some measure to specify,
in scientific terms, what is required of the producer in an apple
for storage, in a fish for smoking and in a pig for the manu-
facture of bacon; and as research progresses and the body
of scientific knowledge grows, we may confidently anticipate
that the specifications will steadily increase in scope and
accuracy. Moreover, it is also our task to examine the product
in terms of the specification, so that the producer and his
scientific advisers may learn, from time to time, how far his
efforts to improve production are meeting with success.”
Bacon and Hams. ‘‘It is clear,” the Report continues,
‘‘ that constant and intimate co-operation between, on the one
hand, the Agricultural Research Council and the Departments
of Agriculture, who are concerned with production, and our-
selves, on the other hand, is essential to progress over a large
part of the range of home agricultural products.” In this
respect nothing is lacking to ensure success. There is, perhaps,
no better example than that afforded by bacon. In collabora-
tion with the research institutions represented on the Pig
Husbandry Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, experiments are being carried out on the effect of the
breed, growth and feeding of the pig on the quality of the
carcass. In addition, investigations on a large scale are being
carried out for the Bacon Development Board, on the effect of
transport of the pig on the weight of the carcass, and for the
Pigs Marketing Board of Northern Ireland, on the differences
between the carcasses of pigs killed on the farm and in the
factory; both Boards are making substantial payments towards
the cost of the work. In the course of the year a total of over
800 carcasses has been examined ; this has been no light task
for the small staff concerned, and is in itself testimony of close
collaboration and good organization.
Eggs and Poultry. Among its other work on the storage
of eggs, the quality of eggs stored at 0° C. in atmospheres con-
taining different concentrations of carbon dioxide is being
investigated by candling, by tests for palatability, and by the
usual chemical and physical tests for the white and yolk. The
results so far confirm that an atmosphere containing 2J per
cent, of carbon dioxide improves the quality of the egg, notably
of the yolk. Atmospheres containing high concentrations of
A 2 515
Notes for the Month
carbon dioxide, in the range 60-100 per cent. , affect the quality
of eggs uniformly, the yolks being firmer and die whites
markedly more liquid than in eggs stored in air. Eggs have
been stored in saturated atmospheres within this range for
eight months without spoilage by mould or bacteria.
It has been known for some years that eggs retain their
fertility longest if they are stored at a temperature of 10° to
12° C. Experiments during the past year have indicated that,
at 10° C. , the period of fertility can be still further prolonged if
the atmosphere contains 2^-5 per cent, of carbon dioxide.
The Report records an interesting small trial on the
storage of frozen poultry packed in aluminium foil covered
on both sides with waxed paper. Some Sussex cockerels were
stored for five months at —lo" C. in this way. The birds were
thawed down, cooked and eaten by several people, who without
exception found them excellent in every way, and indistinguish-
able from fresh chickens.
Vegetables. An investigation of the conditions in clamps
of potatoes has revealed considerable variation in temperature,
sugar-content and sprouting, both between different points in
a single clamp and between clamps of different construction.
The evidence suggests that improved construction of the clamps
may result in better storage of potatoes intended for the manu-
facture of crisps, and possibly also in improved quality in
potatoes held for general domestic use.
Trials of the storage of broccoli have been made with two
varieties. A temperature of 32° F. proved best, since higher
temperatures reduced the life of the vegetable by accelerating
the growth of moulds and yellowing of the leaves. A high
humidity is necessary to prevent excessive wilting of the leaves,
which would be detrimental to the appearance of broccoli in
marketing. At 32° F. and with air of approximately 96 per
cent, relative humidity freely circulating in the store, the
broccoli kept for three weeks, with three to four days subse-
quentiy available for marketing before deterioration set in.
Land Fertility Committee
In accordance with Section 2 of the Agriculture Act, 1937,
which received the Royal Assent on July 30, 1937, the Minister
of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Secretary of State for Scotland
and tlie Secretary of State for Home Affairs have approved the
Notes for the Month
appointment of the following to be the Land Fertility Com-
mittee for the United Kingdom: —
Lord Cranworth, M.C. (Chairman).
Sir William Young, K.B.E., C.B.
Sir John Milne Home, Kt., D.L., J.P.
Mr. D. W. Coates, C.B.E., M.A., LL.B., F.C.A.
Mr. John Pike, O.B.E.
The Secretary of the Committee is Mr. Wynn Thomas, O.B.E.
The Committee will exercise such functions as may be
assigned to it under the Land Fertility Scheme to be prepared
by the Ministers with the approval of the Treasury, witih the
object of assisting farmers to increase the fertility of their land
by applying to it lime and basic slag.
Details of the Scheme and the date on which it will come
into operation will be announced as soon as possible.
Tar Marking of Sheep
It appears that some farmers still continue the undesirable
practice of tar-marking their sheep, and in view of the harm
done to the fleece, the Ministry of Agriculture has again issued
a warning against the method. Where tar has been used,
great difficulties are caused to the wool manufacturer in hand-
ling the fleece; and there is no necessity to use tar, because
equally satisfactory and durable marking materials are
available.
Two new marking materials have been produced as a result
of experimental work carried out by the Wool Industries Re-
search Association, and their efficiency from the farmer’s
standpoint has been fully proved by tests both at home and
abroad. The two preparations differ, but that recommended
for use in this country is composed as follows : —
Parts hy Weight
Wool fat
« .
150
Carnauba wax
. .
. 10
Barytes
70
Colour . .
White spirit to consistency.
. .
17-5
If this material is used, no difficulty is experienced by the
manufacturer when he comes to deal with the fleece, and it is,
therefore, very desirable that it should be substituted for tar on
farms where that substance is still used.
517
Notes for the Month
Guaranteed fluid made to the formulae of the Research
Association can only be obtained from duly authorized agents,
and farmers who have been using tar, but desire now to im-
prove the quality of their wool output, should apply, for any
further information they want and for the names of supply
agents, to the Wool Industries Research Association, Torridon,
Headingley, Leeds.
A Dutch Method of Sand Dune Reclamation
The following note has been communicated by Mr. If.
Mortimer Batten: —
A phase of sand dune reclamation on the island of Shouwen,
Holland, is shown in the accompanying view, which illustrates
part of an area of some six square miles of sand, the reclaiming
of this being undertaken as an experiment by an enthusiast
whose real work was the poldering of marshes. The ‘ 'planting’ ’
is not marram grass, as used by the Forestry Commission at
Culbin, Morayshire, and elsewhere,* but dead reeds stuck into
the ground purely for stabilization. Meanwhile pine saplings
are reared from seed in a hedged nursery nearby, and raised by
the thousand. When these saplings have attained a height of
six inches, they are planted out between the rows of reeds. A
square kilometre is planted each year, and the loss of trees
is stated to be very small. Marram is not used at all, and this
work of reclamation is the best I have yet seen. Much patient
experiment was necessitated, and a good deal of disappoint-
ment experienced, ere the best methods of procedure were
arrived at, one secret being the planting of the trees almost
from the seed pan. It was found that two-year and older
saplings died, especially in the early spring.
♦ The Ministry understands that the work of the Forestry Commission
at Culbin, and at Pcmbrey, Carmarthenshire, aims at afforestation with
the assistance of marram grass, i.e., not merely the protection of plantations
but the reclamation of the land for the production of timber. In this
matter, much may depend on local conditions. For places not subject
to high winds and occasional squalls, dead reeds might suffice, or they
might be successful on small sheltered localities. On the other hand, if
buried by drifting sand, the dead reeds will cease to function, whereas
marram grass or similar growth, when buried, keeps alive and pushes its
way through the covering sand in course of time. The Forestry Commission
has found that pine seedlings, either one year or two years old, generally
prove the most suitable type for planting.
518
To face pag^ 51 *''
<Photof:ratrh copyright G K. Yeates
Notes for the Month
Interesting Birds : (7) The Wren
The wren, a tiny bird whose appearance and demeanour have
aptiy been described as “ perky," is a general favourite with
bird lovers. Its short, upturned tail and its habit of creeping
mouse-like among low hedges and undergrowth render its
identification an easy matter. It is also a very beneficial bird,
living mainly on insects in various stages and destroying large
numbers of garden pests. Its song is musical and clear, and of
a surprising volume for so small a bird.
The wren’s domed and cleverly constructed nest is found
in all sorts of odd comers, and, like the robin, this bird seems
to have a special aptitude for adapting its nest to the peculiari-
ties of any situation in which it chooses to build. Its eggs,
which may number from five to seven, or even more, are
white, lightly speckled with red. Unspotted eggs are, however,
not uncommon. Care should always be taken when examin-
ing a wren’s nest, as the bird is apt to desert it on very little
provocation. One of the most interesting characteristics of the
wren is its habit of constructing numbers of extra nests in a
single season. These spare nests are almost invariably unlined
and are sometimes known as " cock ’’ nests, it being believed
by some people that they are made by cock birds only. This,
however, is erroneous. There is evidence that both sexes join
in building them. There is also conclusive evidence that they
are used by the wrens as winter shelters.
Both farmer and gardener should welcome and protect the
wren, which is a likeable and useful bird.
A New Method for Harvesting Roots
This method, known as the Ultuna Method, comes from
Sweden and consists of first cutting off the tops, while the roots
are still in the ground, and then lifting the roots by means of
a " sledge,” pulled by horses. This method enables the crop
to be harvested more quickly and at less cost.
The implement used for cutting off the tops came originally
from Germany, and is, in reality, a large flat hoe, with a
length of heavy gauge wire bent into a semi-circle from each
side of the blade and secured to the handle by means of a
staple, with a piece of soft wire attached crosswise and fastened
to the foot of the handle, in the middle (Fig. i). The idea is
that this wire will catch the tops, when cut, so that they may
be cast to any desired spot, to facilitate handling. The work
of cutting is both lighter and easier if the hoe has a relatively
519
Notes for the Month
long handle and an angle of about 32" between handle and
blade.
For cutting, blocks of ten rows are taken at a time, 2 rows
being allotted to each man. The tops from each block are all
cast into the middle, i.e. , on to rows V. and VI. (Fig. 2), so that
these rows are cut first, then rows III and IV. and VII. and
VIII. , followed by rows I. and II. and IX. and X. It has not
been found practical, however, for one mam to cut more than
2 rows at a time.
A type of skeleton sledge, with shares attached on the inside
and drawn by two horses — on heavy soil — ^uproots the crop.
This “ Root Sledge,” as may be seen from Fig. 3, is of simple
design and solid construction and may be made for approxi-
mately £ 2 . It covers 2 rows of roots and is held firmly down
by the weight of the man, driving the horses, standing on top of
it (Fig 4). As the Root Sledge moves along, the roots are
dislodged by the shares and left behind in one line by the spring
steels. It is then a simple matter to throw them on to a cart.
The time taken in harvesting roots by different methods
has been worked out by Jordbrukstekniska Foreningen,
Ultuna, by whose courtesy these illustrations are reproduced,
and give an indication of the saving in time.
Time taken to harvest an acre of roots by various methods ;
Conditions : Variety of crop : Swedes,
Yield per acre : 30 tons,
Approx, length of rows : 200 yards,
Distance between rows : approx. 20 inches,
Carting : about ten loads of 10 cwt. each.
Labour : 4 men, 2 prs. horses.
Hand Methods :
Method A — clamping in the field :
Pulling, cutting off tops and clamping
Carting (8 • 2 loads per hour)
Actual Working
Time Hours
Men Horses
. . 40 --
. . 25 25
Total
• • 65
25
Method B — carting away at once :
Pulling and topping . .
Carting . .
•• 27-5
•• 33‘5
33*5
Total
.. 6i‘0
33*5
Ultuna Method :
Topping by hoe
Uprooting with Root Sledge
Carting (7 loads per hour)
.. 8-25
•• x -75
. . 29*00
3*5
29*00
Total
.. 39 ’Oo
32-50
520
Notes for the Month
521
Notes for the Month
FLAT IRON 4'x “He" FLAT IRON 2"x 14'
Fig. 3 — Plan and Section of Special Type of Root Sledge.
Method of using Koot Sledge
Notes for the Month
It will be noticed that the horse labour for all methods is
about the same, while the time saved in manual labour by the
Ultuna method is considerable — in one instance nearly half,
and in the second a matter of 22 hours per acre of roots
harvested.
This apparatus is successfully used in Sweden for lifting all
round t5T>es of roots, including " swedes,” round types of real
turnips and mangolds of the type that grow with the greater
part of their root above the ground. For lifting mangolds,
it is necessary to adjust the iron shares to cut deeper into the
soil. Mangold leaves, however, do not lend themselves so
readily to cutting by the method described, owing to their
spreading habit, while their roots do not lift as cleanly as those
of turnips, owing to their numerous side rootlets.
The method appears to work equally well on both light
and heavy soils. Quickness is its chief commendation, any
time saved at such a busy season of the year being precious,
quite apart from the saving in production costs.
Midland College Poultry Conference, 1937
The fourteenth Annual Poultry Conference will be held at
the Midland Agricultural College, Sutton Bonington, Lough-
borough, on Tuesday, September 21, 1937, under the presi-
dency of Mr. E. Hugh Hudson, Chairman of the Southern
Counties Poultry Society. After the formal opening at 10.45
a.m., the morning session will be occupied with Mr. G. Macrea
Robertson’s paper on ” Intensive Turkey Production,” on
which the discussion will be opened by Mr. R. B. Shaw; and
Mr. I. W. Rhys’ review of ” Notable Commercial Poultry
Farming Enterprises,” illustrated by lantern slides.
The afternoon session will commence at 2 o’clock with the
presentation of the College Challenge Cup to the winner of
the Inter-County Laying Trials, and of awards to winners of
the Notts. Laying Trials. Mr. J. Wyllie will read a paper on
” The Economic Outlook for Poultry Farming,” the discus-
sion to be opened by Mr. J. R. Bond; and Mr. W. M. Golden
will deal with ” Methods of Feeding,” the discussion to be
opened by Mr. A. J. Macdonald, Deputy Director of the
National Poultry Institute. The papers will be brief, to allow
ample time for discussion. Tea at 4.30 p.m. will be followed
by an inspection of the College poultry plant and departments.
Intending visitors may obtain full particulars of the Confer-
523
Notes for the Month
ence, including charges for board, lodging and refrediments,
from the Principal of the College, which is 8 minutes' walk
from Kegworth (L.M.S.) railway station.
Agricultural Research Scholarships and Studentships
On the recommendation of the Agricultural Research
Council, the Ministry has awarded the following post-graduate
scholarships and studentships tenable from October i : —
Agricultural Research Scholarships :
Three-year Scholarships :
P. J. Faulks . . . . . . Plant Physiology.
F. H, Malpress . . . . . . Nutritional Chemistry.
J. Wilson . . . . . . . . Plant Genetics.
Two-year Scholarship :
R. S. Russell . . . . . . Plant Physiology.
One-year Scholarship :
G. H. L. Dicker . . . . . . Entomology.
Studentships for Research in Animal Health ;
Three-year Studentships :
F. D. Asplin . . . . . . Poultry Diseases.
Miss K. M. Massey . . . . Poultry Diseases.
These awards are made with the object of training research
workers, and thus advancing agricultural science and scientific
studies bearing on animal health.
524
GOVERNMENT AGRICULTURAL POLICY
On May 27, the Minister of Agriculture made a statement in
the House of Commons outlining certain Government
proposals for agriculture. These proposals were embodied
in tlie Agriculture Act, 1937, which received the Royal
Assent on July 30, and the nature of which may
best be gathered from the full title of the Act, namely: —
“ An Act to assist farmers to increase the fertility of their land;
to provide for securing farmers against any substantial fall
in the price of oats and barley, and to raise the limit of the
quantity of wheat in respect of which deficiency payments
under &e Wheat Act, 1932, may be made at the full rate; to
make further grants for land drainage; to promote the eradica-
tion of diseases of animals and poultry, and with that object
to establish a national service of veterinary inspectors; and for
purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.”
Two further important statements regarding agricultural
policy have since been made. These concern milk, pigs and
bacon, and are reproduced below :
Milk
1. The Government have carefully considered the position
of the dairying industry from the points of view both of pro-
ducers and of others engaged in the industry and of consumers.
They have had before them the Report of the Reorganization
Commission for Milk, other authoritative Reports bearing on
the industry and also the views of representative organizations,
all of which have been of the greatest assistance. They have
also taken into consideration the recent outcome of the appli-
cation made, on behalf of milk producers, to the Import Duties
Advisory Committee, for increased duties on butter and
cheese.*
2. The Government desire to see the dairying industry of
this country self-supporting and profitable and their policy
for this industry, as for other branches of agriculture, is to
ensure the maximum supplies for the consumer at fair prices
* An announcement on this subject was made by the Financial Secretary
to the Treasury in reply to a Parliamentary question on July 28, 1937.
525
Agricultural Policy
consistent with reasonable remuneration for the producer. They
believe that the only sure foundation for the prosperity of the
industry is an increased consumption of liquid milk. An
essential step towards this objective is to establish public con-
fidence in the cleanliness and purity of the milk supply and
thereby to quicken demand for what is one of the most valuable
of human foods. It is with this object in view, and in order
to bring to full achievement the efforts that dairy farmers
have themselves been making to improve the quality of their
product, that they propose to invite Parliament to provide
additional Exchequer assistance on the lines set out below.
3. The Government also propose to continue and extend
their policy of promoting the increased consumption of milk
among those sections of the population for whom it is of
particular value.
4. With the approval of Parliament, the dairy farmers of
Great Britain a few years ago set up Milk Marketing Boards
under the Agricultural Marketing Acts. In this way, they
were able to cope with a price situation that had been steadily
growing unstable and to avert a collapse which would have
spread disaster through the countryside.
5. The industry, thus enabled by Parliament to attack its
internal problems, was further assisted by a temporary Act
called the Milk Act, 1934, the main provisions of which expired
in 1936, which had a three-fold object : (i) to supplement the
low receipts of the Milk Marketing Boards from the sale of
milk for manufacture, (ii) to increase the consumption of liquid
milk and (iii) to promote a purer milk supply. The first was
of an emergency nature; the second and third indicated the
lines of future policy. This measure has been extended once,
and by the Milk (Amendment) Bill of this Session it is proposed
to extend the main provisions for a further period until
September 30, 1938.
6. It is still desirable to safeguard the industry against
emergency conditions, but circumstances have altered to an
extent that now enables the Government to lay relatively
greater emphasis on measures designed to promote the in-
creased consumption of liquid milk and the provision of
a purer milk supply.
7. Under the Milk Act, 1934, the receipts of the Milk Market-
ing Boards from manufacturing milk were supplemented by
a system of repayable Exchequer advances based on standard
526
Agricultural Policy
prices per gallon of milk used for manufacture. The Govern-
ment now propose to safeguard the industry against the effect
of any serious fall in the prices of butter and cheese below
current levels, by means of a price-insurance plan under which
Exchequer assistance will be payable, on a prescribed scale,
to the Boards in respect of standard gallonages of milk used
in factories for butter and cheese, and milk made into cheese
on farms, in the event of the average prices of imported butter
and cheese falling, over a period, below loos. and 56s. per
cwt. respectively. The present average prices of imported
butter and cheese are of the order of 115s. and 72s. per cwt.
respectively. The corresponding prices in February, 1934,
when the Milk Act proposals were announced, were 71s. (>d.
and 47s. (id. per cwt. respectively.
8. The advances to the Milk Marketing Boards of Great
Britain under the Milk Act, 1934, and subsequent legislation,
involve the Boards in a contingent liability during a period
ending September 30, 1940, to repay to the Exchequer an
amount estimated at over ;^3 ,400,000. This liability only arises
if cheese or butter prices rise to a certain level, and it is antici-
pated that the repayments which will have accrued by
October i, 1937, will amount to approximately £150,000. It
is proposed to release the Milk Boards from any balance of this
liability accruing after September 30, 1937.
q. In order to give the necessary momentum to the produc-
tion of quality milks in Great Britain, the Government propose
that Exchequer contributions should be made at diminishing
rates, for a period of five years, towards the additional costs
incurred in the production of milk of the Accredited standard,
milk of the Tuberculin Tested standard and milk from Attested
Herds. This assistance will be partly in the form of quality
premiums additional to those now receivable by producers,
but they will also be, in part, in relief of the contribution
towards quality premiums which all producers in England and
Wales make to-day under the Milk Marketing Scheme. It is
proposed that the rates of the Exchequer contributions will be
fixed for five years in the case of the Accredited and Tuber-
culin Tested schemes but that in the case of the Attested Herds
scheme the rates should only be fixed for three years and that
milk from attested herds shall be assisted in the fourth and
fifth years at rates to be determined following a review of the
position during the third year.
527
Agricultural Policy
10. The premium on Accredited milk sold by wholesale now
payable from the pool funds of the Milk Marketing Board in
England and Wales is at the rate of xd. a gallon, the whole cost
of which is borne by the pool; it is proposed that, for the five-
year period beginning on October i, 1938, this should be
increased to ijrf. a gallon, of which the Exchequer contribution
would be %d. for each of the first two years, \d. for each of the
third and fourth years and \d. for the fifth year, the balance
each year to be borne by the pool. The proposed rate of
premium of x\d. per gallon should encourage a large and
increasing number of producers to take up the production of
milk of this standard.
11. As provided in the amendments of the English Milk
Marketing Scheme which Parliament has recently approved,
the Milk Marketing Board will pay a special quality premium
on sales of Tuberculin Tested milk sold by wholesale, which will
no longer be exempt from the Scheme. For the first two years
of the five-year plan under these proposals, the premium will
be at the rate of I^i. a gallon, towards which the Government
propose that the Exchequer should contribute \d. For each of
the third, fourth and fifth years, it is proposed that the
Exchequer shall contribute \d. a gallon and that the premium
shall not be less than %d. a gallon.
12. Under the Agriculture Bill of this Session, financial
assistance is provided to encourage the eradication of bovine
tuberculosis by means of the Attested Herd Scheme. This
assistance includes an Exchequer payment of xd. a gallon on
milk from Attested Herds, the Milk Boards being under a
contingent obligation to assume this liability in due course. In
order to accelerate the flow of pure milk under that Scheme, it
is proposed for each of the first two years that the premium on
sales by wholesale should be increased to 2d. a gallon, of which
the Exchequer would contribute x\d. and the pool would be
required to contribute \d. as soon as these proposals came into
force. For the third year, it is proposed that the premium that
the Boards shall be required to pay shall not be less than x%d.
a gallon, towards which the Exchequer will contribute x\d. a
gallon. As stated above the rates of assistance for the fourth
and fifth years will be determined later. In view of these new
liabilities, it is proposed to release the Boards from the con-
tingent obligation mentioned above.
13. The following Table shows the rates of premium which
528
Agricultural Policy
the Boards will be required to pay in respect of the various
categories of quality milks and the Exchequer contributions
thereto: —
Accredited Milk
Milk from Attested
Pool
Exchequer
contri-
Pool
Excheque
contri-
Pool
Exchequer
contri-
Premium
bution
Premium
bution
Premium
bution
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
1st year
li
i
I
i
2
li
2nd year
1
I
i
2
li
3rd year
i
i
i
n
4th year
i
i
i
5th year
li
i
f
i
—
—
In view of the difficulty of estimating at this stage the effect
of these proposals upon the development of the Attested Herds
Scheme during tlie first three years, it is not proposed to fix the
respective amounts of Pool Premiums and Exchequer Contri-
butions for more than the period shown. Exchequer assistance
will be given for the fourth and fifth years also ; it is contem-
plated, however, that it will be on a diminishing scale, and as
the amount can only be determined when the development of
the scheme is known, it is proposed to leave this question to be
reviewed during the third year in the light of the circumstances
of the industry and the working of the scheme.
The producer of Tuberculin Tested milk will thus earn
premiums amounting to i\d. (accredited premium) plus id.
(T.T. premium) equals 2 \d. per gallon in the first two years
and i\d. plus |ci. equals 2d. in the remaining three years,
towards which the Exchequer will contribute : —
d.
Tst year . . . . . . . . . . . . i J
2ncl year . . . . . . . . . . . . i J
3rd year . . . . . . . . . . . . i
4th year . . . . . . . . . . . . |
5th year . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Similarly, the producer of Accredited Milk with an Attested
Herd will earn premiums amounting in the first two years to
3jd. per gallon, and in the third year to 3d. per gallon, towards
which the Exchequer will contribute : —
d.
1st year . . . . . . . ■ • • ■ • 2 J
2nd year . . . . . . . • • • • • 2I
3rd year . . . . • . • • • • • • i i
14. The position of producer-retailers in England and Wales
has been improved by the recent amendments to the Milk
529
Agricultural Policy
Marketing Scheme which have had the effect of placing their
contributions on a new basis. In view of this, some modifica-
tion of these proposals will be proposed in their case.
15. It is proposed to make corresponding provisions in rela-
tion to the production of quality milks in Scotland, but certain
adjustments may be necessary to meet the special Scottish
conditions.
16. The Committee on Animal Diseases of the Economic
Advisory Council recommended that the introduction of some
measure of compulsory pasteurization should no longer be
deferred and the Government propose that, subject to certain
conditions, any Local Authority shall be enabled to apply to the
Minister of Health, or the Secretary of State for Scotland, for an
Order making compulsory the efficient pasteurization of milk
sold by retail in its area. These conditions are that no such
Order shall come into operation within two years after it is made,
that milk from tuberculin-tested herds and Sterilized Milk shall
be exempt from its scope and that milk retailed from dairies
where the milk is derived from a single herd shall be exempt for
three years from the date of operation of the Order.
17. The Reorganization Commission for Milk, and other
bodies that have examined the problem of milk distribution in
recent years, have expressed the view that the present methods
of distributing milk are in many respects capable of improve-
ment. This appears to be generally accepted by those who
speak on behalf of the distributive trade. Accordingly, the
Government propose, in the legislation that will be necessary to
carry out the present proposals, to include provisions to facili-
tate the improved organization of the distributive service.
18. It is proposed also to adopt the machinery of service
schemes on the lines of those for which provision is made in the
Livestock Industry Act of the present Session of Parliament, so
as to enable the various sections of the industry to finance
co-operatively services of common interest.
19. The Government propose that a permanent Milk Com-
mission should be set up to keep under review the production,
marketing and consumption of milk (including the effect of
prices on demand) and to be of general assistance to the
industry and to the Ministers concerned. The primary duties of
the Commission will be concerned with the improvement of
milk distribution and with conciliation and arbitration between
the Milk Marketing Boards and the milk buyers in business
530
Agricultural Policy
matters. Apart from this, it is not proposed to disturb the
existing arrangements for the negotiation of contract terms and
prices or the public safeguards provided, under statute, by the
Consumers' Committees and the Committees of Investigation.
The Government propose, however, to take steps to enable the
views of consumers to be made available to the Milk Marketing
Boards at an early stage in the contract negotiations.
The Commission will be required to present an annual report
for submission to Parliament.
20. The Government regard the continuance of the scheme
for the provision of cheap milk for school children as an essen-
tial feature of their proposals and they are confident that in this
matter the co-operation of the industry will, as at present, be
forthcoming. This scheme has now proved its merits, and has
resulted in a large increase in the consumption of milk in
schools. In making arrangements for its continuance, the
Government will consider the need for minor modifications to
meet difficulties which have arisen in its administraton.
21. The Government attach not less imp>ortance to an
increased consumption of milk by expectant and nursing
mothers, and children under school age, and they will bring
forward proposals for securing, in co-operation with the
industry, a reduction in the price of liquid milk to local authori-
ties for the purpose of their maternity and child welfare
arrangements. Local authorities will thus be in a position to
extend their present schemes under which milk is made avail-
able either free or at a reduced price as circumstances may
require.
22. The Government commend the prop>osals as a whole as
a policy which will provide for the dairying industry a basis
for an increasing sale of milk in the liquid market, will
secure cheap milk for those classes of consumers to whom it
will be of particular value and will provide for consumers
generally a permanent improvement in the cleanliness and
purity of the milk supply. The proposals should lead to a
reduction in the cost of distribution and, as the eradication of
disease among dairy herds progresses, in the cost of produc-
tion; they should lead to the enhancement of technical effici-
ency; and they will be a notable step towards the ultimate
objective which must be to ensure that only clean and pure
milk is offered for sale for liquid consumption.
531
Agricultural Policy
Legislation to give effect to these proposals will be introduced
as early as practicable next Session.
23. The Ministers concerned have deferred consideration of
a scheme, submitted under the Agricultural Marketing Acts,
for regulating the marketing of milk products. Subject to
the wishes of the promoters in the light of these proposals, the
Ministers concerned will be prepared to give this scheme further
consideration.
24. The following statement shows the estimated cost of the
Exchequer contributions to the Quality Premiums in each of
the next five years : —
Year
Exchequer Contributions
to Quality Premiums
Oct.-Sept,
(excluding expenditure under
Part IV of the
1938-39 ••
Agriculture Bill)
£
. . 1,700,000
1939-40 ..
1,962,000
1940-41 . .
1,781,000
1941-42
1,^25,000*
1942-43 ..
. . 800,000*
♦ Docs not include assistance for Attested Herds for the 4th and 5th
years — see paragraph 13.
Pigs and Bacon
On July 29, the Minister made the following statement : —
“ The Government have given careful consideration to the
difficulties of the bacon industry, which appear to be attribut-
able, in part, to the increase of pig-feeding costs and, in
part, to the high costs of bacon manufacture in this country.
They believe that if the industry were founded on a small
number of efficient factories provided with adequate and
regular supplies of pigs of good quality and conformation,
sufficient economies could be secured in the cost of curing to
enable the industry to be maintained during periods of high
feeding costs.
The Government accordingly would be willing to propose
that some assistance should be accorded to the industry over
a sufficient period to enable the contract system for the supply
of bacon pigs to be re-established if they were assured that
the reorganization of the bacon factories would so proceed
as to hold promise of a reduction in curing costs which would
532
Agricultural Policy
enable both producers and curers to work at a profit. The
Government desire to give further consideration, in consulta-
tion with the industry, to the nature of the changes that would
be required and the form which they should take, with a
view to laying detailed proposals before Parliament as early
as possible.
Meanwhile the present arrangements for the regulation of
imports will continue in force.”
Since this announcement was made, the Minister has in-
formed the Chairmen of the Pigs and Bacon Marketing Boards
that he desires that the detailed plans for the reorganization
of the bacon factories should be prepared in the closest con-
sultation with the industry, and that his Department will
accordingly initiate discussions early in September.
533
REARING YOUNG PIGS — I
V. C. Fishwick,
Pig Husbandry Research Station,
South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
The foundation of a successful pig industry lies in the breed-
ing herds, for unless healthy piglings of the right type can
be reared economically, fattening must of necessity be a pre-
carious business. Results obtained in the early work of this
station, which were recorded in this Journal for December,
1931,^ indicated that whereas it was a more or less simple
matter to rear young pigs during the summer months on the
out-door system, comparatively inferior results were obtained
indoors. Piglings reared in the open suffered less from scour,
developed a better appetite, and made more rapid growth
than did those confined to styes. During the winter months
the mortality amongst indoor-reared piglings was apt to be
unduly high. Subsequent work has been concentrated upon
the study of the indoor system of management, and results
obtained during the past year indicate that a method has been
found that will reduce the incidence of some of the more serious
troubles encountered in rearing young pigs under that system.
Scour, or diarrhoea, is a constant trouble amongst piglings.
The term has been rather loosely used in recent years and
there are some who look upon it as a disease. The more
generally accepted use is here made of the term, c.g., as
describing a symptom that is characteristic of a number of
disorders. Every litter that has been reared at Wye has been
observed to scour at some time during the nursing period.
The cases may be divided for convenience into two classes ;
(i) Those that appear to be caused by minor digestive dis-
turbances and respond to simple treatment such as dosing
with lime water; these are subsequently referred to as “Simple
Scour ’’ ; (2) Those in which the disorder has been sympto-
matic of disease, enteritis and anaemia being the two diseases
that have been diagnosed.
It was observed in 1934 that certain litters of sucking pigs
were more subject to scour when receiving a supplementary
ration containing 12^ per cent, of foods having high protein
534
For references see p. 545.
'1 O f(Kt
Rearing Young Pigs — I
content, such as dried skim milk, fish meal and soya bean
meal, tiian when they received a mixture containing only
cereal meals and minerals. It therefore became desirable to
obtain information regarding the value of the protein-rich
foods as a constituent of the supplementary ration, and as a
preliminary step in the investigation of that subject it was
decided to study the growth of sucking pigs that received a
supplementary ration consisting of cereal meals and minerals
alone. Ration No. 4, Table I. (p. 537), was selected as a suitable
mixture of cereal meals and minerals, and since 1934 all the
sucking pigs have received that mixture. A comparatively
high standard of growth has been obtained when the other
factors in the feeding and management have been reasonably
good. The following are the figures from one group of 36
litters reared in the year 1935-36 : —
1
1
Weight at Weaning
1
Average
1
Number of
Average
Average
Pigs Weaned
per
per
1
per Litter
Litter
Pig
i
/6.
lb.
16 litters weaned, 1
Sept. 1935 — Mar. 1936 . . |
1 8*8
235
26*7
20 litters weaned,
t
1
April — Aug. 1936
10-3
1 291
28*2
Total 36 litters weaned,
I
Sept. i935-~Aiig. 1936
9-6
1 266-5
1
27*7
In the summer of 1935 it was observed that some piglings
would drink water from the time they were two weeks old,
and the idea of offering them water containing an antidote
to simple scour occurred to the writer. A preliminary trial
was made with barley water and it was found that piglings
would drink that mixture more readily than plain water. This
opened up another problem, which appeared to be more
important than the work on the protein content of the supple-
mentary ration, and the latter was therefore postponed for a
year.
Anaemia has been a constant source of trouble amongst
piglings reared indoors at this station, particularly during the
autumn and winter months. Numerous preventive measures
such as placing earth, ashes or a green turf in the pens had
been tried. Such measures appeared to be successful with
535
Rearing Young Pigs — I
some litters but failed with others because the piglings showed
no inclination to eat such materials regularly. Before the
summer of 1935, no simple preventive measure had been dis-
covered which could be relied upon to act consistently and was
suitable for use under ordinary farming conditions. The
knowledge that piglings would drink barley water from the
time they were two or three weeks old opened up a new line
of attack, as the addition of a soluble iron salt to barley water
produced a mixture that was a preventive of anaemia, as well
as of simple scour. This mixture is described as barley water-
iron and an experiment was carried out between September,
1935, and September, 1936, to ascertain its value.
Parrish's food was used as the source of iron because it is
appetising and much safer than the cheaper soluble iron salts.
The quantity used was i dram per pig per day.
Barley water is made from barley meal and boiling water.
The meal is mixed with water at the rate of i lb. per gallon.
The mixture is stirred vigorously and subsequently allowed
to stand and cool; by the time it is cool the solid portion has
settled, forming a sediment at the bottom of a cloudy liquid.
The latter is barley water and is decanted.
Barley water-iron is made by adding Parrish’s food to barley
water at the rate of i oz. of the former to each pint of the latter.
Barley water ferments readily and it is not advisable to make up
more than is required for use each day. At Wye the practice
is to mix the barley meal and boiling water overnight so that
it is ready for use the following morning.
Barley water-iron Experiment, 1935-36. The herd in
September, 1935, consisted of nine foundation sows and their
progeny. When saving gilts it had been the practice to select
two, four or six gilts from a litter, and as a result batches of
related sows farrowed down at intervals during the succeeding
year. The litters for this experiment were selected in pairs,
the two litters in each pair being as nearly similar as possible
in regard to (i) Date of farrowing, (2) Breeding, (3) Number of
pigs alive at three weeks old. Fourteen pairs were obtained
during the year and in nine of these the dams were litter
sisters. One litter from each pair was put into Group I and
the other into Group II. The feeding and management of the
two groups was similar in all respects except that the litters
in Group I received barley water-iron and those in Group II
received water in its place.
536
Rearing Yoxjng Pigs-
-I
TABLE
I
Rations
No. I
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
for
for
for
In-pig Sows
Nursing
Sucking Pigs
Sows
Barley Meal
. .
25
45
37i
35
Maize ,,
20
—
—
Flaked Maize , .
—
—
—
15
Weatings
45
40
40
50
Bran
5
5
5
—
Fish Meal
5
7i
5
—
Soya liean Meal
2i
2i
—
Spray-dried Separated Milk . .
10
—
I J lb. ground limestone and i lb. salt were added to each loo lb.
of mixed meal in all rations.
The sows had free range on grass during the gestation period
and received between 3 and 6 lb. per head per day of Ration
No. I. The quantity fed was determined by the amount of
grass available. A record was kept of service dates, and a
fortnight before sows were due to farrow they were brought up
to the buildings. During the last fortnight of the gestation
period they were kept in styes at night and allowed out to
graze during the day, their ration being changed to No. 2.
They farrowed indoors in pens that were divided into two com-
partments, a sleeping pen and a run. Both compartments had
concrete floors. The piglings, which were weaned at 8 weeks
old, were confined to these pens during the whole of the nursing
period. The sows were allowed to go out for exercise on to
grass land for about one hour a day after the piglings were a
week old. The sows received Ration No. i during the nursing
period. The quantity was restricted to 6 lb. per day for the
first three days after farrowing, and subsequently increased
gradually so that the maximum daily ration was reached by
the time the pigs were between two and three weeks old. The
maximum quantities fed were :
For sows nursing 9 or more pigs . . 12 lb. per day.
.. „ „ 6-8 pigs . . . . 10 „
„ ,, „ 5 or fewer pigs .. 8 „
The sows had a supply of drinking water at their disposal
during the day.
The Treatment of the Sucking Pigs in Group II. A creep
for the piglings was constructed across one corner of the
sleeping pen. After the piglings reached the age of two weeks
a low trough containing a fresh supply of barley water-iron
537
Rearing Young Pigs — I
was placed behind the creep each morning, the allowance being
I pint on each eight pigs. Any that had not been drunk when
the sows were fed in the afternoon was removed and thrown
away or given to older pigs. Some litters started to drink the
mixture when they were two weeks old, others not until they
were three or four weeks old, and two not until they were five
weeks old, but up to the date of writing, out of 89 litters to
which the mixture has been offered only six have failed to
drink it. As soon as it was noticed that the piglings cleared
up the barley water-iron, a little extra barley water was
given, in order to ensure that they obtained their full
allowance of iron; the quantity of barley water added was
regulated carefully so that all the mixture was cleared up each
day. It is difficult to give any guide regarding quantity
because some litters drink more than others and also piglings
drink more in hot weather than in cold. The quantities given
in Table II are the maxima that were used : —
TABLE II
Maximum Amounts of Barlky Water-iron and Barley
Water Used
Allowance of Maximum Amount of
Size of Litter Barley Water-iron Additional Barley
Water Used
4 piRs . . . . . . i pint 1 1 pints
6 1 „ H ••
8 I „ 3 .
10 ,, pints 3i „
12 „ ij 4I •>
Over 12 „ 2 „ 5i ..
The cost was about 15. per litter.
The piglings were shut in the sleeping pens at feeding time
from the age of three weeks in order to prevent them eating
any of their dam’s food. When they were three weeks old a
trough containing dry meal was placed beside that containing
the barley water-iron. Ration 4, Table I being used. This was
removed each evening in order to avoid encouraging rats, a
fresh supply being given each morning. The piglings were
observed to nose about in the dry meal but did not, as a rule,
eat a veiy large amount of it. Between the ages of 4 and 5 weeks
the piglings were offered a little of the same ration. No. 4,
which had been soaked. In the first instance this was done
in the afternoon, as it has been found that pigs have a sharper
appetite at that time than they have in the morning. When
they would eat the soaked food it was given to them twice a
.538
INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK
AV. PER PIG AV. PER PIG
Rearing Young Pigs — I
Fig 3. — I St Litter of Sow 5 (Group I) receiving barley water-iron, and Litter of
Sow 2 (Group II) — C ontrol.
I'lG. 4 — 2nd T.itters of same Sows, both of which received barley water-iron.
Barley water-iron Litters (Group I) —
(Control Litters (Group II)
5.3Q
INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK
AV. PER PIG AV. PER PIG
Rearing Young Pigs— I
WEEKS
Fig. 5. — ist I.itter.s of Sow 92 (Group I) receiving barley water-iron, and of
Sow 91 (Group I) — Control.
Fig. 6 — 2nd Litters of Sow 91 (Group I) receiving barley water-iron, and of
Sow 92 (Group I) — Control.
Barley water-iron Litters (Group I)
Control Litters
540
INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK INCREASE IN LB. PER WEEK
AV. PER PIG AV. PER PIG
Rearing Young Pigs — I
Fig, 8.— 2nd Litters of Sow 21 (Group I) receiving barley water-iron, and of
Sow 23 (Group II) — Control.
Barley water-iron Litters
Control Litters
541
Rearing Young Pigs — I
day and as soon as they were eating an appreciable quantity
of it the barley water-iron and the dry meal were discontinued.
Twelve out of the fourteen litters in Group I were eating soaked
meal within two days of the age of five weeks, but the other
two did not start until they were six weeks old. The quantity
of food was strictly rationed, the piglings only receiving the
quantity they would clear up readily, because it has been
observed that overfeeding is apt to cause digestive troubles.
The Treatment of the Sucking Pigs in Group II. This was
identical with that of those in Group I except that they received
plain water instead of barley water-iron.
Results. It was observed that during the autumn and
winter there was a smaller proportion of unthrifty pigs at wean-
ing in Group I than in Group II; Fig. i shows one of the
autumn litters from Group I and Fig. 2 the comparable litter
from Group II.
The piglings in Group I suffered less from scour than did
those in the comparable litters of Group II.
In eleven out of the fourteen pairs the litter in Group I started
to eat solid food at an earlier age and subsequently developed
a normal appetite quicker than the comparable litter of
Group II.
The litter averages of the fourteen pairs are summarized in
Table III.
TABLE 111
Summary of Litter Averages
Number of litters . .
Number of pigs at 3 weeks* :
Total
Average per litter
Mortality :
Before weaning (3-8 weeks)
After ,, (8-12 ,, )
Total (3-12 „ )
Number of pigs weaned :
Total
Average per litter
Average weight per pig at 8 weeks
old
Group I
Group 11
{Receiving Barley
(Control)
W ater-iron)
14
14
132
124
9*4
8-8
• I
8
10
15
11
23
116
9*3
8-3
28-2 lb.
26 lb.
* The barley water-iron was given from 2 weeks old, but could not be
expected to have an appreciable effect before the pigs were 3 weeks.
Losses before the latter age have therefore been omitted from the figures.
The most notable difference is to be found in the mortality
between the ages of 3 and 12 weeks. During this period
542
Rearing Young Pigs — I
eleven pigs were lost from Group I as compared with twenty-
three from Group II. The losses in both groups were confined
to the autumn, winter and early spring litters, only one pig
being lost from litters farrowed in March, April, May, June
and July. All the piglings received a vermifuge when nine
weeks old and some of the pigs lost suffered noticeably from
the treatment. It is possible that these pigs might have sur-
vived had they not been treated for worms, but in any event
they were weakly pigs that would have been costly to feed.
The deaths, which occurred one at a time, were spread over
8 months and it is doubtful whether the magnitude of the death
rate would have been realized if a record had not been kept.
The pigs that died in Group II showed the pallid appearance
of the skin and mucous membranes which is symptomatic of
anaemia, and blood and post-mortem examinations, made by
the Veterinary Department, revealed the fact that the internal
organs also had the pallid colour characteristic of the acute
form of that disorder.
Conclusive evidence of the value of the barley water-iron
given to Group I was obtained from a study of the growth of
the piglings. These were weighed each week, and it was found
that after birth they grew rapidly for two, three or four weeks,
but that at some period between the ages of 2 and 5 weeks a
decrease occurred in the growth rate of most of the piglings.
This decrease, which was very clearly marked in all except
one of the litters in Group II, was comparatively small in
twelve of the fourteen litters of Group I; in addition, whereas
the growth rate of the former remained at a comparatively low
level for several weeks, that of the latter recovered in one week.
Typical growth-rate curves of pairs of the litters are given in
Figs. 3 and 4, Figs. 5 and 6, Figs. 7 and 8. The effect of the
barley water-iron is best seen by comparing Fig. 3 with Fig. 4,
Fig. 5 with Fig. 6, and Fig. 7 with Fig. 8, as these give the
curves of consecutive litters, from the same sows, for which
the treatment was reversed.
The standard of growth of the five summer months was
significantly higher that that obtained during the seven autumn
and winter months, the figures being : —
Average No,
Average
Groups I and II
of Pigs
Weight
Weaned per
per Pig
Litter
lb.
18 litters weaned, October — April
8*7
^ 5-3
10 ,, ,, May — September
9-0
30*3
543
Rearing Young Pigs — I
There was a clearly marked difference between the growth of
the nine autumn and winter litters in the two groups. In
Group 1 , 9.2 pigs were reared per litter and the average weight
per pig was 26.7 lb., the comparable figures for Group II
being 8.2 pigs per litter and an average weight per pig of 23.8
lb. The difference between the growth of the summer litters of
the two groups was smaller; in four out of the five pairs,
however, the growth-rate curves showed that the growth of
the litter in Group I was superior to that of the comparable
litter in Group II during the critical period between the ages
of 2 and 5 weeks.
Discussion of Results. There is ample evidence that in
many instances sucking-pigs can receive a supplementary
ration containing protein-rich foods, such as fish meal, meat
meal, etc., without any ill effects accruing. The observations
made in 1934, however, indicated that under certain conditions
sucking-pigs that receive a supplementary ration containing
foods rich in protein are more subject to scour than if a mixture
that consists of cereal meals and minerals only is used as the
supplementary ration. The results obtained with Ration 4,
Table I, were sufficiently good to warrant a trial being made
with a ration of this type whenever the incidence of scour is
unduly high.
The only difference in the feeding and management of the
two Groups in the 1935-36 experiment was that Group I
received barley water-iron, which was not given to Group II.
Thus the improved growth and lower mortality of the former
group must be attributed to that mixture.
It is apparent from the growth-rate curves that between
the ages of 2 and 5 weeks the piglings passed through a very
critical period, during which those in Group I derived con-
siderable benefit from the barley water-iron. The evidence
obtained from post-mortem examinations indicates that anaemia
was widely distributed amongst the piglings of Group II, and
the inference is that the benefit that accrued from the use of
the barley water-iron was primarily due to the action of iron
as a preventive of that disorder. In this respect the results
appear to be parallel with those obtained by Baskett and
Lament.®
The benefit derived from the use of barley water-iron was
greatest during the autumn and winter months, but even
544
Rearing Young Pigs— 1
during the summer the benefit was sufficient to warrant the use
of the mixture at that period of the year.
The cost of the barley water-iron given to Group I was about
IS. per litter, an insignificant figure when compared with the
benefits it provided. The mixture is simple to make, easy to
use, and quite safe, points that render it very suitable for use
on commercial farms.
REFERENCES
' Fishwick, V. C. : Rearing Young Pigs, J. Min. Agric., Dec., 1931.
® Baskett, R. G. and LamOnt, H. G. : Nutritional Anaemia in Pigs,
Agric. Progress, vol. 13, p. 93.
B
545
THE CONTROL OF POTATO BLIGHT BY SPRAYING
AND DESTRUCTION OF HAULM
D. H. Findlay, B.Sc., and E. T. Sykes, M.A.,
Norfolk County Council.
The summer of 1936 was notable for the widespread inci-
dence of Blight {Phytophthora infestans) on the potato crop.
In the potato-growing districts of West Norfolk the heayy
summer rainfall produced an excessive growth of haulm, early
attacks of Blight were experienced, and the subsequent weather
conditions favoured the spread of the disease. During June
and early July most of the main crop varieties were sprayed,
but towards the end of the latter month, growth of the haulm
became so dense that growers could not decide whether to
continue spraying. Many farmers held the view that the
damage to the haulm caused by the passage of the spraying
machine would offset any beneficial effect from the application
of the fungicide. There was the possibility, too, that the
weather might become dry and the Blight infection be checked
naturally.
By August the foliage of many of the crops of the variety
King Edward VII was beginning to die down as a result of
Blight attack, and there was further doubt as to the advantage
of destroying the haulm by spraying with a dilute solution of
sulphuric acid. In previous years, when growth had held
out late into the season, it had been shown by Bates and by the
present authors (this Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, June, 1935,
p. 231, and Vol. 43, No. 5, August, 1936, p. 457) that sulphuric
acid spraying would reduce the amount of “ blights " in the
clamp, but it was not certain that this would be so in a season
when the haulm was, in any event, being rapidly killed by
Blight.
Through the courtesy of Mr. C. W. Cave these problems were
investigated in field experiments on his farm at Terrington St.
Clement, King’s Lynn. All the experiments were conducted
with the variety King Edward VII, grown on a medium silt
soil. The investigations may be divided into three parts : —
(a) The effect on yield of a late spraying with Bordeaux
mixture.
546
Control of Potato Blight
(b) The effect on yield of the damage to the haulm caused
by the passage of the spraying machine.
(c) The effect on yield and proportion of “ blights ” of
destruction of the haulm with sulphuric acid and with copper
sulphate.
Late Application of Fungicide. The number of sprayings
with fungicide given to the potato crops in the district varies
according to the incidence of Blight. If the disease does not
develop to any serious extent then the crop may be sprayed
once or twice only. When Blight is prevalent, as in 1936, a
third, followed sometimes by a fourth, application of fungicide
may be undertaken after the crop has been moulded up and
cultivation between the rows has ceased.
An estimate of the value of a third spraying with Bordeaux
mixture was obtained by means of a strip trial. The treatments
were (i) crop sprayed twice, and (2) crop sprayed three times,
with four replications of each. The plots were four rows wide
and approximately 200 yds. long, and sections of the two centre
rows were lifted and weighed. The crop was first sprayed
during the last week of June and this was followed by a second
spraying in mid-July. The third spraying, carried out at the
end of July, temporarily checked the spread of Blight and
prolonged the growth of the crop for an additional 14 days.
As the following table shows, the extension of the period of
growth was reflected in an increased yield : —
y'ie/d of Ware
Potatoes (1^ in,)
per Acre
('rop Hprayecl three timeh with Bordeaux mixture 6-70 tons
Crop sprayed twice with Bordeaux mixture . . 5*86 ,,
Significant difference .. .. .. .. o-^S ,,
It will be seen that the yield of ware potatoes (the yield of
seed potatoes was not affected) was increased by 0.84 tons per
acre, an increase that was economic. This result is of value
even if it serves only to emphasize that spraying against Blight
is well worth while in a year when the disease is present on the
foliage. The experiment also shows, however, that when
Blight attacks are severe, a late spra5dng with Bordeaux
mixture does, in fact, check the rapid spread of the disease
and thus leads to a heavier crop.
Damage by Spraying Machine. In the experiment just
described it was not planned to investigate the extent of the
B 2 547
Control of Potato Blight
damage to the crop caused by the passage of the spraying
machine. Indeed, care was taken to exclude the possible
effect of this factor by lifting and weighing rows over which
only the nozzles of the machine had passed.
The effect of the damage by the sprayer was measured in a
field of potatoes that had been sprayed three times with Bor-
deaux mixture. Each time this field was sprayed the spraying
machine travelled between the same rows of potatoes, and it
was thus possible to estimate the yields from rows of potatoes
(a) between which the wheels of the spraying machine had been
driven three times, and (b) over which only the nozzles and
not the wheels of the machine had passed.
Sections of five rows of (a) and of five rows of (b) were
lifted separately and weighed in the field. The yields per acre
were as follows ;
Yield of Ware
Potatoes (if tw.)
per Acre
Rows along which wheels of machine had passed 7 • 20 tons
Rows along which wheels of machine had not
passed .. .. .. .. .. .. 8*6o ,,
Significant difference . . . . . . . . o*86 ,,
It will be seen that there was a lower yield of ware potatoes
from the rows along which the wheels of the sprayer had passed.
This reduction in yield is probably due mainly to the crushing
of the haulm at the third spraying, though disturbance of the
soil at each spra)dng, by the wheels and by the horse may also
have affected growth.
This physical damage to the crop by the spraying machine,
reflected by a reduction in the yield of ware potatoes of 1.4
tons p)er acre, at first sight appears serious, but it must be
remembered that the wheels of the machine, and the horse,
pass along the equivalent of only three rows. Therefore the
actual loss in yield per acre sprayed is in proportion to the
number of rows sprayed at a time by the machine. If, for
example, a seven-row sprayer was used then the decrease
in yield would be three-sevenths of 1.4 tons or 0.6 tons per
acre of ware potatoes. On the other hand, an eleven-row
sprayer does proportionately less damage, and on the results
obtained in this trial, the decrease in yield with a machine of
this size would have been 0.4 tons of ware potatoes over each
acre sprayed.
When, therefore, the growth of haulm is dense a sprayer
covering a large number of rows is desirable. With a small
548
Control of Potato Blight
machine the benefits arising from the late spra5nng are likely
to be offset by the damage caused to the crop in the actual
operation of spraying. It is possible that haulm-lifters, fitted
in front of the wheels, would prevent the crushing of haulm,
and so lessen the damage to the crop, but without trial it is
difficult to say whether they would be a success. Even if
haulm lifters were found to be of value, however, there remains
the damage caused by the treading of the horse, and therefore
a large spraying machine would still possess advantages over
one covering a small number of rows.
Destruction of Haulm. It has already been mentioned
that in 1936 the haulm of King Edward VII potatoes died
down during August, six to eight weeks earlier than in the
two previous years, when the incidence of ” Blight ” was less
severe. When it became evident that the foliage was d5dng
rapidly it was felt that information on the effect of haulm
destruction could be obtained in conditions very different from
those experienced in 1934 or 1935.
A trial was accordingly planned to repeat that carried out
in 1935 (this Journal, Vol. 43, No. 5, August, 1936, p. 457),
when a comparison was made between Brown Oil of Vitriol
(commercial sulphuric acid) and copper sulphate as materials
for the destruction of the haulm. The three treatments were
as follows : —
1. Unsprayed.
2. Sprayed with 100 gallons per acre 12 \ per cent, solution
(by volume) of Brown Oil of Vitriol.
3. Sprayed with 100 gallons per acre per cent, solution
(by weight) of copper sulphate.
The sprays were applied with a horse-drawn machine of
standard type on August 13, 1936, four weeks before lifting.
Each plot was six rows wide and 176 yards long, there being
four replications of each treatment. The produce from one of
the two centre rows of each plot was lifted and stored separated
from its neighbours in the clamp by layers of straw.
When the crop was sprayed fee foliage was being killed by
Blight. Destruction of the haulm was less rapid wife the
copper sulphate solution than with fee sulphuric acid, but when
fee crop was lifted the foliage was completely dead on all fee
plots, including feose that had not been sprayed with acid or
copper sulphate.
549
Control of Potato Blight
The clamp was opened on January 14, 1937. " Blights ”
and “ lumps ” (misshapen and cracked tubers) were set aside
and weighed separately, the remaining tubers being graded
into ware (over if in.), and seed and chats.
The results were as follows :
Total
Yields
Ware
per Acre. Tons
Seed
and Lumps
Blights
Blights as
per cent,
of Total
Unsprayed
Yield
lO- I
8-0
Chats
OQ
0-7
0*5
Yield
4*9
12% sulphuric
acid (B.O.V.)
9*4
7*2
I • I
0*6
0*5
5*3
7i% copper
sulphate
10*1
8-0
I* I
0*6
0*4
4*0
Significant
difference . .
0*68
0-65
0*41
0*37
0-22
—
Spraying did not reduce the amount of
“ blights
” in the
clamp, but it will be noticed that the proportion of blighted
tubers was small even from the unspray ed plots. This is pre-
sumably because the disease killed the foliage on these plots
long before lifting began, and therefore there was little or no
contamination of the tubers with living Blight spores during
the operation of lifting.
It will also be noticed that the 5deld of ware potatoes was
appreciably reduced where the crop was sprayed with sulphuric
acid. This may be due to the rapid “ kill ” of the foliage
secured with this material. In 1936 as in 1935, it was noted
that both the unsprayed plots and the plots sprayed with
copper sulphate remained green (especially the stems of the
plants) for a period varying from one to two weeks longer
than the plots sprayed with sulphuric acid. The foliage on
the latter plots was killed in a few hours. In the trials of
1934 and 1935, the haulm was destroyed when the crop
apparently had reached maturity, and the rapid “ kill ” by the
sulphuric acid did not prove deleterious. In 1936, however,
the crop was sprayed with acid or copper sulphate before it had
reached full growth, and the curtailment of the growing period
by sudden destruction of the foliage prevented any further
increaise in the size of the tubers.
The results of this trial suggest, therefore, that there is little to
be gained by destruction of the haulm four weeks before lifting
in seasons when the incidence of Blight is early and the foliage
is rapidly being killed by the disease. The sudden stopping of
growth may, in fact, result in a lighter crop. If in such seasons
550
Control of Potato Blight
it is desired to destroy the haulm as a preventive measure
against Blight infection of the tubers, it is recommended that
a dilute solution of copper sulphate applied three or four weeks
before lifting, should be used in preference to sulphuric acid.
Copper sulphate docs not kill weeds so effectively as sulphuric
acid, however, and where weed growth is likely to interfere
with lifting it is suggested that the potato haulm should be
allowed to die down before destruction of the weeds with sul-
phuric acid is undertaken.
It must be emphasized that these conclusions do not apply
in seasons when the haulm of King Edward potatoes remains
green until lifting. It is in such seasons that the greatest degree
of infection of the tubers with Blight is to be expected, and it
is then that destruction of the haulm three weeks before lifting
with copper sulphate or sulphuric acid has proved to be of
value.
Summary. Attacks of Blight {Phytopthora injestans) were
widespread and severe on potato crops grown in the Marsh-
land district of West Norfolk in 1936.
Experiments on King Edward potatoes showed that a late
application of Bordeaux mixture prevented the rapid spread of
the disease and increased the yield of ware potatoes.
Some damage to the crop was caused by the passage of the
spraying machine, and this was reflected in a reduced 5Hield.
On an acreage basis this reduction in yield becomes propwr-
tionately smaller the larger the machine used.
Spraying with sulphuric acid or copper sulphate four weeks
before lifting did not reduce the proportion of “ blights '' in
the clamp. Spraying with sulphuric acid reduced the yield of
ware potatoes, probably owing to growth being suddenly
stoppjed before the crop had reached maturity.
The authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to Mr. C. W. Cave»
for allowing the experiments to be carried out on his farm and for the
free use of his staff and equipment.
551
ELECTRICAL HEATING FOR HORTICULTURAL
PURPOSES
C. A. Cameron Brown, B.Sc., A.M.I.E.E.,
Institute for Research in Agricultural Engineering
University of Oxford
When it is realized that out of the coal burned at the power
station less than one-third of its original energy appears as
electricity, and that between the generating station and the
consumer there are various sources of energy loss, it would
seem that to contemplate using electricity for heating in com-
petition with direct combustion of coal or oil is utterly hopeless.
The position, however, is hardly so bad as it would seem at
first sight, because while the small consumer has to reckon
with coke costing from 30s. to 40s. per ton or coal from 40s.
to 60s. per ton, the coal burnt at the generating station may
cost as little as los. per ton. Nevertheless, while electricity can
be produced at a modern generating station for a very small
fraction of a penny per unit, the costs entailed in transmitting
and distributing it to the consumer result in a gross cost at
which, on a sheer cost basis, it cannot compete with the direct
combustion of coal, coke or oil.
Electricity, however, does possess certain characteristics that
enable it to be used in competition with direct combustion and
under certain circumstances to have the advantage. It is
clean, quiet, fumeless and easily controlled; it can be readily
applied at specified and confined points; it is more easily in-
stalled in existing premises or structures, and this can often be
done at a comparatively low cost; it need not be used except
when required and then responds immediately and at full
power to any sudden demand for heat. Again, its use entails
the minimum of labour, though this may be a doubtful argu-
ment to a farmer, as much of the labour required for the heating
plant can be worked in with other part-time jobs. To the
properly planned nursery or market garden, with its staff
employed up to the full and where heat is required, the
55 *
Electricity in Horticulture
electrical method can be applied without any increase in the
staff. This is a point of particular appeal to the man running
a small but high-class business either single-handed or as a
family affair. Yet even to him — perhaps in a w'ay more so
to him — the cost of running is vital, and the main factor decid-
ing whether electricity can be used for a particular horticultural
heating purpose is the extent to which the heat produced can
be conserved. This is, of course, apart from the cost of current
itself, but there are few areas where it is not available at from
\d. to id. per unit, even if some restriction in the period of
use is imposed.
Glasshouse Heating. The most important use of heat in
horticulture is for the glasshouse, and the prospects of using
electricity for this purpose will immediately come to mind.
They are, however, very poor, for the conditions involved are
about the very worst that could be conceived for heating by
electricity. Not only is there a bulk of air to be warmed, but
the huge expanse of glass causes rapid heat loss to the outside
air; insulation against this is impracticable although double
glazing has been tried on small greenhouses with satisfactory
results. Again, the large commercial glasshouse lies generally
in a group with others, using one common boiler-house, and the
overhead and labour charges are spread out so that much of the
advantage of electrical heating in saving installation cost, room
and labour are not realized.
Electrical heating of the glasshouse would be done either by
heating water in an electric boiler or by having electric heaters
directly in the glasshouses. The former method has been
tried abroad and is technically sound, but it is less efficient than
the latter; on the other hand, it should enjoy much lower rates
for electricity owing to the heat storage possible in the water,
allowing “ off-peak” and night heating to be done. The
second method is more efficient as all the heat produced is
passed straight into the air in the glasshouse and would be
effected by installing tubular electric heaters. The second
method has the further advantage that the heating tubes may
be placed exactly where required for best heating, without
having to consider water circulation and, of course, they take
up considerably less space than water pipes. Particulars of
the consumption of electricity for large-scale glasshouse heat-
ing do not seem to be available, although the author came
across a medium-sized plant in France, running at the equiva-
553
Electricity in Horticulture
lent of ^d. per unit with apparent success; unfortunately satis-
factory particulars of the cost of alternative heating were not
available. There is little doubt, however, that large-scale
glasshouse heating could hardly be contemplated unless
electricity is as low as ^d. or more probably \d. per unit, and
even then some considerable importance would have to be laid
on the operational advantages of electricity to justify its use.
While, then, it would appear to be unlikely that commercial
glasshouse heating is an economic proposition, electrically, there
is a stronger case for making a partial use of electricity as
auxiliary to the main heating. As indicated above, the lay-out
of the piping in a glasshouse may, from considerations of water
circulation, be far from ideal in the matter of heat distribution,
and there will be cool spots; in any event there will be cooler
parts towards the outside of the house. By judicious placing
of tubular electric heaters with thermostat control, these places
may be maintained at the general temperature for a moderate
consumption of electricity and as much as \d. per unit may be
justified for this purpose.
Again, the electric tubular heater is an ideal way of heating
the amateur’s greenhouse, where cost of running is not a
primary consideration, provided it is reasonable, and time and
labour saving are of great importance. This particularly
applies when a cold house is converted for heating, which can
be carried out with least disturbance by fitting tubular electric
heaters. An average weekly consumption of about i
unit per lo cu. ft. of space might be expected to maintain a
temperature of about 45° to 50° F. from October to March. Few
towns cannot supply such a load at per unit, and most
rural supplies have a special thermostat rate of |d. Tubular
heaters are available in lengths of about 2 feet and upwards
and in a wide range of loadings from 100 watts; they cost
from about 7s. 6d. per 100 watts in the smaller sizes to some
5s. per TOO watts in the larger sizes. In order to maintain a
temperature of about 20° F. over outside temperature, the
loading of the heating equipment should be of the following
order: —
For a house of 250 cubic feet space . . i to ij kW.
„ 500 .. .... 2 kW.
.. .. i.ooo „ .... 3 kW.
„ 2,000 „ .... 4 kW.
554
Electricity in Horticulture
A thermostat is almost essential and costs from about 30s.
upwards. Should frost protection only be required and not
more than 250 watts be installed, a small vacuum type thermo-
stat is available at about 8s.
Soil Heating. Electricity can also be used for supplying
bottom heat for forcing or propagation under frames and
lights. The simplest way of doing this is by passing a current
directly through the soil which warms up as a result. This
has grave technical objections, however, and it is more usual
to pass the current through a wire buried in the ground, causing
the wire to heat up and thus to warm the ground. Where the
ordinary supply ' voltage of 230 volts or so is used the wire is
enclosed in heat- and electrical-insulation and made up in the
form of a flexible cable. By using a transformer and reducing
the voltage to 15 volts or so comparatively heavy section bare
iron wires can be laid direct in the ground and the installation
is altogether stronger. On the other hand, the heating cable
has turned out to be more robust than was expected and at the
same time the low tension system has only been offered in this
country in small sizes, in which it is much dearer than the
cable. Certain foreign installations have been carried out on
a fairly large scale using transformers and bare heating
wire.
Whichever system is used its application depends essentially
on laying the cable or heating wire in the ground with sufficient
depth of soil above to grow the seeds, plants or cuttings
inserted. In practice the method of installation has several
modifications. In the first place, in order to improve heat
distribution, the cable should be laid in sand consisting of a
layer of i inch thick below and a similar layer above the cable.
If the bed is required for market garden work and the direct
growing to maturity of lettuces, etc., a 6 to 8-inch layer of soil
should then be placed over the sand ; if a layer of fairly small
mesh wire netting is placed between the sand and the soil, the
cable is protected from damage by spade at least and to a
certain extent from damage by fork. If, on the other hand,
the bed is required for nursery work — the raising of seedlings,
propagation of cuttings, etc., in boxes and pans — the top layer
of sand should be increased in depth to 3 inches or so; thus the
hot cable will provide a warm bed on which the boxes and pans
can be placed as required. For large scale propagation ffie
555
Electricity in Horticulture
depth of sand can be increased still further and cuttings inserted
directly into it.
Another important modification is the provision of heat
insulation to conserve the heat generated in tiie cable and
thus save electricity. There are economic and practical diffi-
culties in the way of effecting really comprehensive heat-
insulation, but certain simple precautions enable an
appreciable saving in current to be made. Heat loss from the
bottom of the bed into the ground can be checked by starting
with a preliminary bed of clinkers, broken tiles or bricks, etc.,
at least 6 inches deep and extending beyond the bed by a foot
in each direction; this clinker bed can be let in so that it
finishes flush with the ground and provides drainage if such
be necessary, but in all but very well drained soil, the covering
layers of sand and cable should be above ground level. The
next source of heat loss is from the sides of the frame which
ought to be substantially built and faced with a thickness of
slab cork or one of the patent insulating boards and painted
with bitumen to protect it from the weather; a simpler way,
perhaps, is to add a second layer of boards to the sides with
a layer of stout paper between.
The most serious source of heat loss is, however, through the
lights themselves, and while some of this loss can be prevented
by having well-fitting lights, much of it continues through the
glass. This cannot be prevented during daylight, except
perhaps by double-glazed lights, but it can be substantially
reduced at night by covering the lights with hessian, straw
matting, etc. This should be done systematically soon after
sun-set and the covering should be in a businesslike arrange-
ment for easy work; odd sacking held down by boxes and
stones is simply an incentive to indifferent covering and is
likely to be blown away in a high wind. These precautions
are of no mere academic significance; tests have demonstrated
lhat simple precautions such as are indicated above have
resulted in substantial savings in electricity. Compared with
uninsulated beds, bottom insulation has resulted in a saving
of 6 per cent, over a period, side-insulation in a saving of 25
per cent, and top-covering at night in a saving of as much as
26 per cent, in the electricity required to maintain a given
temperature.
It will be realized, therefore, that an installation that makes
no provision against heat loss starts at an economic dis-
556
Electricity in Horticulture
advantage, and it is very doubtful whether one would care
to suggest the possibility of economic success unless some such
provision is made. This, therefore, is a difficulty in the way
of using cables in beds that are moved frequently as is done in
certain systems of intensive market-gardening.
The cost of the electrical installation will depend on the area
of bed which is covered by a length of cable. Cables are made
in different lengths, normally rated for use on the standard
230 volts, and giving a range of loadings in watts. As the
heat generated is proportional to the wattage loading — 1,000
watts will generate about 3,400 British Thermal Units per
hour — this is a handy way of referring to the loading of cables
in the beds. For market garden work — raising lettuces and
catch crops — a low loading of 5 watts per sq. ft. bed area
should be sufficient for normal conditions and, although
entirely satisfactory results have been obtained with a loading
as low as 3 watts per sq. ft., this is not generally to be
advised. A maximum of 7 watts per sq. ft. should be
observed as, even at this loading, there is a danger of high
temperatures being reached, which are for this class of work
almost more dangerous than low temperatures. This pre-
supposes that hand control will be used, as is more likely for
this class of work, but even if a thermostat is fitted, while the
danger of overheating disappears, there is no point in increasing
the loading much beyond 5 watts per sq. ft. as this simply
puts up the cost of equipment. Nursery bed work is on a
higher scale of requirement and returns, and should certainly
be controlled by thermostat. The loading will be higher to
meet the higher temperatures required and should not be less
than 7 watts, but need not be more than 10 watts per sq.
ft. These loadings are, of course, only approximate, and
since there is only a limited selection of cables, the cable to
give the nearest loading in a required bed should be chosen.
Some of the popular sizes and prices are : —
125 watts . . . . 25 feet . . . . 10/6
200 „ . . . . 30 ,, . . . . 1 1/6
490 „ . . . . 100 „ . . . . 24/6
700 „ . . . . 150 . . . . 32/-
Should a loading of 5 watts per sq. ft. be required in a
bed measuring 4 ft. x 18 ft. or 72 sq. ft., the total loading
required is 72 x 5=360 watts; the nearest single cable is 490
557
Electricity in Horticulture
watts and this will make the loading 6.8 watts per sq. ft.
Alternatively two separate 200 watt cables could be used giving
a closer loading to that desired. Again, the 490 watt cable
might be used and a further light added to the bed.
To the cost of the cable must be added that of service wiring
and switch, as well as the thermostat if fitted. It is impossible
to give any really helpful indication of the cost of the service
wiring, which will vary with distance and local conditions,
but it may be remembered that the minimum necessary for
one small cable will generally be sufficient to serve and control
several. For the average nursery or market-garden hot-bed,
an adjustable thermostat complete with either flexible or rigid
extension should be used, and these are available at from 30s.
to 70s. according to the total load to be controlled. For cables
of 200 watts and under, however, there is available an evacu-
ated glass thermostat which can be supplied ready built into
the cable for about 15s. extra. Although this thermostat will
control only to the temperature specified when ordering, in
practice, by altering the position of the thermostat in the soil,
a certain amount of temperature variation can be attained.
This ” self-regulated ” cable is particularly valuable to the
amateur gardener, but is useful in commercial work when small
units are employed, and affords a veiy flexible system, of
operation.
The cost of running is widely variable according to the
maintained temperature, the outside temperature and the
efficacy of the heat insulation, and it may be said with some
emphasis that unless some trouble is taken with the last, there
is every chance of the running costs increasing beyond the
limits of sound economics. In a reasonably well-protected bed
lettuces should be raised to maturity at the earliest period of
the year consistent with adequate light for i unit per head, any
catch-crops being grown for no extra cost. This means that
a maximum figure of \d, per unit is necessary for growing
lettuces by electrical heat, which figure, plus a fraction of a
penny for overheads, should be earned by early and first-class
lettuce. In running a nursery bed at from 60° to 70° F.
during early spring, some 10 to 15 units per 6 ft. x 4 ft. light
per week may be expected, the consumption falling off in
late spring and summer. It must be realized that the full
advantage of the electrical heating is only reaped if the maxi-
mum use of the bed is made throughout the year. This is
558
Electricity in Horticulture
possible with the nursery hot-bed which can be kept reason-
ably full of seed-pans, seedlings and cuttings for practically
the whole year round. Even the man who hitherto grew
only one crop of lettuce should amend his plans to make some
further use of his beds.
The arrangement may follow that generally adopted for
hot-beds, bearing in mind that cold winds are a potent source
of heat loss and expense. Some sort of wind-break to north
and east is strongly recommended. The nurseryman, with a
somewhat more complicated programme than the market
gardener, might well consider arranging his beds in three banks
or groups. The first would be loaded up to, say, 7 watts per
sq. ft. and would be the hot-beds; a second lot would be
loaded more lightly at, say, 3 to 5 watts per sq. ft. as an inter-
mediate cooler bed, and the third would be a cold bed entirely
except, perhaps, for a cable carried round the inside of the
frame to afford frost-protection.
A modified method of applying heat to tomato growing is
being tested in the United States and this country, whereby the
plants are grown on fibrous matting suspended over shallow
tanks holding liquid solutions containing all the food constitu-
ents required tor growth. The roots of the plants extend into
the tank, which is kept at a determined temperature by thermo-
stat control of electrical heating cables immersed in the solution.
The initial results show a substantial increase in crop
more than sufficient to meet the cost of current used, and the
results of further and larger scale tests are awaited with con-
siderable interest. If the earlier results are confirmed the
method should have considerable attraction, not so much for
the large-scale commercial tomato grower, as for the small
grower who would thereby be enabled to increase his output
without increasing his glass area and without affecting general
market values.
Another important application of heat in horticulture is for
sterilizing the soil. This can be done electrically either by
bringing wires into the soil and raising them to a sufficiently
high temperature to raise the soil in its turn to a steriUzing
temperature. A better way, however, is to pass the current
through the soil itself, which will in this way be heated up.
This is done by inserting copper plates the appropriate distance
apart in the soil and passing current from one to another of
these electrodes. Although this could be done direct in the
559
Electricity in( Horticulture
ground as in a glasshouse, it is best, for reasons of economy
and practice, to confine this method to sterilizing comparatively
small quantities in special boxes containing up to lo cwt. or
so. These boxes take generally one of two forms. The elec-
trodes may be at either end of the box and the soil packed
firmly between them, or one electrode may be on the bottom
of the box, the other being on the underside of the lid which,
when closed on to a full box makes contact with the soil. The
current, the time required and the cost of sterilizing all depend
on the kind of soil, its moisture content and the efficacy of
its packing, but with average potting soil, well packed, the
consumption for sterilizing is of the order of 30 units per cubic
yard. At anything below id. per unit this can hardly be
called expensive but even although it be not a cheap way of
sterilizing, it is a handy and clean method of sterilizing that
should appeal to the small man and to the amateur.
In conclusion, it is fair to say that the use of electricity
for horticultural heating is technically sound and that
it may be adopted with considerable confidence in
trouble-free running for a period of five years, and even at
the end of that time only part of the installation is at all likely
to be faulty. At the same time, it must be realized that electri-
city is a high-class medium of energy-transfer and is only
economic where certain favourable conditions exist. Its use
should never be embarked on lavishly without careful planning,
for which plenty of competent advice is now available. It
is primarily the medium for affording the man in a small way
of business or working single-handed that freedom from much
of the tedious and hard work that the man employing labour
is able to avoid. Particularly, then, the nurseryman or market
gardener so placed would do well to consider at least, but to
consider in the light of informed and experienced opinion, the
possibility of electricity being economically available to him.
Bibliography
Bewley, W. F. Twenty-one Years Glasshouse Research at Cheshunt.
Scientific Horticulture, 1936, 4, 114.
Hudson, C. E. The Heating of Commercial Glasshouses. Scientific
Horticulture, 1935, 3»
Taylor, H. V. Alternative Systems of Heating Glasshouses. /. Min,
, I934» 4^» 632.
Bewley, W. F. Raising the Soil Temperature in Glasshouses. /. Min,
Agnc., 1934, ^o, 1047.
Quarrell, C. P. Electrical Heating of Soil in Frames. /. Min, Agric,,
1936, 43 44^-
560
Electricity in Horticulture
Wyman, Donald and Nixon, H. W. Electric Hot-beds for Propagating
Woody Cuttings. Cornell University Agric> Exper. Sia. Bull., 6i8,
1934 -
Brown, C. A. Cameron. The Use of Electric Heating Cables for HoUheds.
Institute for Research in Agricultural Engineering, University of
Oxford, 1933.
Newhall, a. G. and Nixon, H. W. Disinfecting Soil by Electric
Pasteurization. Cornell Sta. Bull., 636, 1935.
Blauser, I. P. Soil Sterilization by Electricity. Agricultural Engineering,
Nov., 1935, p. 436.
Blauser, I. P. Sterilizing Soil with Electricity by the Resistance Method.
IE Congres Internationale du Ginie Rural, Madrid, 1935, p. 420.
561
RECENT CHANGES IN SHEEP BREEDING IN
THE ARABLE AREAS— II
R. P. Askew, M.A.,
Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Oxford
Changre in the Number and Distribution of Down Flocks.
The fortunes of the Down breeds have varied, for while all
have suffered from the decline in arable sheep fanning, indi-
vidual breeds have been subject to influences that have com-
pensated, to some slight extent, for this fall. First, the
Down breeds have competed among themselves for the position
left by the decline in the Longwools. Secondly, all Down
breeds have not reacted alike to changes in consumers’ demands
such as the increased preference for lamb instead of mutton.
Thirdly, there has been a decline in the popularity of pure
breeds for commercial production and a consequent increase
in the practice of cross-breeding.
There is no information as to the numbers comprising the
various breeds in this country, and the main evidence for the
fall in the Down breeds is the decline of some 40 per cent,
in sheep in the arable areas. There is, however, one source
of information that docs not appear to have been e.xamined
hitherto, and that is the flock books of the respective Down
breed societies. The value of this material may be limited,
but as between one Down breed and another, the changes
in the distribution of the pedigree flocks provide a useful indica-
tion of the popularity of individual breeds.
Evidence from the flock books of the most important Down
breeds is given in Table 3 : —
"t able hi. — Numbers of Registered Flocks of Four Down Breeds
IN 1910 AND 1935
IBreed
1910
!
j
Per cent. Change
1935
British Isles
England and
Wales only
Hampshire
Southdown
Oxford
Suffolk . .
490
^59
175
246
I 169
192
97
340
- 65-5
- 46-5
- 44-6
-f 3^-2
-65-5
— 46-5
— 65-3
- 13-5
562
Changes in Sheep Breeding
There has been a decline in the number of registered flocks
of all four of these Down breeds in England and Wales,
the Hampshire and Oxford each showing a fall of no less than
65 per cent. Although showing a fall in England and Wales,
however, the total number of registered flocks of Suffolks in
the British Isles has actually increased by no less than 38 per
cent.
It is probable that the fall in the numbers of sheep registered
has been much greater than the fall in the number of flocks
suggests, for the average size of the ewe flocks registered has
also decreased, the Hampshire and Southdown showing falls
of 43 per cent, and 39 per cent, respectively.
More striking however, than the fall in the total number of
flocks is the change in the distribution of the breeds, and on
this point the evidence of the flock books is particularly
illuminating.
TABLE IV.— Distribution of Registered Flocks
OF Suffolk Sheep in 1910 and 1935
County
1910
i935
Suffolk . .
L54
i ^3
Essex
51
; 31
Norfolk
17
' 10
Cambridge
8
8
Yorkshire
—
22
Northumberland . . , .
I
II
Shropshire
—
10
Warwickshire . ,
I
' 7
Other Counties
11
i 50
-245 *
! 212
Scotland
— !
57
Ireland . .
I
44
Total
246
340
In 1910, the Suffolk flocks were almost entirely in the arable
areas, but twenty-five years later they were kept throughout
the British Isles. In Suffolk itself, the number has fallen from
154 to 63, and this illustrates the extent of the decline in a
typical arable county. The fall in the arable counties has been
offset by an increase in registered flocks in the grassland areas,
such as Northumberland, Yorkshire, Warwickshire and
Shrojishire, but there has been no change to arable sheep farm-
ing in these counties, and the increase in the Suffolk flocks is
563
Changes in Sheep Breeding
due to the popularity of the rams for crossing with the grass-
land breeds.
The change in the distribution of registered Oxford flocks
is also of interest. Before the War, Oxford rams were popular
in the North of England and in Scotland for crossing wi& the
Half-bred ewe, but their chief centre was in Gloucestershire
and Oxfordshire. Like the Suffolk, the breed has declined
heavily in the arable areas as Table 5 shows : —
TABLE V. — Distribution of Registered Oxford
Flocks in 1910 and 1935
County or Area
1910
1935
Gloucestershire
32
9
Oxfordshire
31
8
Northamptonshire
10
3
Shropshire
9
I
Yorkshire
9
II
Cumberland
7
2
Buckinghamshire
7
0
Other Counties
39
^7
Ireland . .
16
Scotland
15
32
Total
175
97
The future of the Oxford as a commercial breed is perhaps
the most doubtful of all the Downs. It is the heaviest of the
group, and like the Longwools, it has suffered both from the
demand for small joints and from low wool prices. It is
late maturing and for that reason the decline in winter fattening
has particularly affected it. Moreover, for rams for crossing
with the Scotch Half-bred, it has felt the competition of the
Suffolk, as the fall in the number of registered flocks in Cumber-
land suggests. Only in Scotland has there been any appreciable
increase in registered flocks.
Judging by the evidence of the flock books, the Hampshire
has suffered more than any of the other Down breeds. At
first sight, this is perhaps surprising, because its early maturing
and excellent carcass qualities make it unrivalled for early
lamb. The low fertility of the ewe, of course, makes it un-
popular with some farmers, but perhaps the extent of the
decline was largely due to its pre-war distribution rather than
to the defects of the breed itself. It was the hurdled sheep pat
excellence of the chalk lands of the south, and these have had
564
Changes in Sheep Breeding
to meet the full effects of low com prices without tiie compensa-
tions that sugar beet growing afforded elsewhere.
The five arable counties that showed the greatest decline
in ewe population between 1910-12 and 1928-30 were Wilt-
shire, Berkshire, Hampshire, Dorset and Suffolk, and it is
precisely these counties, which have experienced the largest
fall in arable acreage, except that Sussex takes the place of
Suffolk. The distribution of registered flocks, except as to
numbers, is very much the same as it was twenty-five years ago :
TABLE VI. — Distribution of Registered Flocks
OF Hampshire Downs in iqio and 1935
County
1910
1935
Wiltshire
255
77
Hampshire
113
38
Dorset . .
41
13
Berkshire
19
12
Somerset
14
3
Others (under lo flocks each)
48
26
Total
490
169
The Southdown as a pedigree breed has spread in a few
counties, notably Gloucestershire, but it is doubtful whether
its commercial importance has been maintained. The number
of registered flocks has fallen from 359 in 1910 to 192 in 1935,
and there was also a heavy fall in the average size of flocks.
The decline is all the more remarkable in view of the additional
importance now attached to small joints and carcass quality.
The decline of arable acreage, however, has been particularly
heavy in Sussex, and it was inevitable that the Southdown
should share the common experience, when arable sheep farm-
ing was in difl&culties. Moreover, the Southdown is not so
popular with farmers as might perhaps have been expected,
for there was a widespread feeling that the quality premium
obtainable for Southdown lamb was insufficient to compensate
for the loss in weight.
Increase in Cross-breeding and Experiments. In dis-
cussing questions of breeding policy, it is important to
emphasize the distinction between breeding to sell rams and
ewes for stock, and breeding for the commercial production
of mutton and lamb. Twenty-five years ago a few breeds,
565
Changes in Sheep Breeding
particularly the Southdown and the Hampshire, were normally
kept “ pure ” for commercial production. It has long been
recognized, however, that the cross-bred lamb has also qualities
to recommend it. It is held that it thrives better and possesses
more stamina. Before the War there were popular crosses,
such as the Cotswold-Suffolk, the Oxford-Leicester, and the
Southdown-Kent. In recent years there appears to have been
a further decline in the commercial use of pure breeds, and
to-day the practice of cross-breeding is more widespread, more
complex and less systematic than it was twenty-five years ago.
The high proportion of cross-bred ewes offered at Marl-
borough August sheep fair has already been noticed, but the
proportion of lambs of this type was even higher, no less than
four out of every five being cross-bred.
TABLE VII. — Breeds of Lambs Offered at Marlborough Fair
(August), 1933-35
Crossbred
Un-
classified
Hampshire
Down
Other
Pure
Breeds
.
Total
Number
15.854
1.720
1.463
389
19,426
Percentage . .
8i-6
i
8*8 1
7-5
2-1
100*0
If this were the position in a county in which Hampshire
Downs had been the basis of commercial production, the preva-
lence of cross-breeding in areas less wedded to pure breeds can
be imagined. Indeed, except for high-quality production with
the Southdown, and early fat lamb with the Hampshire and
Dorset Horn, pure breeding for commercial purposes was fast
disappearing. Ou't of a sample of 41 farms, where cross-
breeding was the accepted practice, no fewer than 26 had main-
tained pure-bred flocks before the War, and 14 of these were
breeding from cross-bred ewes.
Usually the change has been gradual. The draft or older
ewes have been selected for experiments, and when successful,
the pure-bred flock has slowly been abandoned. The founda-
tion of the cross has normally been the Down ram with its
excellent carcass qualities. Where breeds of sheep unsuitable
for modem requirements had been kept, the introduction of a
different ram was the first step towards improvement and often
gave an indifferent ewe a fresh lease of life. On a few fitrms a
complete change in production was made possible, wifliout
566
Changes in Sheep Breeding
the necessity of a drastic and expensive change of foundation
stock.
Among ewes, the Longwool has been the most common
object of experiment, the main efforts being devoted to a reduc-
tion in size and improvement in quality. Twenty-five years
ago, the Oxford was the popular ram for the Longwool ewe,
because the cross was as heavy, and yielded almost as much
wool as the Longwool itself. Now, however, the Suffolk, and
to a less extent, the Hampshire, are becoming popular, the
former largely, for the high proportion of lean meat in its
carcass, and the latter for its earlier maturing qualities. Again,
the excessive size of the Lincoln can be reduced by crossing
the ewe with the smaller Down rams. This method, however,
is likely to be less economic than the use of small ewes and
large rams, and a mere change of ram has not been sufficient
to maintain the importance of the Longwool.
The spread of the grass ewe in arable districts, however, has
been responsible for a greater increase in cross-breeding than
has the decline in the commercial importance of the pure-bred
Longwool. In the north, the Oxford was the accepted ram for
the Scottish half-bred ewe, but in the south it has not been so
popular. Here the primary object has been to secure a suit-
able cross for the fat lamb trade, and the Suffolk and the
Hampshire rams have found most favour. A sample of the
various types of crosses that were met with in the course of
the survey is given in Table 8 : —
TABLE VIII. — Breeds of Rams and Ewes Employed for Crossing
IN Arable Counties
Rams
Grass
Ewes or
Crosses
Down
Ewes or
Crosses
I.ongw
Ewes or
Crosses
Total
Type of
Production
No, of
Farms
where used
No. of
Farms
where used
No. of
Farms
where used
Fat
Lamb
Winter
fatten-
ing
Hampshire . .
14
3
3
20
13
7
Suffolk
II
3
4
18
13
5
Oxford
I
I
5
7
—
7
Southdown . .
—
2
2
2
Other Rams
^ i
5
I
0
5
4
The predominance of Suffolk and Hampshire rams for
crossing with the grass ewes in arable districts is clearly indi-
cated, but in this sample the Oxford is still the most common
567
Changes in Sheep Breeding
cross with the Longwool. It is more interesting to note, how-
ever, that both the Hampshire and Suffolk are firmly
established favourites for the fat lamb trade, while the Oxford
is used only on farms where winter fattening is followed.
The Southdown does not appear to be widely used, and this
is, perhaps, surprising. From an economic point of view, how-
ever, the use of a small ram on large ewes has little to recom-
mend it and farmers appear to have realized this. It must also
be remembered that for best quality mutton and lamb produc-
tion, the Southdown, unlike other Down breeds, is normally
kept pure.
In East Anglia, the Lincoln and Cotswold rams were com-
monly used on the Suffolk ewe, but in recent years the Lincoln
has fallen completely out of favour, while the Cotswold appears
to be fighting a losing battle to maintain its position. No single
breed of ram, however, has yet established itself as the suc-
cessor of the Longwool in this area, and various Down breeds
are being tried.
Standardization. The complaint has been made that while
the Scottish farmer of the lowlands decided 50 years ago what
was the most suitable sheep for his farming, the English farmer
is still struggling in a confusion of breeds. If the increase in
cross-breeding be the result of deliberate and planned poli6y,
it can only be regarded as a sign of a healthy interest in the
problems of the industiy , but if it be the result of indiscriminate
and haphazard experiment, then the development is dangerous.
It is necessary to consider, therefore, whether the breeds of
sheep kept in the arable districts are too numerous, and if so,
how far standardization of breeding is possible. The Pig
Reorganization Commission passed severe strictures on the
multiplicity of pig breeds and urged the need of a reduction.
Does a similar situation exist in the sheep industry and if so,
what are the obstacles to be overcome ?
If a farmer has no desire to rear his own ewe lambs, he
can buy ewes of the breed most suitable for commercial mutton
and lamb production; but if the cost of replacing the ewes is
very heavy, he may find it cheaper to breed from the best of
his own lambs. Here, the producer of early lambs may find
himself again in a difficulty, because he is always tom between
the desire to sell as many as possible of his lambs fat and
to retain the best for breeding. On some farms, this has led
to Ihe deterioration of the ewe stock because it was cheaper,
568
Changes in Sheep Breeding
in the short run, to breed from inferior stock and sell all the best *
lambs to the butcher. If cross-bred ewes are to be kept, the
fertility both of the ram and of the ewe must be taken into
account, together with the milking capacity of their respective
breeds. The success of the half-bred ewe suggests that ewes
need not necessarily be pure-bred, but there is grave danger
that in continuous crossing the importance of good foundation
stock may be neglected and that breeding qualities may be
lost in concentration on mutton and lamb production.
The qualities in the make-up of a good ewe are not necessarily
incompatible with the production of the best mutton and lamb,
while improvement is possible by crossing with a suitable ram.
There are, however, limits to such improvement, and as the
sheep industry is not homogeneous, the various sections of it
are not always working to the same end. Broadly speaking,
there are three main objects, (i) lambs for the early lamb trade,
(2) lambs for the summer fat lamb trade, and (3) lambs for
winter fattening.
For the early lamb trade the capacity to breed very early,
such as the Dorset Horn and Dorset Down possess, is essential
in the ewe. Fertility may be of secondary importance, because
single lambs can meet the Easter market when twins would
miss it. The Iamb must be early maturing, a voracious feeder
and capable of being forced on arable crops. These are
qualities which the Hampshire possesses to a high degree, and
both for rams for crossing and as a pure breed, it is widely
used.
In the summer fat lamb trade, as distinct from the early
trade, the fertility and milking capacity of the ewe are of
prime importance. If, as seems probable, these fat lambs are
to be produced more and more from grass, the advantage of
choosing a grass ewe is obvious, and both the Scotch Half-bred
and the Kerry Hill are being widely used. Few farmers have
looked beyond the Down breeds in seeking a ram, for they
give a native adaptability to the cross, which permits it to be
finished on arable crops if necessary.
For stores for winter fattening, early maturity is not so
essential, but the capacity to consume bulky fodder, and hardi-
ness to withstand climatic conditions, are all-important. These
were the qualities that established the reputation of the Long-
wool breeds. The weight of wool is no longer of prime import-
ance, however, and a wide choice of ewes and rams is available.
If a grass ewe should be used, the presumption is that folding
369
Changes in Sheep Breeding
* blood needs to be introduced, and this again invites the use
of Down rams.
With these divergent aims and methods of production, any
rigid standardization is not to be expected. Specialization in
production follows a well-defined demand, and for the early
lamb trade pure bred flocks of the Dorset Horn, Hampshire
and Dorset Down breeds will continue to have their place.
Again, for the highest quality mutton and lamb production the
Southdown is likely to maintain a position of its own in a
limited area
Reasons have been advanced already for suggesting that
the prospects of the recovery of the Longwool breeds are
remote. The decline in winter fattening and in breeding on
arable land, however, has equally affected the Down breeds,
because it was inevitable that farmers should seek ewes better
suited to the new conditions and try to breed lambs capable
of meeting the changes in demand.
The confusion in breeding is largely the result of this transi-
tion. Many farmers were reluctant to change their tried
favourites, but others have been quick to see the advantages
of the grass ewe. The grass ewe, however, is not a complete
solution of the problems of sheep farming in arable districts.
It is not possible, even if it were desirable, for all farmers to
produce nothing but fat lambs; only the best can be sold off
their mothers to the butchers, and when attempts are made to
intensify production this proportion often declines, owing to
disease.
There is apparently room for the development of a com-
promise system. The grass and arable systems should be
regarded as complementary, particularly in areas of arable
farming, and if a new system is to develop, it would be based
upon an extended use of temporary pastures, which would give
some of the advantages of both.
Such a system would be founded on the grass ewe as the
cheapest method of breeding, but probably a Down ram would
be used. Many of the experiments in crossing have been*
directed towards the production of a dual-purpose lamb that
could either be sold fat off the grass or finished on arable crops
if necessary. The Down flocks are tending more and more
to concentrate upon the supply of rams for crossing rather than
upon commercial pure-bred production. The part played by
the Down ram in the improvement of the crosses from Long-
wool ewes has been mentioned, but its future is likely to be
570
Changes in Sheep Breeding
rather for rams for crossing with grass ewes. The change in
the distribution of the registered Down flocks lends support to
this view. It is certain that the increase in the number of
Suffolk flocks in Yorkshire, Northumberland, Warwickshire
and Shropshire does not indicate a revival of arable sheep
farming in these areas. The change in distribution is due to
the popularity of the ram rather than of the ewe, the ram being
principally used for crossing with the grass ewe. On the other
hand, the Hampshire, although widely used, does not show
any appreciable change in the distribution of its registered
flocks, because its popularity for crossing with grass ewes is
largely confined to the chalk areas of the southern counties,
which have always been the stronghold of this breed.
The choice between breeds must be made on a balance of
advantages, and what these are has been a matter for experi-
ment. If the problems of the industry are clearly envisaged,
however, there is little need for the present confusion. Certain
breeds have little future in commercial production, and the
arguments for a measure of standardization in breeding must
eventually carry some weight.
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of
producer-retailers’ contributions for July, 1937,, are given'
below, with comparative figures for June, 1937, and July,
1936. The wholesale liquid milk price in July of this year
was IS. id., in June is. and in July, 1936, is, id. per gallon.
Pool Prices
Producer-Retailers *
Contributions
June,
Juiy»
June,
1937
1937
1936
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
10
9 i
9*
2*
2 A
3
North-Western . .
. . 10
9 i
9i
2*
2A
3
Eastern . .
.. 10*
9i
10
2*
i«
2|
East Midland
.. lO*
9 i
9i
2i
2A
2«
West Midland
9 i
9
9i
2f
2*
3
North Wales
.. 9i
9
9*
2f
2*
3
South Wales
. . 10
9i
9*
2*
2A
3
Southern . .
.. lO*
9i
10
2*
I»
2*
Mid- Western
•• 9l
9
9i
2}
2*
3
Far-Western
9I
9
9i
2}
2*
3
South-Eastern
. . io|
10
lO*
2
li
2*
Unweighted Average
.. lO'og
9*32
9-68
2.49
2*26
2-86
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special ser-
vices and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited producers’
premium of id. per gallon.
The accredited premium was paid on 31,961,119 gal. , and the
sum required for the payment of the premium was equivalent
to a levy of .34id. per gallon on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at ijd. per
gallon, compared with ijd. per gallon in July, 1936. A levy
of Jd. per gallon was made for general expenses.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
July, 1937
(estimated)
July, 1936
Gallons
GaHona
Liquid . .
50>499.i5i
Manufacturing
31,026,412
37,152,699
81,525,563
84,592,478
Percentage liquid sales :
61 -94
56-08
Percentage manufacturing sales :
38-06
43-92
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
July was 5.55d. per gallon, compared with S-iod. per gallon
57a
Marketing Notes
for July, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into cheese
on farms was 2,995,614 gallons, compared with 3,107,391
gallons in the previous month and 2,712,414 gallons in July,
1936.
Amendment of the Milk Marketing Scheme. On August
3, 1937, the Minister made an Order, under Section i of the
Agricultural Marketing Act, 1931, amending the Milk Market-
ing Scheme. Copies of the Order, which is entitled “ The
Milk Marketing Scheme (Amendment) (No. 2) Order, 1937,”
(S.R. & O. 1937, No. 744), may be obtained from H.M.
Stationery Office, price $d. net.
The amendments, which, except where stated below, take
effect as from August 4, 1937, deal inter alia with the following
matters : —
Wholesale Producers owning not more than Four Cows.
Such producers, who were exempted from registration under
the original Scheme, must now be registered. The Board, by
resolution, however, have exempted from the operation of
the Scheme sales of milk by these registered producers until
September 30, 1937, provided that the milk is delivered to the
purchaser not later than that date. As from October i, 1937,
all sales of milk by such producers will be subject to the provi-
sions of the Scheme.
Producer-retailers’ Contributions and Condition of Producer-
retailers’ Licences. New rates of contributions for producers
who sell by retail or semi-retail which take effect from October
I, 1937. and which vary according to the quality-category of
the milk sold, are provided for as follows : —
Milk in category I (Tulwculin-Tested milk) . . Id. per gal.
,, ,, ,, II (Accredited milk) .. ..id,
,, ,, ,, III (other milk) . . . . ijrf.
These rates are subject to a reduction of \d. per gallon if the
contributions are paid within 14 days after they become due,
but if a producer-retailer sells any milk by wholesale (except
on contracts carrying level delivery premiums) his contribution
will be increased by \d. per gallon on all his retail or semi-
retail sales. The Board are empowered to vary the above
rates after July 31, 1938, except as regards Tuberculin-Tested
milk.
An amendment also adds to the conditions that may be
imposed by the Board in granting producer-retailers’ licences,
and the grounds on which the Board may refuse to issue such
573
Marketing Notes
licences. The new conditions relate inter alia to the manner in
which milk sold is to be graded, the persons to whom milk
may be sold by semi-retail, and the nature of the books and
records to be kept by producer-retailers. The Board will be
entitled to refuse to issue a licence to a producer who owes a
debt to the Board exceeding a specified amount.
Position of Producers of Tuberculin-Tested Milk. The
Board, with the consent of the Minister of Agriculture and
Fisheries, have withdrawn the exemption of sales of Tuberculin-
Tested milk from the operation of Part VI of the Scheme, but
sales of Tuberculin-Tested milk, sold as such, will continue to
be exempt up to September 30, 1937, provided that the milk is
delivered to the purchasers not later than that date. As from
October i next, however, all sales of Tuberculin-Tested milk
will come within the scope of the Scheme. Certain of the
amendments of the Scheme approved by the Minister relate
particularly to sales of Tuberculin-Tested milk and the position
of producers of such milk under the Scheme is set out below.
Sales by Retail or Semi-retail. A producer of Tuberculin-Tested milk
who desires to sell by retail or semi-retail must obtain a licence from
the Board. No charge is made for this licence. Contributions payable
to the funds of the Board in respect of Tuberculin -Tested milk sold by
retail or semi-retail are fixed until October i, I939. at Id. per gallon,
subject to a reduction of \d. per gallon if the contributions are paid
within 14 days after they become due. If a producer-retailer sells any
milk by wholesale (except on contracts carrying level delivery premiums)
his contribution will be increased by \d. per gallon on his retail or semi-
retail sales. After October i, 1939, the contributions may be varied
to such extent only as a consulted person,'* appointed by the Minister,
may approve. The contribution payable in respect of Tuberculin-
Tested milk on .sales by retail or semi-retail is id. per gallon less than the
contribution payable by registered producers on similar sales of ordinary
milk.
The amendments of the Milk Marketing Scheme provide that sales
of Tuberculin-Tested milk produced and bottled by a registered producer
on his farm are to be regarded as sales by retail and that Tuberculin-
Tested milk sold by a registered producer and delivered by him in
quantities not exceeding in the whole 10 gallons in a day to any one
purchaser shall be deemed to be sold by semi-retail.
Sales by Wholesale. Registered producers who sell Tuberculin-Tested
milk by wholesale will be liable for the payment of the same levies
and other charges of the Milk Marketing Board, and will be subject
to the same liabilities and benefits under the Scheme, as wholesale
producers who sell ordinary milk. They will, however, be eligible to
receive the following premiums.
(i) Under the Milk Marketing Board’s regulations relating to the
Accredited Scheme, Tuberculin-Tested milk sold otherwise than by
retail or semi-retail will be eligible for the premium of id. per gallon
payable to producers of Accredited milk. i
574
Marketing Notes
(ii) Under the amendments of the Milk Marketing Scheme a special
quality premium will be payable on all Tuberculin-Tested milk sold
by wholesale. The amount of this premium is fixed by the Scheme
at not less than id. per gallon until October i, 1939, and thereafter
may only be varied with the approval of a " consulted person appointed
by the Minister.
(iii) The amendments also provide that, where Tuberculin-Tested
milk is sold, otherwise than by retail or semi-retail, at a prescribed prtce
which is in excess of the prescribed regional price for ordinary milk,
any such excess received by the Board shall be paid to the registered
producer as if it were a special service premium.
Minimum Selling Prices. The Minister has requested the MilkMarketing
Board to appoint an Advisory Committee, consisting of two i^presenta-
tives nominated by the Board, two representatives by the Tuberculin-
Tested Milk Producers’ Association, and an independent Chairman, to
advise the Board as to the minimum prices that should be fixed for
Tuberculin-Tested milk sold by wholesale and by retail.
The Attested Herds Scheme. Producers of Tuberculin-Tested milk who
hold a Certificate of Attestation under the Attested Herds Scheme will
receive the additional bonus of id. per gallon payable under that
Scheme on all milk from the Attested Herd sold by wholesale, semi-
retail or retail under the provisions of the Milk Marketing Scheme.
Miscellaneous. The amendments also provide for a minor
alteration in the system of registering contracts; a revision, to
take effect from October i next, of the system of assessing
freight charges, in order to remove anomalies arising from the
variation in such charges borne by individual producers send-
ing to different approved depots in the same region; an
improvement in the procedure for nominating and electing
members of the Board, and an increase in the “ requisite
number” of producers who may demand a poll on the question
of revoking the Scheme.
Potato Marketing Scheme. Riddle Regulations. On
August 5, 1937, the Potato Marketing Board passed a resolu-
tion prohibiting as from that date the sale by registered pro-
ducers of any potatoes for human consumption, produced in
Scotland, of the varieties Kerr’s Pink and Red Skin that are
capable of passing through a 2-in. riddle.
Hops Marketing Scheme. The Hops Marketing Board
have agreed that the rate of levy contributions to be paid by
brewers in respect of 1937 hop® shall be 3s. per cwt. instead of
los. per cwt. hitherto payable under the Agreement made
between the Board and the Brewers’ Society.
Draft Sugar Beet Marketing Scheme. The modifications
proposed to be made by the Minister of Agriculture and
575
Marketing Notes
Fisheries and the Secretary of State for Scotland to the Sugar
Beet Marketing Scheme, as re-submitted by the promoters, were
notified on July 14 to the persons nominated for the purpose
in accordance with the requirements of Section i (5) (c) of the
Agricultural Marketing Act, 1931. The nominated persons
have applied for an extension of time to consider the modifica-
tions and the Minister and the Secretary of State for Scotland
have accordingly extended the period to October 31, 1937.
Milk (Amendment) Act, 1937. This Act, which received
the Royal Assent on July 30, 1937, continues for a further
year, with some amendment, various provisions of the Milk
Acts, 1934 and 1936, that would otherwise expire on September
30, 1937-
Section 1 extends for a further twelve months to September
30, 1938, the period in respect of which Exchequer advances
may, subject to certain conditions, be made to Milk Marketing
Boards in Great Britain in respect of milk manufactured at
factories (whether owned by the Milk Boards or not) into
butter, cheese, condensed milk, cream or milk powder, or
manufactured into cheese on farms.
Section 2 extends for a further year until September 30, 1940,
the period during which Milk Boards are under a contingent
liability to repay these Exchequer advances. (As announced
in paragraph 8 of the recent White Paper on Milk Policy, Cmd.
5533 — see page 525 of this issue of the Journal — ^it is proposed
in legislation to be introduced next session to relieve the
Milk Boards of any balance of this liability accruing after
September 30, 1937.)
Section 3 extends for a further year, until September 30,
1938, the period in respect of which Exchequer advances may
be made to Milk Marketing Boards in respect of schemes for
increasing the demand for milk (including the Milk-in-Schools
Scheme).
Under Section 4, the period in respect of which advances may
be made to the Government of Northern Ireland in respect of
milk manufactured into butter or cream at registered creameries
is extended for a further year until September 30, 1938, and
the period during which the Government of Northern Ireland
are under a contingent liability to repay these advances is
similarly extended for a year, until September 30, 1940.
576
Marketing Notes
Under Section 4 of the Milk Act, 1934, the cheese-milk price
for any month, which governs the rate of payments both to
the Milk Boards and by the Milk Boards in respect of milk
used for manufacture, was defined as the excess over i\d. of
the average of the prices per lb. at which New Zealand finest
white cheese and Canadian finest white cheese was sold whole-
sale in Great Britain during the immediately preceding month.
Section 5 of the present Act provides that as from August i,
1937, the cheese-milk price is to be such sum as the Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries and the Secretary of State for
Scotland, acting in conjunction, may, with the approval of the
Treasury, certify to represent the value per gallon of the greater
part of the milk, which, during that month, was sold whole-
sale in Great Britain for manufacture into cheese. The Section
further provides that as from August i, 1937, the payments
to the Board or by the Board in respect of milk used for manu-
facture into butter, shall be governed, not by the cheese-milk
price but by the monthly butter-milk price which is defined
as such sum as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries and
the Secretary of State for Scotland, acting in conjunction, may,
with the approval of the Treasury, certify to represent the
value per gallon of the greater part of the milk which, during
that month, was sold wholesale in Great Britain for manufac-
ture into butter.
Section 6 of the Act provides that the expression “ net cost
per gallon of the milk to the purchaser ” in Section i of the
Milk Act, 1934, shall be construed in effect as meaning the
manufacturing price for the milk with such additions, if any,
thereto as the Minister may determine as representing other
sums payable in respect of the milk in question.
Section 7 authorizes payments by Milk Boards to registered
producers in respect of milk sold at a reduced price (as in the
present experimental schemes in certain parts of the Special
Areas), if arrangements to that effect are approved by the
Minister.
Wheat Act, 1932. Sales of Home-Grown Wheat, Cereal
Year, 1936-37. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commis-
sion by registered growers during the period August i, 1936, to
August 7, 1937, covered sales of 23,552,914! cwt. of millable
wheat as compared with 33,588,020 cwt, in the corresponding
period (to August 7) in the preceding cereal year.
c
577
Marketing Notes
Byelaws of the Wheat Commission. The Minister and the
Secretaries of State for Scotland and the Home Department
have made the Wheat Commission (Approval of Byelaws) No.
TO Order, 1937 (S.R. and O. 1937, No. 745), approving two
additional Byelaws, Nos. 28A and 35A to be read as one with
the Wheat Byelaws, 1932. The purpose of these additional Bye-
laws is to enable the Wheat Commission to give effect to the
provisions of Section 7 of the Agriculture Act, 1937, that if,
in respect of any farm, any person elects to avail himself of
the oats and barley subsidy, then no deficiency payments are
to be payable under the Wheat Act, 1932, in respect of any
wheat harvested in that year and grown on land which, at
any time during the first eight months of that year, was com-
prised in that farm. The new Byelaws provide for a special
form of declaration to be made by registered growers in respect
of wheat certificates issued in August and September of this
year, and for various amendments in the form of wheat certi-
ficates issued after September 30, 1937. Copies of the Order
can be obtained — price yi.. net — from the Stationery Office or
through any bookseller. Copies of the new Byelaws and of
the Wheat Byelaws, 1932 (the latter, price 6d. post free), may
be obtained from the Wheat Commission, 10, Smith ^uare,
London, S.W.i.
Ascertained Average Price of Home-Grown Millable W'heat
in 1936-37. After consultation with the Wheat Commission,
the Minister has made the Wheat (Ascertained Average Price)
Order, 1937, (S.R. & O. 1937, No. 780) certifying and prescrib-
ing that, during the cereal year ended July 31, 1937, registered
growers sold 23,700,000 cwt. of millable wheat of their own
growing at an average price of 8s. g.g2d. per cwt.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936. Assessment
of Refiners’ Contributions to British Sugar Corporation, Ltd.
The Minister has made the Sugar Refining Agreement (Assess-
ment of Contributions) Scheme (Approval) Order, 1937 (S.R.
& O. 1937, No. 771) approving a Scheme submitted to him
by the Sugar Commission under Section 9 (i) of the Sugar
Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936. The ^heme provides
for the assessment of contributions to be made under the Sugar
Refining Agreement dated February 22, 1937, to the British
Sugar Corporation, Ltd., by other registered refiners, and for
the payment to the Corporation of such contributions; the
Scheme comes into force on September i, 1937.
578
Marketing Notes
Proposed Beet-Sugar Factory at Pembroke. In reply to a
question in Parliament on July 29, the Minister announced that
the Sugar Commission had informed him that, after careful
investigation, it had reached the conclusion that the erection
of a beet-sugar factory in Pembroke would not be justified on
economic grounds. The Minister added that in fte light of
this advice, and after communicating with the Commissioner
for the Special Areas (England and Wales), he did not consider
that any useful purpose would be served in examining this
project further.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of pay-
ments made under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts, 1934 to 1936 : —
Period
Payments
A nimals
A verage payment
per animal
April to July, 1935
■ £
J. 240,457
5^4.484
i s, d.
270
April to July, 1936
1,276,892
548,406
266
April to July, 1937
1,267,041
542.502
268
♦September i, 1934 to
July 31, 1937
11,146.953
4,710,286
2 610
* Commencement of Subsidy payments.
National Mark Trade Committees. The duty of advising
the National Mark Committee and the Minister on matters
relating to both the National Mark Egg Scheme and the National
Mark Dressed Poultry Scheme was originally entrusted to the
National Mark Egg and Poultry Trade Committee. In view
of developments which rendered it desirable that there should
be a Committee for each Scheme, the National Mark Egg and
Poultry Trade Committee was recently dissolved and the Mini-
ster of Agriculture and Fisheries has now appointed separate
Committees as follows : —
National Mark Egg Trade Committee:
Mr. A. F. Forbes, C.A. (Chairman) ; Mr. S. Street Porter, Mr. W. B.
Bradley and Mrs. L. K. Huxley, O.B.E. (representing producers) ;
Mr. T. Robinson, Mr. S. G. Shaw, and Mr. J. McFadyen (repre-
senting distributors) ; Mr. F. G. Swan (representing packers) ;
and Mr. E. T. Hainan of the School of Agriculture, Cambridge.
National Mark Dressed Poultry Trade Committee :
Mr. A. F. Forbes, C.A. (Chairman) ; Mr. W. B. Bradley, Mr. P.
Hed worth Foulkes, B.Sc., Mr. Oliver Powell and Mr. Leslie Sorrell
(representing producers) ; Mr. A. S. Juniper, Mr. C. Percy Keevil
and Mr. J. McFadyen (representing distributors) ; Mr. W. W.
Waite, M.B.E. (representing retailers) ; and Mr. C. Crowther, M.A.,
Ph.D., Principal of Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport,
Shropshire.
C 2
579
Marketing Notes
National Mark Dressed Poultry. Full details of the out-
put of authorized stations during the half-year ended June 30,
1937, are not yet available, but the returns received to date
show that over 160,000 birds have been packed under National
Mark labels as compared with 104,000 birds during the
corresponding period of 1936. It is noteworthy that this in-
crease in National Mark output has been achieved in spite of
the fact that the number of authorized packers decreased from
36 in 1936 to 32 in 1937.
National Mark Publicity. A National Mark Exhibition wjll
be held at Exeter during the period September 15-24, with the
co-operation of the civic authorities.
The Ministry will stage an appropriate exhibit at the
National Honey Show to be held at the Horticultural Hall,
London, from September 1-4; and at the Grocers' Exhibition in
the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, a comprehensive range
of National Mark products will be displayed and samples will
be on sale during the period September 18-24. A full range
of the Ministry’s publications will be on sale at each show.
580
SEPTEMBER ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
Armstrong College. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
At the time of writing harvesting is in full operation in the
south of England, and if good weather continues little will be
left uncarted in September. In the north of England, how-
ever, a start has not yet been made on most farms. On the
whole there is perhaps less laid com than usual, although in
the Fens, particularly round Boston, heavy rain laid many
crops at the end of July, with the result that harvesting will be
a most laborious business. Oats appear to be the disappointing
cereal of 1937, crops frequently being much below the average.
Oat straw for fodder will be short on many farms, and it is
fortunate that the hay crop is abundant and has commonly
been secured in good condition.
Our Grass Land. Readers will have learned from the press
of the meetings of the International Grassland Congress in
Great Britain during July. Such meetings are most valuable.
Not only is much valuable information made available at the
fixed meetings when specialists deal with various aspects of
grassland management, but an excellent opportunity is afforded
for delegates to discuss many of the problems during the time
they spend together while visiting different parts of the country.
As one takes account of grass land in the country one is
impressed with the magnitude and many-sided nature of the
problems involved. Ranging from the hill and mountain
pastures of low productivity, yielding in many instances less
than 40 lb. of live- weight increase per acre per armum, where
questions of the most suitable grazing stock with ability to
live and thrive on poor pasturage and under adverse conditions
of climate and disease are perhaps first considerations, to areas
of high production involving suitable seeds mixtures, considera-
tions of the most productive strains of plants, manuring and
management, there is surely a wide field for chemists, botanists,
veterinarians and agriculturists.
The productivity of very large areas of hill land can no
doubt be greatly increased as far as pasturage is concerned,
but the economic aspect needs to be carefully considered before
much expenditure is undertaken. In a large number of
581
September on the Farm
instances, if our hill land produces more pasturage, cattle need
to be grazed in addition to sheep, as there is a limit to the
number of sheep that can be maintained in health. Where
cattle are involved in a farming system the provision of suitable
winter keep has to be considered, and it is frequently very
difficult to provide this on hill farms. Suitable winter accommo-
dation for cattle is often lacking on such farms, the provision
of which involves considerable expenditure.
There are very large areas of enclosed land, much of which
was at one time under the plough, with buildings and
accommodation for livestock, which are capable of greatly
increased productivity. Economic improvement of such areas
is often possible, and the provision of the necessary winter
keep is a practical proposition. It seems necessary to stress
the importance of making provision for a corresponding
increase of available winter food if we are to cash the increase
in the quality and quantity of our improved pastures. On
grass farms the improvement of the permanent hay ground
should be considered along with the improvement of pastures.
The judicious use of phosphatic fertilizers, and where necessary
potash, together with proper grazing management is the sound
basis for the improvement of this type of land. The lessons
of the Tree Field and Hanging Leaves plots at Cockle Park
still play a most important part, in fact they give the key to
the improvement of grass land. This work needs to be, and
has been, carried further, but if the principles worked out on
these fields and on the Palace Leas hay plots were applied more
generally a great increase would be obtained from our grass
land.
Increased output from pastures means increased capital in
grazing stock. It is not wise to attempt the former unless
tiiere is preparedness to follow up with the latter. The speci-
alist considers and stresses his particular section, but the
successful farmer must alwa}^ have the whole problem before
him and maintain a correct balance in relation to each aspect,
whether it be manuring, grazing management, disease, type
of animal or market requirements.
Grazing of Aftermath. After the hay crop has been
removed from both temporary and permanent hay ground an
abundant growth of succulent aftermath is frequently obtained
in a favourable season. In most areas it is desirable that this
autumn-grown grass should be consumed in the early part of
582
September on the Farm
the winter. If left uneaten it is usually cut down by frost,
is largely wasted, and the uneaten herbage forms a mat on the
surface of the soil, thus producing harmful conditions for the
next year’s crop. While aftermaths provide a " change "
and clean ground for sheep, the feeding value is not so good as
that of corresponding pasture land, and at this season of the
year there is a falling off in the feeding value of grass land
generally. Milk producers know how yields fall, even where
grass is abundant, unless some compensation is given in the
way of additional concentrates. Every effort should be made
to maintain milk yields at this season of the year, as any falling
off in yield is not easily recovered during the winter. In the
autumn there is a natural tendency for cows to fall in yield.
Efficient milking as well as attention to feeding should be
particularly watched at the present time.
Early Winter Beef. It is sometimes said that “ a week’s
feeding in the yards in September is worth two in November.”
Where the object is to have beef animals ready for the early
winter market it is an advantage to put them into the yards
in good time. The rate at which animals put on flesh when on
grass alone in October is much slower, and it takes some time
to settle down when they are brought indoors. A careful
watch should be kept on animals intended for early fattening,
to see that they do not mark time at this season of the year.
Cattle look bulky and appear to be putting on weight, when
quite frequently there is very little gain. In the autumn animals
grow more hair, and with a lot of bulky feed they have an
air of well-doing, which is more apparent than real. Suckled
calves should be taught to take trough food where this can be
done. If they have been accustomed to concentrates before
weaning they do not suffer the same check as when they have
to be taught to eat after weaning. The advantage of weaning
in good time is two-fold: the weather is better for the calves,
and the dams have a little time to recover from the weaning
period before the weather becomes too severe and are thus
better able to withstand the winter, where it is the practice to
run out of doors.
Sheep. On many lowland farms the rams are turned to
ewes during the month, although on farms where early lambs
are required they will have been away for some time already.
There is no doubt that it is most important to have lambs
583
September on the Farm
arriving at a time when the ewes can have sufficient suitable
food for milk production. At Cockle Park, for example, it is
found that March-born lambs are usually as heavy as Februaiy-
bom lambs at weaning time. By delaying lambing until there is
a prospect of more suitable food and better weather conditions
there is a considerable saving in keep. Such a farm cannot
compete with earlier and more sheltered farms for early fat
lamb production. Prolificacy was referred to in the August
issue of this Journal, p. 476. Management as well as breed
affect the numbers of lambs bom. Ewes should be in improv-
ing condition without being excessively fat, although poor
ewes do not usually produce a heavy crop of lambs. While
the hill farmer does not want more than a lamb per ewe he
does not want a large proportion of barren or geld ewes. What-
ever the conditions it is certainly desirable to have the flock
thriving just before and during the tupping season. Flushing
can frequently be practised on lowland farms, while a change
can sometimes be obtained on hill places. Care should be
taken to see that rams are doing their work, and it is desirable
not to have too many ewes per ram. If a large number of ewes
are in season on one day some may be missed or the number of
lambs bora may not be so great.
During the month fattening sheep are frequently put on
to the root break. Cabbages and marrow stem kale may be
available in the south, while soft turnips would probably be
used in the north. Sheep usually fatten better on root crops
when the crop has reached a fair stage of maturity. It is well
recognized that fattening hoggs will make better gains on
mature soft turnips in early autumn than on immature swedes.
When the root crop is not being cut and trough-fed to the sheep
it is not possible to control the quantity consumed, unless daily
pens are set. Very satisfactory gains can be obtained when the
quantity of roots is controlled and other suitable foods are
given. Variety in the concentrate mixture is advantageous,
but it is desirable that foods should be well mixed and finely
broken.
Where a cereal and high protein cake mixture is fed, a strong
sheep that may be master of the trough frequently consumes
much more than its share of the protein food, resulting in loss
to the others and very considerable danger to itself. Some
years ago it was customary to feed much more protein in the
ration to fattening sheep than is now common. A mixture
containing four parts of cereals to one part of a rich protein
584
September on the Farm
cake is now in common use in the north of England. Fewer
deaths have occurred amongst the fattening sheep since the
amount of protein was reduced.
Wheat. If opportunity permits much wheat will be sown
during the month. Where it can be grown it is the popular
cereal. It can be sown successfully over a long period, it is
the easiest cereal to harvest, and there is now less speculation
as to the price obtainable. While wheat frequently produces
a crop when sown under less favourable soil conditions it does
pay to put the seed in under the best conditions obtainable. In
these days wheat more frequently follows a cereal crop than it
did at one time. When this is so it is important that manuring
should be provided. If farmyard manure cannot be supplied
an autumn application of phosphates and if needful potash
should be given. Sometimes a light nitrogenous dressing may
also be applied at sowing time to give the crop a start. This
would be followed by suitable spring applications. Wheat can
stand and usually pays for liberal manuring.
The choice of variety is always an important matter. In
districts where rust is common Little Joss is a great favourite.
In the north of England, however, this variety is little grown.
It yields less and is much more apt to lodge than varieties like
Crown, Steel, Wilhelmina and Renown. Quality is a desir-
able character in any wheat variety, but I do not know any
year so far when the heaviest yielding variety did not leave the
best return to the farmer in the north of England. The seed
rate varies considerably in different parts of the country, the
range being from 2 to 4 bushels per acre. Visitors to Cockle
Park often express surprise when told that 3J to 4 bushels is
the normal seeding for wheat. Experience has proved that
the best crops are obtained from such seedings on this farm.
Where physical conditions of soil are poor and winter condi-
tions are unfavourable a thick plant is an advantage.
Looking Forward. Haymaking and harvesting machinery
can be put away until 1938. Defects are now known and it
is a good plan to have necessary repairs attended to before
finally putting away for the winter. Cattle will soon be housed
and on to their winter rations. If attention has not already been
given to winter concentrates, markets should be considered
and necessary provision made . Similarly the winter manuring
policy should be worked out so that it can be proceeded with
without delay when opportunity permits.
585
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Description
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended Aug. 4
Bristol
Hull
L’pool
London
Costs
per
Unitt
i
5.
i
5.
£
5.
£
5.
5.
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 15^%)
8
oc
8
oc
8
05
8
oc
10
4
,, ,, Granulated (N. 16%)
1*
8
oc
3
oc
8
05
8
oc
10
0
Nitro-Chalk (N. i5i%)
7
TOC
7
10c
7
IOC
7
IOC
9
9
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20 '6%) . .
7
3 C
7
7
10
7
3 ^
7
0
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20-6%)
7
Sd
7
5d
7
5d
7
5d
7
0 *
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . ^
2
18
2
15
2
15
2
15
3
II
Potash ^Its (Pot. 30%)
5
0
5
I
4
19
4
17
3
3
„ „ (Pot. 20%)
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8
3
8
8
8
5
8
I
3
3
Sulphate (Pot. 48%)
Basic Slag (P.A. 15}%)
9
13
10
0
9
17
9
II
4
0
2
106
2
26
2
76
3
0
„ „ (P.A. 14%)..
s
2
5 ^
1
176
1
176
2
3 b
3
I
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P.A. 26-
27 i%)
2
12a
.
2
10a
2
5 «
I
8
Superphosphate (S.P.A. i6%). .
3
4
.
3
3 <?
3
of
3
9
(S.P.A. 13}%)
Bone Meal (N. 3}%. P.A. 20*%)
3
I
2
^7
2
19c
2
16/
4
I
.
.
6
10 1
7
5 g
7
2
Steamed Bone Flour (N. |%,
1
P.A. 271 - 291 %) ..
1
5
5 h
5
10 1
5
og
5
0
•
Abbreviations ; N. »= Nitrogen : A. = Phosphoric Acid :
S.P.A. = Soluble Phosphoric Acid : Pot. — Potash.
♦ Prices arc for not less than O-ton lots, at purchaser’s nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
S Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are ciculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons 55. per ton extra, and for lots of 1 ton and under
2 tons 105 . extra.
d Delivered in 4-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons the price is 55. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons 105 . per ton extra, for lots of 10 cwt. and under i ton 155. extra, and
for lots of less than 10 cwt., but not less than 2 cwt., 205. extra.
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, 15. 3d. extra
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
A Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
^ These are calculated by regarding a ion as comprising 100 units " {equai parts
of 22*4 lb.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such “ units ” in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduud cost is that of a*' unit " of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices, (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, ** The Valuation of Artificial Manures,'* obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
586
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.
Harper Adams Agricultural College
Meat Meals. In the feeding of pigs and poultry widespread
use is made of the by-products of the slaughterhouse, which
are marketed in dried form as meat meal or meat and bone
meal. These feeds are not only very rich in protein, usually
containing 45-60 per cent, according to grade, but also the
” quality ” of the protein is such that it tends to correct the
quality deficiencies of the proteins of the cereal meals along with
which the meat meal is fed. In this latter respect the protein
of meat proper, such as is provided by the muscles and glandu-
lar tissues (liver, kidney, etc.), is superior to that provided by
gristle, connective tissue, skin and bone. This difference is
apparent from the chemical make-up of the proteins of these
different types of material, and has been confirmed in practical
pig-feeding experiments at the Harper Adams College.
The highest quality of meat meal would thus be a product
made from pure lean meat, free from fat and bone, and such
a product would contain well over 80 per cent, of protein, all
of high quality. The presence of connective tissue, skin, etc.
(but not bone) along with the meat would not greatly reduce
&e percentage of protein, but would lower its quality. Such a
meal, made from pure meat, with or without connective tissue,
etc. , though very rich in protein, would be comparatively poor
in minerals, and in itself would therefore not be a complete
supplement to the cereal meals, which are also deficient in
certain minerals, notably lime and salt.
At the other extreme from pure meat meal is pure bone
meal, which, after subjecting to the process customary in
the manufacture of meat and bone meals, commonly contains
about 25 per cent, of protein of lower quality than meat protein,
along with a very high proportion of minerals, consisting chiefly
of phosphate of lime, this forming about 55 per cent, of the
weight of the meal. Any admixture of bone with tiie meat
used for making a “ meat meal ” will thus tend to lower the
proportion and quality of the protein, and to raise the
proportion of minerals, especially lime and phosphoric acid.
587
Notes on Feeding
All commercial " meat meals” are of this character, and
include a proportion of bone. Provided the proportion of
protein does not fall below 55 per cent. , it is legitimate under
the Fertilizere and Feeding Stuffs Act for the product to be
described as " meat meal,” but below this limit the designation
of ” meat and bone meal ” must be used. For the lowest
grades on the market ‘ ‘ bone and meat meal ’ ' would be a more
correct description. The operation of the Act has tended to
standardize ” Meat Meal ” at a level of 55-60 per cent, protein,
but ” meat and bone meals ” show a rather wider range, 40-50
per cent.
Another factor that tends to influence the protein content
of these meals is the amount of fat remaining in them from
the raw materials used. Naturally, the higher the percentage
of fat, the lower tend to be the percentages of protein and
other ingredients. Within limits, fat may be a very valuable
nutrient, but if present in too large a quantity it often tends
to impair palatability, to depress the digestibility of the food
as a whole, and, even worse, to spoil the quality of the fat in
the carcass of the animal that consumes the meal. The last-
named point is of particular importance in connexion with the
use of meat meals in pig-feeding, and does not receive the
attention it requires. It is not uncommon for meals to be sold
containing 10 per cent, or more of fat, and there is now direct
evidence that the use of such meals, even at a rate no greater
than 8-10 per cent, of the total food, may easily produce pig
carcasses quite unsuitable for curing.
On the other hand, there is evidence that excessive heat or
fat solvents employed to reduce the fat content of the meal
to a low point may impair its palatability and digestibility. On
this and other points information is available in the results of
digestion trials carried out by Woodman at Cambridge, and
which are reported in the current issue of the Journal of
Agricultural Science.
For this work he procured three meat meals of widely differ-
ing fat content, made from the same consignment of raw
material by three different processes. The first stage of the
process was the same in each instance, the raw material
(including 10 per cent, of bone) from the slaughterhouse being
heated, with continuous stirring, in steam-jacketed receptacles
up to a temperature of about 245° F. until the material was
thoroughly cooked and the moisture content reduced to 5-8
per cent., the time required being usually 4-5 hours. The
588
Notes on Feeding
molten fat was drained off, and a quantity of the residual
material removed for the purposes of the experiments, although
normally it would not be marketed at this stage. This material ,
which contained i8.8 per cent, of fat in its dry matter, formed
the “ high fat" sample of the experiments.
The rest of the material was pressed in an expeller. This
is the customary practice in the trade, having as its object the
removal of a further portion of the fat and to produce a sub-
stance containing about 9 per cent., which, after milling and
bagging, is the normal product offered for sale. The material
produced on this occasion contained ii.i per cent, of fat, and
formed the " medium fat ” sample.
A portion of this material was then " degreased " at 300° F.
by means of petroleum benzine, and left a product containing
only 3.2 per cent, of fat, which formed the “ low fat " sample
of the experiments.
Judged by protein percentage, all the materials were high-
grade meat meals, the crude protein content (on dry matter)
ranging from 66 to 72 per cent., of which, however, only 50-55
per cent, was true protein. Mineral content ranged from 12
per cent, in the " high fat ” sample to 20.9 per cent, in the
" low fat " sample.
The results obtained with the three materials in digestion
trials with pigs are summarized below : —
Percentage DioESTmiury
High Fat Medium Fat Low Fat
Total Dry Matter . .
. .
85-4
00
00
6
75-3
Organic Matter
. .
« 8-3
93*1
83-9
Crude Protein
00 • KJ
93*9
87-9
Pother Extract (fat)
. .
95 '4
89-0
82-3
Taking "Organic Matter ” as a measure of general digesti-
bility, it will be seen that all the samples showed a high digesti-
bility, but with a little advantage to the " medium fat ” meal,
and an appreciable disadvantage against the " low fat " meal.
The same will also be noted with regard to the digestibility of
the crude protein. The ability of the pigs to digest the fat
of the meat meals, with a high degree of efficiency, will also be
noted.
If the verdict be based upon total organic matter and crude
protein, it would seem from these results that the grade of
meat meal usually sold, the " medium fat ” grade, is the
most digestible of the three grades tested. The slightly lower
589
Notes on Feeding
digestibility of the “ high fat" sample is undoubtedly due
to a depressant effect of the large dose of fat upon the general
digestibility of the meal, but for the more marked falling off
in digestibility of the " low fat ” meal some other explanation
is required, and, judging from American experience, is prob-
ably to be found in the high temperature to which it was
subjected during the extraction process.
Despite the higher digestibility of the " medium fat ” meal,
one cannot recommend meat meals containing as much as lo
per cent, of fat for the production of bacon pigs, owing to the
risk of soft carcass fat. What is needed for this purpose is
a meal made from less fatty raw materials. Whether the pror
duct obtained by pressure alone is necessarily superior to that
obtained by extraction should be tested by further experiments.
Digestibility of Huskless Oats. The digestibility of the
ordinary varieties of oats is largely conditioned by the amount
and nature of the husk that must of necessity be consumed
along with the kernel. Ordinary data for digestibility are thus
clearly not applicable to the huskless oat, for which independent
data are required in view of the current interest in the growing
of this variety. Such data relating to digestion by poultry
are available from recent experiments carried out by Moon
and Thomas at Armstrong College, and reported in the current
issue of the Journal of Agricultural Science.
The average results for Victory oats and for huskless oats
obtained with two Black Leghorn bantam cockerels receiving
oats as their sole food are summarized below : —
Percentage Digestibility
Total Organic Matter
Victory
69-8
Huskless
86*2
Crude Protein
. .
77-4
82*2
Ether Extract (“ Oil "j
. .
83-5
62*4
Fibre
8-8
—
N-free Extract (“Carbohydrates"')
. .
76-8
90*8
It will be noted that, as expected, the huskless oat proved
to be appreciably more digestible than the ordinary oat, except
for the " oil ” ingredient. Why the digestibility of the oil
should be so much lower in the huskless oat is not obvious, and
no explanation is offered in the report.
To obtain a true comparison of the nature of the two oats
used, their composition in terms of total and digestible nutrients
590
Notes on Feeding
is set out below, the percentages throughout being based upon
the total dry matter.
Total
Digestible
Comparison of
Digestible
Organic Matter
Victory
Husk-
less
Victory
Husk-
less
Victory
Husk-
less
Total Organic Matter
96*02
97*99
67*0
84 -.S
Crude Protein
9-25
1415
7*2
11*6
10*7
13*7
Ether Extract
5-78
5-40
4-8
3*4
7*2
4*0
Fibre
10 *60
1-93
0*9
1-3
N-free Extract
70*39
76-51
54*1
69-5
80*8
00
Ash . .
3-98
2*01
— —
Moisture in Sample : Victory, 14 ‘Qo per cent.; huskless, 15 '46 per cent
It will be noted that the huskless oat was much richer in
digestible protein and carbohydrates than the Victory oat, but
contained just over one-half the digestible oil. These differ-
ences are less, however, in the composition of the digestible
matter itself, as shown in the last two columns.
The calculated starch equivalents of the two oats as used
were 58.1 per cent, for Victory and 70.2 per cent, for the
huskless oat respectively, which implies roughly a 20 per cent,
superiority of the latter over the former for general production
purposes when used in a properly balanced ration.
The mineral content of the huskless oat was appreciably
lower than that of the Victory oat, but the difference is prob-
ably mainly attributable to the relatively valueless minerals
of the husk of the latter, which were not represented in the
former.
591
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
s.
£
s.
£
s.
s.
d.
d.
%
Wheat, British . .
10
0
0
8
9
12
72
2
8
1*43
9*6
Barley, Argentine
9
8
0
8
9
0
71
2
6
1-34
6*2
„ Persian . .
9
5
0
8
8
17
71
2
6
1*34
6-2
Oats, English, white
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1*65
7-6
„ „ black and
grey ..
9
13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1-65
7-6
„ Scotch, white
10
3
0
9
9
60
3
3
1*74
7/6
„ Canadian No. 2.
Western
II
0*
0
9
10
II
60
3
6
1-87
7-6
„ ,, mixed feed
9
2
0
9
8
13
60
2
II
1-56
7-6
Maize, Argentine
6
18
0
7
6
II
78
I
8
0*89
7*6
„ Gal. Fox . .
6
i 7 t
0
7
6
10
78
I
8
0*89
7*6
„ South African,
No, 2 White Flat . .
6
i8t
0
7
6
II
78
I
8
0*89
7-6
4 Yellow Flat . .
6
i8t
0
7
6
II
78
I
8
0*89
7-6
Peas, Japanese . .
20
i 5 t
0
15
20
0
69
5
10
3*12
i8-i
Dari
8
i 5 t
0
8
8
7
74
2
3
1*21
7*2
Milling Offals —
Bran British . .
7
5
0
16
6
9
43
3
0
i‘6i
9.9
„ broad . .
7
12
0
16
6
16
43
3
2
1*70
10*0
Middlings, fine, im<
ported
7
lot
0
13
6
17
69
2
0
1*07
12*1
Weatingsf
8
5
0
14
7
II
56
2
8
1*43
10-7
„ Superfine t
8
15
0
13
8
2
69
2
4
1-25
I 2 -I
Pollards, imported . .
7
5
0
14
6
II
50
2
7
1-38
II -0
Meal, barley
10
10
0
8
10
2
71
2
10
1*52
6-2
„ grade II . .
9
15
0
8
9
7
71
2
8
1*43
6*2
,, maize
7
7
0
7
7
0 1
78
1
10
0*98
7-6
„ „ germ
7
10
0
11
6
19
84
1
8
0*89
10*3
„ locust bean
7
15
0
5
7
71
2
I
I-I 2
3*6
„ bean
9
2
0
17
8
5 i
66
2
6
1*34
19*7
„ white-fish
14
15
2
2
12
13
59
4
3
2-28
53*0
„ Soya bean
(extracted) {
9
12
I
9
8
3
64
2
7
1*38
38-3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .
7
17
0
7
7
10
84
I
9
0*94
9-2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil
CO
2
I
0
9
2
74
2
6 1
1*34
24-6
»» 9 % »»
9
10
I
0
8
10
74
2
4
1-25
24*6
»» »»
9
5
I
0
8
5
74
2
3
1*21
24*6
Cottonseed cake, English,
Egyptian seed, 4 J% oil
5
17
0
18
4
19 ‘
42
2
4
1-25
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian, 4^% oil . .
5
10
0
18
4
12
42
2
2
I • 16
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
decorticated, 7% oil . .
8
I2t
I
8
7
4
68
2
I
I-I 2
34*7
Cottonseed meal.
decorticated, 7% oil . .
8
2t
I
8
6
14
70
I
II
1*03
36'8
Coconut cake, 6% oil . .
7
15
0
18
6
17
77
I
9
0-94
i6‘4
592
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS {continued)
Manu-
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
equiv,
per
100 lb.
per
unit
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
starch
starch
equiv.
ton
ton
equiv.
equiv.
£
£
£ s.
$. d.
d.
%
Ground-nut cake,
decorticated, 6-7% oil
Ground-nut cake,
9 5 *
I 8
1
7 17
73
2 2
I • 16
41*3
imported decorticated,
6-7% oil
8 5
I 8
6 17
73
I II
1-03
41*3
Palm-kernel cake,
4 i“ 5 i% • •
Palm-kernel cake meal,
7
0 II
7 I
73
I II
1*03
i 6*9
4J% oil . . . .
Palm-kernel meal,
7
0 II
7 I
73
I II
1-03
i6*9
i~2% oil . . . .
7 0
0 12
6 8
71
I 10
0*98
i6-5
Feeding treacle . .
Brewers' grains, dried ale
Brewers* grains, dried
5 0
0 8
4 12
51
I 10
0*98
2*7
6 0
0 II
5 9 !
48
2 3
1*21
12*5
porter . .
5 12
0 II
5 I
48
2 I
I • 12
12*5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . .
From £s 7s.
6d. to £$ 15s. od. per ton ex-factory
(according to factory).
♦ At Bristol. t Liverpool.
X In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note. — The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless otherwise
stated, and refer to the price ex-mill or store. The prices were current
at the end of July, 1937, ^re, as a rule, considerably lower than the
prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage and
dealers' commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the relative
values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the method
of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake is offered locally
at £ii per ton, then since its manurial value is £i per ton as shown above,
the cost of food value per ton is £10, Dividing this figure by 74, the
starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table, the cost per unit of
starch equivalent is 2S. Sd. Dividing this again by 22*4, the number of
pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent
is i • 43tf . Similar calculations will show the relative cost per lb. of starch
equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the same local market. From the
results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives
him the best value at the prices quoted on his own markets. The figures
given in the table under the heading manurial value per ton are calculated
on the basis of the following unit prices : — N., 7s. 3<f. ; P20r„ 2s. ^d, ;
KgO, 3s. 6d,
593
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow ; —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£
Barley (imported) . .
71
6-2
9 6
Maize
.. 7S
7*6
6 18
Decorticated ground-nut cake
•• 73
41-3
8 15
„ cotton-seed cake
68
34*7
8 12
(Add los. per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*25 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent o*66 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of .
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The " food values,"
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry’s
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
£
Wheat
72
9*6
8 8
Oats . .
60
7*6
7 0
Barley
71
6*2
8 4
Potatoes
18
0-8
2 I
Swedes
7
0-7
0 16
Mangolds . . . . . .
7
0-4 1
0 16
Beans
66
19*7
8 2
Good meadow hay . .
37
4-6
1 4
Good oat straw
20
0*9
2 6
Good clover hay
38
7*0
4 10
Vetch and oat silage
13 1
1-6
1 10
Barley straw
23 !
0-7
2 12
Wheat straw
^3 j
O* I
1 9
Bean straw . .
23 j
1-7
2 13
• Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6</., post free
594
AGRICULTURAL RETURNS OF ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1937
Acreage under Crops and Grass and Numbers of Live stock on
Holdings above One Acre in Extent in England and Wales
as Returned bv Occupiers on June 4, 1937.
[The figures for 1937 are subject to revision.)
Crops and Grass
Distribution
1937
, 1
1936 t
Increase
Decrease
Acres
Acres
Acres
i
Per
cent. ;
1
Acres
Per
cent.
Total Acreage under all Crops
and Grass
♦Rough Grazings
24,772.000
5435.000
24,863,000 ‘
5 , 433,000 i
2,000
91,000
0‘4
Arable Land
9,018,000
1
9,120,000 i
—
102,000
Permanent Grass ;
For Hay
4,671,000
4,669,000
2,000
Not for Hay
11,082,000
11,074,000
8,000
01
—
—
Total
15.753.000
15.743.000
10,000
—
0*1
—
—
Wheat
1,731,000
1,704,000
27,000
1*6
Barley
823.000
819,000
4,000
0-5
—
(^ats
1,222,000
1,420,000
—
-
198,000
13*9
Mixed Corn
92,600
97,600
..
5.000
5*1
Rye
16,100
19,200
3,100
i6*i
Beans, for stock feeding or seed
96.900
122,700
__
25,800
21*0
Beans, for market or canning . .
13.300
15,200
—
--
1,900
12*5
Peas, for stock feeding or seed . .
34.900
47.000
—
—
12,100
25‘7
Peas, for canning or packetmg,
green or dried
25,200
28,100
2,900
10-3
Green Peas, for market . .
45 .^>oo
67,700
—
22,100
32-6
Potatoes, first earlies
55.200
1 5 h, 3 oo
—
, 1
I, TOO
2*0
Potatoes, main crop, including
second earlies
1
390,(300
1
400,300
_
i
400
0*1
Turnips, for stock feeding or seed
181,800
177.500
4,300
2*4 1
1 —
—
Swedes, for stock feeding or seed
242,800
! 254,800
12,000
4*7
Turnips and Swedes, for human
consumption
15.500
' 17,000
_
{
1
1,500
8-8
Mangolds
206,800
246,000
—
39,200
159
Sugar-beet
306,600
348,700
—
42,100
12*1
Kohl Rabi
6,100
5.400
! 7 <>o
13.0
—
—
Rape (or Cole)
i 55.700
52,000
3.700
‘ 7-1
—
1 —
Cabbage, Savoys and Kale for
fodder
84,400
118,200 1
1
33.800
28*6
Cabbage, Savoys, Green Kale and
Sprouting Broccoli, for human
consumption
38,000
43.700
1
!
1
; 5.700
13*0
Brussels Sprouts
32,500
35.000
—
; 2,500
7*1
Cauliflower or Broccoli (non-
sprouting)
18,800
20,500
i
1
1,700
8*3
Vetches or Tares
38,400
62,600
24,200
38-7
Lucerne
34.900
38,100
—
—
3,200
8-4
Carrots
13.900
. 16,600
—
~ *
2,700
i6-3
* Mountain. Heath, Moor, Down and other rough land used for grazing.
595
Agricultural Returns
Distribution
1937
1936
Increase
Decrease
Acres
Acres
Acres
Per
cent.
Acres
Per
cent.
Onions
Mustard for seed
Hops
Small Fruit
Orchards
1,700
24.100
18.100
52,800
258,400
1,600
31.900
18,300
55.700
261,300
100
6-3
7,800
200
2,900
2,900
^ 4*5
I • I
5*-2
I *1
Clover and Rotation Grasses :
For Hay
Not for Hay
1,469,000
751,000
1,340,000
761,000
129,000
9*6 i
1
10,000
1*3
Total
2,220,000
2,101,000
119,000
5*7 i
—
1
Bare Fallow
533.600
335.000
198,600
59-3 !
—
The preliminary tabulation of the returns made by occupiers of
agricultural holdings exceeding one acre in extent in England and Wales
on June 4, 1937, shows a similar proportionate decrease (0*4 per cent.)
in the total acreage under all crops and grass to that which was recorded
in 1936. Rough grazings show an increase of 2,000 acres, while the
decrease in the total area of crops and grass amounts to 91,000 acres.
The area of arable land continued the decline which had been interrupted
in 1935, the total this year being 9,018,000 acres, a decrease of 102,000
acres (i*i per cent.) from the acreage in 1936. An additional area of
about 10,000 acres has been returned as permanent grass, but the remainder
of the reduction (91,000 acres) represents the Joss to agriculture of land
which has gone out of cultivation or has been taken for other purposes.
The area under bare fallow has increased by 198,600 acres (59-3 per cent.).
On the other hand there have been decreases in the oats area (198,000
acres) and in certain of the fodder crops, which are partly counterbalanced
by slight increases in the areas devoted to wheat, barley, turnips and
rape. Of the remainder of the crops only turnips for stock feeding and
clover for hay show an increase.
Cereals, The wheat acreage which decreased by 68,000 acres in 1936
has regained part of this loss, there being an increase in area of 27,000
acres (1*6 per cent.). The acreage under barley again shows an increase,
but the gain of 4,000 acres (0-5 per cent.) is only small compared with
the increase of 27,000 acres recorded in the previous year. The acreage
under oats which had only varied slightly during the years 1934 *93^
declined very considerably by 198,000 acres (13-9 per cent.). The areas
under mixed corn and rye show further decreases of 5,000 acres (5 • i per
cent.) and 3,100 acres (16 -i per cent.) respectively.
Bean^ and Peas. The areas under all categories of beans and peas
show decreases, the chief reductions being in beans for stock feeding or
seed, the acreage of which w^as reduced by 25,800 acres (21*0 per cent.),
peas for stock feeding or seed which decreased by 12,100 acres (25*7 per
cent.) and green peas for market, the reduction in which was 22,100
acres (32*6 per cent.).
Potatoes. The area under first early potatoes decreased by 1,100 acres,
or 2 per cent., but the main crop, including second earlies, showed very
little change, the reduction being only 400 acres, or 0‘i per cent* The
596
Agricultural Returns
acreage returned to the Ministry under potatoes includes all areas of
J acre and upwards on holdings of over i acre in extent, and is accordingly
larger than the acreage returned by registered growers to the Potato
Marketing Board.
Sugar-beet. The sugar-beet area shows a further decline of 42,100
acres (12*1 per cent.) and is the smallest acreage recorded since 1932.
Roots. The decline in acreage of all root crops recorded last year was
continued in 1937, with the exception of turnips for stock feeding and
seed, which show an increased area of 4,300 acres or 2 • 4 per cent. Swedes
for stock feeding or seed show a reduction of 12,000 acres or 4 - 7 per cent.,
while the mangold acreage was further reduced by 39,200 acres or 15 *9
per cent.
Vegetables for Human Consumption. The upward trend in the area
devoted to vegetables for human consumption recorded last year has not
been maintained. The acreage under cabbages, savoys, green kale and
sprouting broccoli decreased by 5.700 acres or 13*0 per cent., brussels
sprouts declined by 2,500 acres (7*1 per cent.), cauliflowers and broccoli
by 1 ,700 acres (8 • 3 per cent.). Carrots also show a reduction of 2,700 acres
or 16 *3 per cent.
Other Crops. The most important changes in other crops are the
decreases in cabbage, savoys and kale for fodder (33,800 acres or 28*6
per cent.), vetches and tares (24,200 acres or 38*7 per cent.), and the
increase of 3,700 acres, or 7* i per cent., in the acreage of rape.
Fruit. The areas under both orchard and small fruit declined by the
same amount, viz., 2,900 acres, but the reduction in the small fruit area
IS 5*2 per cent, and that in orchard fruit only i*i per cent.
Clover and Rotation Grasses and Meadow Hay. The decline in the area
devoted to clover and rotation grasses last year was arrested by an increase
this year in the area to be cut for hay of 129,000 acres (9*6 per cent.).
Allowing for the reduction of the area not for hay (10,000 acres or 1*3 per
cent.) the net increase under rotation grasses is 119,000 acres or 5*7 per
cent. I'hc total area under permanent grass increased by 10,000 acres
(o-i per cent.), the main increase being under grass not intended for hay.
Livestock
Cattle. The total number of cattle in 1937 increased by 73,700 (i*i per
cent.). The chief increases recorded were in cattle under one year old
(48,600 or 4*0 per cent.) and cattle one year old and under two years
(22,000 or 1*8 per cent.). The only decreases w'ere among cows and
heifers in milk which declined by 12,000 (0-5 per cent.) and cows in calf
but not in milk which decreased by 11,100 or 2*7 per cent.
Sheep. The total number of sheep shows an increase of 534,800 {3 ‘2
per cent.). Ewes kept for breeding and other sheep under six months
old show appreciable increases which more than counterbalance the
decreases amongst other classes of sheep.
Pigs. The total number of pigs declined by 171,500 or 4*5 per cent.,
the reductions being general in all classes.
597
Agricultural Returns
1937
1936
Incre
asc
Deere
asc
No.
No.
No.
Per
cent.
No.
Per
cent.
Cows and Heifers m milk
2,215.500
2,227,500
—
12,000
0*5
Cows in Calf, but not in milk . .
394,000
405,100
—
11,100
2*7
Heifers in Calf
455.600
443.500
12,100
2.7
—
—
Other Cattle :
Under one year
1,264,400
1,215,800
48,600
4*0
One year and under two
1.273,400
1,251,400
22,000
1*8
—
— .
Two years and above
1,011,100
997,000
14,100
1*4
—
—
Total of Cattle . .
6,614,000
6,540,300
73.700
i*i
—
-*
Ewes kept for Breeding
7,316,000
7.237.900
78,100
I • I
—
—
Other Sheep :
One year and above
1,484,800
1,668,600
183,800
11*0
Over six months and under one
year
322,000
437.500
1 15.500
26-4
Under six months
8,060,000
7,304,000
756,000
10-4
Total of Sheep . .
17,182.800
16,648,000
534.800
3-2
--
—
Sows kept for Breeding . .
455.000
4«3.200
—
28,200
5 -»
Other Pigs : Over two months
2,138,900
2,220,600
81,700
3-7
Under two months
1,038,400
1,100,000
-
61,600
5*0
Total of Pigs
3.632.300
3,803,800
171,500
4'5
Horses used for Agricultural pur-
poses (including Mares for
Breeding)
554.500
561,400
j
1
1 6,900
1-2
Unbroken Horses (including
Stallions) :
One year and above . .
100,900
95.900
5.000 1
5-2
Under one year
53.700
5o,f>oo
3.100
i
—
—
Other Horses
149,000
157,700
—
8,700
5*5
Total of Horses . .
858,100
865,600
—
-
7.500
0-9
i i
No. \
No.
No.
Per
No.
Per
Thousands \
Thousands
Thous.
cent.
Thous.
cent.
Fowls : Over 6 months old
24.517
25,362
—
—
845
3-3
Under 6 months old
28,038
32,382
—
—
4.344
13*4
Total
j 52.555
57.744
—
—
5.189
9*0
Ducks
j 2,281
2,606
—
—
325
12*5
Geese
i 552
634
—
—
82
12*9
Turkeys
j 687
707
—
—
20
2-8
Horses. The number of horses, which has declined continuously since
1918, was further reduced in 1937 by 7,500 (0*9 per cent.). Agricultural
horses and other horses on agricultural holdings were reduced by 6,900
and 8,700 respectively, but unbroken horses of one year old and above
increased by 5,000 and foals increased in number by 3,100.
598
Agricultural Returns
Poultry, Considerable reductions in all classes of poultry are recorded
this year. Fowls over six months old decreased by 845,000 or 3*3 per
cent, and those under six months old by 4,344,000 or 13*4 per cent.
Ducks, geese and turkeys show reductions of 12*5 per cent., 12-9 per cent,
and 2*8 per cent, respectively.
Agricultural Workers
1937
1936
Increase
Decrease
No.
No. !
1
No ,
Per
cent.
No.
Per
cent .
Regular Male Workers :
21 years old and over
' 394.^0
401,500 !
6,700
1-7
Under 21 years old . .
94.500
100,700
—
—
6,200
6-2
Total
* 489,300
502,200 1
—
—
12,900
2*6
Casual Male Workers :
2 1 years old and over
i
57.90c
1
57.900 ,
_ :
Under 21 years old . .
7.300
8,000 ;
1
—
—
700
8-7
Total
65,200 1
65,900 [
—
-- '
700
I-I
Total Male Workers, Regular
AND Casual
1
1 1
554.500 1
h
568,100 !
—
13,600
2-4
Women and Girls :
1
1 1
Regular W'orkers
46,200 i
44,600 i
i,0oo
3.6
—
—
Casual Workers
30,400 j
27,900
1
2,500
9-0
—
—
Total
76,600
72,500 ;
4,100
5*7
—
—
Total Workers, All Classes
631,100 !
1 640,600 ‘
—
—
9,500
1*5
The steady decline in the total number of agricultural workers since
1Q33 has continued in 1937, when there was a further decrease of 9,500
(1*5 per cent.), compared with a decrease of 32,600 (4-8 per cent.) in the
previous year. The number of casual male workers over 21 years of age
showed no change in numbers, but the total for all classes of male workers
decreased by 2*4 per cent. Regular male workers over 21 years old
showed a decrease of 6,700 (i • 7 per cent.) and under 21 years old a decrease
of 6,200 (6*2 per cent.). Casual male workers under 21 years old dropped
by 700 {8*7 per cent.). The loss of male workers to agriculture has
doubtless contributed to the increase in the employment of women by
1,600 (3*6 per cent.) for regular workers. The number of women w’orkers
employed for seasonal Avork increased by 2,500, or 9 per cent.
599
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for July is 131 (base July, 1911-13=100), the same as for the
previous month but 17 points higher than that recorded for
July, 1936. If allowance be made for payments under the
Wheat Act, 1932, and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provi-
sions) Act, 1934, the revised index is 134. Compared with
June, average prices of oats, fat pigs, eggs, butter, milk and
wool showed a rise, whereas those of wheat, barley, fat cattle
and sheep, and potatoes moved downwards.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. {Corresponding
months 0/1911-13 = 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
II4
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
II 2
115
118
129
March
113
102
108
112
116
130
April
117
105
III
1 19
123
140
May , .
115
102
II 2
III
115
133
June . . . .
III
1 100 '
no
in 1
116 I
131
July .. ..
106
1 lOI
114
i 1T4 '
131
August . . . .
105
105 1
119 1
113 ;
119
— ,
September . . . . ^
104
107 1
119
120
^^7 :
—
October
100
107 !
114
113 1
1^5 i
—
November . .
lOI
109 I
114
113
125 1
December , .
103
no i
113
114 1
126
1
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry (Emergency
Provisions) Act (b).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
19
Bl
124
125
133
mm
122
123
133
mm
118
122
134
April
-
109
wsm
126
128
143
May
—
105
116
117
120
136
June
—
104
114
117
121
134
July
—
104
117
120
121
134
August
108
io8
122
120
124
—
September . .
108
in
125
128
133
—
October
T04
112
121
119
129
—
November . .
105
”3
120
119
129
—
December . .
107
114
120
120
130 j
—
{a) Commenced August, 1932. (6) Commenced September, 1934.
600
Miscellaneous Notes
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of April
to July, 1937, and July, 1936, and July, 1935; base, the corre-
sponding months of 1911-13=100.
Commodity
!
I
1937
1936
1935
July
June
May
April
-
July
July
Wheat
120
123
124
131
86
68
Barley
••
127
129
133
132
84
88
Oats
121
120
119
119
83
99
Fat cattle . .
114
III
112
106
100
93
,, sheep . .
• •
145
15^
160
153
128
117
Bacon pigs . .
117
1 14
I j8
119
113
lOI
Pork ,,
1C5
553
1 16
117
106
97
Eggs. .
144
129
IT2
112
123
114
Poultry
130
132
122
513
: 117
1 120
Milk . .
175
162
162
215
J75
' 575
Butter
112
109
106
104
100
: 87
Cheese
128
122
112
109
j 113
1 99
Potatoes
142
189
196
191
i 139
; 166
Hay . .
98
TOO
100
82
i 99
Wool
M 3
138
541
138
94
. 86
1
Dairy cows . .
115
II 2
112
104
1 100
Store cattle
120
117
155
109
lOl
1 94
,, sheep..
539
132
533
128
i 113
M pigs . .
533
127
125
126
126
1 1x4
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and the
Cattle Industry {Emergency Provisions) Act.
Wheat
I
. ! 123
125
525
131
I12
Fat cattle . .
. ' 128
125
126
120
114
General Index
•134
534
136
543
' 121
■Hii
Grain. At an average of 9s. 8d. per cwt., wheat was id.
per cwt. lower than in June and the index falls by 3 points.
(If the " deficiency payment '' under the Wheat Act, 1932,
is taken into account the figure becomes 123.) Barley at 9s. 6d.
per cwt., also showed a reduction of id. per cwt., the index, in
this instance, declining by 2 points. Oats averaged 9s. 3d.
per cwt., compared with 9s. a month ago, and the index moves
upwards to a small extent. In July, 1936, wheat averaged
6s. iid. and barley and oats 6s. 4d. per cwt.
Livestock. During the month under review quotations
for fat cattle continued to fall, the average of second quality,
at 40s. 8d. per live cwt., being lower by qd.; owing, however,
601
Miscellaneous Notes
to the base price having decteased by a much larger amount,
the index rises by 3 points to 114. The addition of the subsidy
under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934,
brings the index up to 128. Fat sheep were again lower in
price, and the average of second quality, at io\d. per lb., was
less than in June, the resulting index declining by 7 points.
Baconers, at iis. yd., and porkers, at iis. xod., per score
(20 lb.), showed increases on the month of 6<i. and 3<i. per
score respectively, and the relative indices move upwards by
3 points and 2 points.
Compared with June, dairy cows were slightly dearer but,
as a rise of a similar amount was recorded during the base
months, the index remains unaltered. On the other hand,
store cattle and store sheep were cheaper; owing, however, to
a larger downward movement in the base prices of both
descriptions, the indices are higher by 3 points and 7 points
respectively. The average price of store pigs rose from 29s. xod.
to 30S. 4^. per head, the index advancing by 6 points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. The regional contract price
of liquid milk was increased by xd. per gallon in July, the
index appreciating by 13 points to 175, which is the same figure
as that ruling a year ago. Butter averaged is. ijd. per lb.,
an increase of xd. per lb. on the month, and the index moves
upwards by 3 points. Quotations for eggs were again higher,
second quality averaging 14s. 2d. per 120, compared with
IIS. 3<i. in June; the index shows an advance of 15 points.
At £4 5s. td. per cwt. cheese was a little firmer in price and
the index rises by 6 points, although the latter movement is
due principally to the fall of 2s. 6 d. per cwt. , which took place
during the corresponding months of 1911-13, All descriptions
of poultry were reduced in price and the combined index is
lower by 2 points.
Other Commodities. The average price of the varieties of
first early potatoes used in the compilation of the potato index
during July and August was £7 i8s. 6 d. per ton, and compared
with £7 14s. 6d. per ton in July, 1936. The index now stands
at 142 as against 139 a year ago. Quotations for both clover
and meadow hay were somewhat lower, the combined index
falling by 3 points. Wool averaged xs. 6|d. per lb. or fd.
per lb. more than in the previous month and the index shows
a corresponding advance of 5 points.
602
Miscellaneous Notes
Bee Research at Rothamsted
The Committee of Management of the Rothamsted Experi-
mental Station has appointed Dr. J. Anderson, M.A., B.Sc.,
as representative of the Scottish Beekeepers’ Association on
the Bee Research Committee that advises them in regard to
investigations on bees carried out at Rothamsted.
Whiteheads or Take-all in Wheat
In the article of the above title by Geoffrey Samuel, M.Sc.,
which appeared in the June, 1937, issue of this Journal (Vol.
XLIV, p. 231), Alopecurus agrestis (Black Bent or Slender
Foxtail) was inadvertently described as a p)erennial. Although
this very troublesome weed commonly survives through the
winter, it is really an annual and has no creeping rhizome.
Farm Workers’ Minimum Rates of Wages. — A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square,
London, S.W.i, on July 26, 1937.
The l^Dard considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely . — An Order fixing special minimum rates
of wages for male and female workers employed on harvest work
during the period of the Corn Harvest of 1937. The rate in the case
of male workers of 21 years of age and over is a sum oi £12 (instead of
£ii los. as in 1936) to cover a period of four weeks of 64 hours per
week (excluding Sunday) and in addition iid. per hour for any employ-
ment on Sundays, and in excess of 64 hours per week. In the case of
female workers of 18 years of age and over, the rate is 8(f. per hour
(as in 1936) for all time spent on the corn harvest.
Essex , — An Order fixing special minimum hourly rates of wages for male
and female workers employed on harvest work during the Com Harvest
of 1937. In the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over the
minimum rate is io\d, per hour (instead of lod. as in 1936) and in the
case of female workers of 21 years of age and over y^d. per hour (instead
of yd. as in 1936) for all time worked on the harvest.
Hertfordshire . — An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages, the rates as varied to come into force on August i, 1937,
and to continue in operation until further notice. The minimum rates
in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over are 34s. (as
formerly) per week of ; — (a) 39^ hours in the weeks in which Easter
Monday and Whit Monday fall; (6) 31 hours in the week in which
Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall together ; (c) 39J hours in the
weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall, when these days
fall in separate weeks ; and (d) 48 hours in any other week, with
overtime at 8Jd. per hour (as formerly) for all employment on Easter
Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day and in excess
of the above-mentioned numbers of hours, and iid. per hour (as
formerly) for all employment in excess of 5^ hours on Saturday or
othor agreed weekly short day and on harvest work during the Com
Harvest. The minimum rates in the case of female workers of 19 years
603
Miscellaneous Notes
of age and over are 28s. (as formerly) per week of the numbers of hours
mentioned above in the case of male workers, with overtime at jd. per
hour (as formerly) for all employment on Easter Monday, Whit Monda>',
Christmas Day and Boxing Day, and in excess of the above-mentioned
numbers of hours, and per hour (as formerly) for all employment
in excess of 5J hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly short day
and on harvest work during the Corn Harvest. Lesser rates are fixed
for younger male and female workers, modifications being made in
respect of the minimum rates applicable to male workers between the
ages of 14 and 21 years and female workers between the ages of 14
and 19 years.
Lincolnshire {Kesteven and Lindsey ), — An Order fixing special differential
rates of wages for overtime employment of male workers on the Corn
Harvest in 1937, workers of 21 years of age and
over being is. ^d. per hour (as in 1936).
Monmouthshire . — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages
to come into force on September 16, 1937 (i.e., the day follo\ving that
on which the existing rates are due to expire) and to continue in operation
until March 15, 1938. The minimum rate in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over is 34s. (instead of 32s. 6 d. as at present) per
week of 54 hours in summer and 50 hours in winter. The overtime
rates for adult male workers remain unchanged at g\d. per hour on
weekdays and ii\d, per hour on Sundays, Christmas Day and Boxing
Day. The minimum rate in the case of female workers of 17 years of
age and over is 6 ]^. per hour (instead of 6 d. per hour as at present) for
all time worked.
Nottinghamshire . — An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages, the rates as varied to come into force on August i, 1937.
The minimum rates of wages are in the case of male workers of 21 years
of age and over 34s. 6 d. (instead of 32s. as formerly) per week of
(a) 41 hours in the weeks in which Christmas Day and Good Friday fall ;
and (6) 50 hours in any other week, with overtime at the rate of lo^d.
per hour on weekdays (instead of g\d. as formerly), and is. o\d. on
Sundays, Christmas Day and Good Friday (instead of ii\d. as foimerly).
Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of which
the minimum weekly wage is payable in the weeks in which Easter
Monday and Boxing Day fall to meet cases where holidays are given
in those weeks instead of in the weeks in which Good Friday and
Christmas Day fall. In the case of female workers of 18 years of age
and over, the minimum rate is ^\d. per hour (instead of ^d. as formerly)
with overtime at %ld. per hour (instead of Sd. as formerly).
Suffolk. — (i) An Order cancelling existing minimum and overtime rates
of wages for male workers and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor
to come into force on August i, 1937. The minimum rates in the case
of male workers of 21 years oi age and over are 32s. 6 d. (instead of
315. 6 d. as formerly) per week of 50 hours in summer, except in the
week in which Good Friday falls when the hours shall be 41^, and 48
hours in winter, except in the week in which Christmas Day falls when
the hours shall be 39 J with, in addition, in the case of horsemen,
cowmen and shepherds of 18 years of age and over a sum of 6s. per
week to coyer employment up to 10 hours per week in connection with
the immediate care of animals. The overtime rate for all male workers
of 21 years of age and over is 9j^. per hour (instead of gd, as formerly).
(2) An Order fixing special minimum rates of wages for male workers
employed in agriculture during the Corn Harvest of 1937. The rate in
604
Miscellaneous Notes
the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over employed on
harvest work throughout the harvest period on farms where the total
acreage of corn is at least 60 acres is not less than the ordinary minimum
rate otherwise applicable with, in addition, a bonus of payable on
completion of the harvest period ; the hours of work in respect of
which this rate is payable are iij on any weekday whilst harvest
work is in progress. In the case of workers of 21 years of age and
over who do not work on harvest work throughout the harvest period
or who are employed on farms \vherc the total acreage of com is less
than Oo acres the rate is lod. per hour for all employment on harvest
work.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. During the month ending
August 12, 1937, legal proceedings were taken against five employers for
failure to pay the minimum rates of w^ages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. I’articulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area 1
Court
Fines i Costs |
Imposed Allowed
\ ' !
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
1 workers
linvolved
1
: /
s.
d • £
5 . d. '
£
5.
d.
Stafford-
'
1
shire . .
Ixek
6
0
0 , 0
2 0 !
13
0
7
I
Stafford
(«)
— 1
—
! I
»i • •
5
0
0
— .
15
0
0
2*
Cardigan-
shire . .
Aberayron . .
I
0
0
—
37
19
8
3
C armarthen-
Newcastle
'
shire . .
Emiyn
I
0
0
— 1
42
10
0
, I
13
0
0 0
2 0
108
10
3
8
(a) Dismissed. ♦ Case of i worker dismissed.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease. No further outbreak of foot-and-mouth di.sease
occurred in the Berwickshire Infected Area. The Area was consequently
released from restrictions on July 30.
An outbreak of the disease was confirmed at Broughton, Flintshire,
on July 24, and the usual restrictions were imposed over an area of approxi-
mately 15 miles radius round the infected premises. The Infected Area
covered parts of the counties of Flint, Denbigh and Chester. Eight
further outbreaks in the same Infected Area were confirmed between
July 25 and August 7, but these outbreaks did not necessitate any extension
of the Infected Area, and the disease position remaining satisfactory^ the
Area was reduced U) one of approximately 5 miles round the Infected
Premises at West Saltney and at Lower Kinnerton on August 12.
605
WIRELESS TALKSi SEPTEMBER j 1937
AGRICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
speaker
Subject
National :
Sept. 29
6.20
Mr W. S. Mansfield
Farming To-day.
North :
Sept. 25
7.55
Mr. H. Lamb
Eyewitness account of the
Fell Dales Show.
Midland :
Sept. I
9.0
Mr. E. Moore Darling
Eyewitness account of King-
ton Ewe Fair.
9
7.0
Mr. W. A. Stewart
—
West:
Sept. 9
9.0
—
Fortnightly letter for
Western Farmers.
,, 16
9.05
■ —
For Western Farmers in
particular.
Northern
Ireland :
Sept. 17
6.0
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Farmers' W'ork and Worry.
.. 25
i
6.45
j
Talk on the Royal Ulster
Agricultural Society's Au-
tumn Show.
HORTICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time .
p.m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
Sept. 3
7.15
Mr. Thomas Hay, M.V O.
In Other Gardens.
10
7-15
—
In Other Gardens.
.. 17
7*15
Mr. C. H. Middleton
In Your Garden.
- 24
7.15
Mr. C. H. Middleton
In Your Garden.
Scottish :
Sept. 8
9.15
Mr. William Fife
Impression of the Annual
Show of the Royal Cale-
donian Horticultural So-
ciety.
North :
Sept. I
0
00
Eyewitness account of Har-
rogate F'lower Show.
3
0.25
Mr. W E. Shewell-
Cooper and Mr. J. S.
Jackson
Violas and Pansies.
!
- 17
6.30
Mr. W. E. Shcwcll- |
Cooper j
1 Fruit.
1
West:
1
Sept. 7
8.10
Mr. D Harris and Mr.
J. Glavin
1 September Work in the
Garden.
Northern
Ireland :
1
Sept. 3
8.25
Mr. H. G. Fleet
1
I An Ulster Garden.
1
606
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS : ENGLAND
Gloucestershire ; Mr. F. J. Brooker, N.D.P., has been appointed Assistant
Instructor in Poultry Husbandly vice Mr. J. N. Charlton.
Shropshire : Mr. A. H. Whyte, N.D.A., has been appointed Horticultural
Adviser vice Mr. G. T. Malthouse ; and Mr. R. W. Kemp, N.D.H,,
has been appointed Assistant Horticultural Lecturer.
Sussex (East) : Mr. N. A. Selkirk, B.Sc., N.D.A., has been appointed
Resident Lecturer in Agriculture at the School of Agriculture,
Plumpton, vice Mr. F. J. Williams, N.D.A., N.D.D.. who has been
appointed Assistant A^icultural Organizer vice Mr. B. J. Fricker,
N.D.A., N.D.D.
STAFFS OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES
Midland Agricultural College, Sutton, Bonington, Loughborough :
Mr. J. C. Blossom. B.Sc., N.D A., N.D.D. , has been appointed Farm
Director vice Mr. G. F. Kingston, M.A.
Miss E. Turner, N.D.D., has been appointed Assistant Dairy
Instructress vice Miss M. Lumley, N.D.D.
Mr. S. F. Martin, N.D.D., has been appointed Laboratory Assistant
in the Chemistry Department vice the late Mr. G. O. Fox.
Miss E. N. Beard has been appointed Lady Warden.
Mr. A. R. Wilson, B.Sc., Ph.D., has been appointed temporary
Assistant to the Advisory Mycologist for Beet Research.
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Year-book of Agricultural Co-operation, 1937. Edited by the Horace
Plunkett Foundation. Pp. vi + 584. (London ; P. S. King & Son,
Ltd. 1937. Price 155.)
This excellently compiled publication, now in the ninth year of its
present form, has become invaluable to the serious student of agricultural
co-operation and marketing, and its appearance is indeed one of the events
of the season. In addition to the general survey of the position in the
year under review, the present issue comprises comprehensive and
scholarly reports from no fewer than thirty-six overseas countries, in all
parts of the world, together with a valuable section on the legislation of
the year, and an extensive bibliography of co-operation.
The compilers refer to the past year as mainly one of public disquiet
and apprehension, yet the co-operative movement not merely holds its
own but has begun a tentative advance. The external relations of co-
operation with the State are, it is claimed, with certain exceptions,
becoming stabilized in a form that on the whole is not disadvantageous to
the movement. Note is also taken of a more general drawing together of
producers and consumers for protection and often for more constructive
mutual trade and service," and in this connexion the proceedings of the
International Committee for Inter-Co-operative Relations are cited,
(including as they did a serious inquiry into the dietetic habits of workers).
One conclusion is that, whenever agricultural marketing co-operative
and distributive societies establish direct economic relations with each
other under satisfactorily-managed conditions, they effect further
economies to the advantage of both producers and consumers.
The British sections of this annual are mainly concerned with the
operations of agricultural co-operative societies registered under the
Industrial and Provident Societies Acts and of commodity boards set
up under the Agricultural Marketing Acts. A report on the Horace
607
Notices of Books
Plunkett Foundation reveals that the management has had to carry
on with straitened resources since 1932, owing to the cessation of the
former grant from the Empire Marketing Board, and to other causes, but
that by very strict economy it has been possible to maintain the principal
functions of the Foundation, and there is no danger that any essential
service will lapse. This is important, for it is held that co-operation in
all its forms has still an essential part to play even in a world where State
regulation has entered far into fields once allocated to voluntary
association.
The Plant Diseases of Great Britain: A Bibliography. Compiled and
annotated by G. C. Ainsworth, B.Sc., Ph.D. Pp. xii + 273.
(London : Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1937. Price 15s.)
Most plant pathologists are familiar with the series of reports, issued
by the Ministry from time to time during the last twenty years, on the
annual occurrence of fungus and other diseases of crops in this country^
Dr. Ainsworth has taken most of the diseases referred to in these reports,
together with all the important tree diseases, and has collected together
some 1,500 references to the more modern literature dealing with them.
The hosts are arranged in groups, such as cereals, vegetables, ornamental
plants, etc., and the diseases, each with its appropriate literature, are
listed under each host. Two good indexes are provided, one of authors
and one of hosts and parasites.
The literature references are not intended to be complete, but with very
few exceptions they have been so well chosen that they provide a compre-
hensive list of all the important papers on plant diseases published in this
country during the last three decades. Reference is also made to certain
foreign papers of special interest and to those that have a direct bearing
on diseases occurring in Great Britain. The contents of many of the
papers are briefly indicated, and a reference is given to abstracts of them
in The Review of Applied Mycology issued by the Imperial Mycological
Institute.
Where possible, the common name assigned to a disease, and the
scientific name of its causal agent, have been taken from the List of
Common Names of British Plant Diseases compiled by the Plant Patho-
logy Committee of the British Mycological Society, but the author
has taken the law into his own hands and used small initial letters
for all specific names of pathogens. The nomenclature adopted for
viruses and virus diseases is particularly helpful, although the
accepted name Spotted Wilt, is scarcely appropriate for some of
the diseases of ornamental plants caused by the tomato Spotted
Wilt virus. Occasionally a note is inserted indicating the comparative
rarity of a disease, but such notes arc unfortunately all too few, and it
would have added immensely to the value of the book if an attempt had
been made to indicate, however briefly, the distribution and economic
significance of the large number of diseases included. Some of them
might well have been omitted on account of their extreme rarity, and one
would have liked to see a more critical attitude adopted towards such
diseases as Root Rot of asparagus, Black Mould of onion, Root Rot and
Cauliflower Disease of strawberry, and Root Rot of viola. Neverthe-
less, as Dr. E. J. Butler states in his foreword to the book. Dr. Ainsworth's
task has been faithfully performed, and plant pathologists will find the
volume a mine of information about the plant disease literature of this
country.
Printed under the authority of His Majestv^s Stationery Office,
By WauAM Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 7 October, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Grassland Improvement Campaign
Broadcast by the Minister of Agriculture
On September 29 the Rl. Hon. W. S. Morrison, Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries, broadcast a talk to farmers on the
National wavelength, in which he dealt exclusively with the sub-
ject of the improvement of grass land. This talk was the first of
the Winter Series for which Mr. W. S. Mansfield, Director of the
University Fann, Cambridge, will be responsible. In intro-
ducing the Minister to listeners, Mr. Mansfield said that he was
only too well aware tliat in the past grass land had suffered
from the neglect of all concerned, not only of farmers, but of
agricultural research workers and politicians as well.
The Minister, in his address, emphasized that British grass
land constitutes a most important natural reserve of fertility,
and one capable of considerable expansion. No effort should
be spared, he said, to build up that rcscrv'c until it stands at
the highest level that can be reached. Unfortunately, it was
true that circumstances outside tlie farmer’s control had led
to a large proportion of grass land becoming more or less im-
poverished. The fact that times are better for the livestock
industry, and that lime and basic slag can now be purchased
relatively cheaply, combined to make the moment opportune for
the initiation of a Grassland Improvement Campaign. In that
Campaign, continued Mr. Morrison, the Ministry was enlisting
the active co-operation of County Education Authorities and of
the Advisory Centres throughout the country. He assured
farmers that they were going to hear a very great deal about
grassland improvement during the coming winter, both over
the wireless and in other ways. A manifesto setting out briefly
the case for grassland improvement, the chief methods of
A 609
Notes for the Month
improvement, and a few of the more important facts about lime
and basic slag, had been published by the Ministry for wide
distribution among farmers, and he hoped that every farmer
would read this document and give it very careful
consideration.*
Concluding, the Minister said that, however vigorously or
efficiently the Grassland Improvement Campaign was con-
ducted, the real measure of its success would depend on the
farmers. He appreciated that farmers were less likely than
probably any other group to be moved simply by propaganda,
be it ever so well organized. Quite naturally, he said, they had
got to be convinced that a certain policy was the right one,
and that it would pay them to follow it. Many of them had
been convinced already, and he relied on their example to bring
over the doubters and unbelievers. In the ordinary way no
Government liked spending money, but he assured listeners that
the more the Ministry was required to contribute to the purchase
of lime and slag during the next few years, the better they
would be pleased, for it was known that lime and slag were
good for the land. “It is because we feel that judicious
expenditure on grassland improvement is a good investment
for the farmer and for the nation as a whole that I am making
this appeal to-night for your co-operation and support.’’
«##*###*
Both on the National wavelength and in the Regional broad-
cast talks for fanners, grassland improvement will occupy a
prominent place during the coming winter. It is hoped that
this widespread broadcast apjxjal will bring to the notice of
farmer listeners throughout the country the practical experi-
ence of those who have improved their grass land and found
that it paid them to do so. The offer of lime and slag at cheap
rates is an additional reason why farmers should give serious
attention to the condition of their pastures. As indicated by
the Minister, the active co-operation of Local Authorities for
Agricultural Education — which in practice means the County
Agricultural Organizers and their staffs — has been invoked,
so that by one means or another the Campaign that he initiated
on September 29 may be carried on throughout the country,
and in particular so that advisory work amongst farmers,
designed to help them in any case of doubt to improve their
grass land in the most economic way, may be pursued with
• See page 619.
610
Notes for the Month
vigour. The Ministry believes that this appeal to Local Authori-
ties will receive a cordial response. In addition the provincial
Agricultural Colleges and University Departments of Agricul-
ture have been asked to do their utmost to support the
Campaign. This applies particularly to the provincial Advisory
Chemists, whose analytical laboratories are already becoming
overburdened with the rush of soil samples sent in for testing
for lime requirement. This fact in itself reveals the great
interest that farmers are taking in the question of soil improve-
ment, and is an indication that the success which the Minister
hopes will follow the Grassland Improvement Campaign will,
in fact, materialize.
The Two Smuts of Wheat
More intpiiries than usual have been received this year con-
cerning the presence of Loo.se Smut in wheat crops, and a
number of farmers have asked why smut should have appeared
in crops grown from treated seed. There is evidently still
some confusion with regard to the manner of infection and the
treatment necessary for the two different smut diseases that
affect wheat. Since chemical seed treatments that will control
Bunt (Stinking Smut) are of no value in controlling Loose
Smut, it is important that the differences between the two
diseases should be understood.
Loose Smut is the first smut to become noticeable in a crop,
since the ears of affected plants are reduced to a black powdery
mass about the time the wheat comes into flower. It is at
this time that blossom infection of the grain in neighbouring ears
takes place, which will give rise to Loose Smut in the crop
grown from the seed the following year. There is only one
treatment that can be applied to cure seed affected by this
disease. This is the hot-water treatment, that depends upon
the fact that the smut fungus, which is present within the
embryo, is killed at a slightly lower temjxirature than the
wheat grain itself. Actually the seed wheat must be immersed
for ten minutes in hot water, the temperature of which is accu-
rately maintained between 52° C. and 54° C. (125 F. and
129° F.). These limits are very narrow, and if the temperature
falls below 52° C. the fungus will not be killed, and if it rises
above 54° C. the wheat grain will be injured. Further pre-
cautions, which cannot be detailed here, are also necessary.
The treatment is therefore one that is too difficult for the farmer
to carry out himself. In certain of the United States where
A 2 611
Notes for the Month
the disease is prevalent, community treatment plants have been
established at dairies and canneries, where suitable apparatus
for temperature control is available.
In England, Loose Smut has hitherto not been so severe that
the hot- water treatment has had to be used, except in isolated
instances. The usual methods of selection of seed wheat have
been sufficient to keep the disease within relatively small pro-
portions. Several observers, however, consider that there has
been a slow but definite increase in the incidence of the disease
within the last few years, and the time may come when the
hot- water treatment will have to be applied, at least to nucleus
seed stocks to free them from the fungus. Meanwhile, seed
should be saved only from crops as free as possible from Loose
Smut.
Bunt is the other familiar smut of wheat. In this disease
the spores from broken “ bunt balls " contaminate the outside
of healthy grain, and infect the young seedling plants just
when the seed is germinating. This smut can therefore be
controlled by seed treatment, either with wet pickles such as
formalin, or with dry dusts such as copper carbonate or the
proprietary dusts containing organic compounds of mercury.
These treatments for Bunt, however, are well known and no
further reference to them here is necessary.
Interesting Birds: (8) The Long-tailed Tit
The name of this beautiful little bird is, in itself, almost
sufficient description, and the bird is hardly likely to be mis-
taken for any other British species. It is fairly common in
most English counties, and is especially partial to woodland.
It is known by a variety of local names, among them “ Bottle
Tit,” " Long Tom,” ” Feather Poke,” and ” Mumruffin.”
The nest of the Long-tailed Tit is a real work of art, and is
easily the most beautiful to be found in this country. It is
oval in shape, and has a small entrance hole in the upper part
of its side. It is composed of moss, grass, wool and spiders'
webs, cleverly felted together, and is invariably lined with
feathers, as many as 2,000 of these having been found in a
single nest. Favourite sites are thick thorn-bushes, brambles
and furze. The eggs are white, lightly speckled with red, but
quite plain eggs are not uncommon. The usual clutch is from
TO to 12, but as many as 17 have been found in one nest. It
is possible that these larger clutches are the produce of more
than one hen bird, and on several occasions three adult birds
6I2
To face pa^e 6i2.
The Long-tailetl Tit at Nest
Notes for the Month
have been seen feeding one brood of young. Up to the time the
young leave the nest, the parent birds “ sleep in,” and, small
though the birds are, it is something of a mystery how the
whole family finds room. When incubating her eggs, the hen
sits with her tail doubled back over her head, and one may
often see a tail protruding from the entrance hole of a nest.
The food of the Long-tailed Tit consists very largely of insects
and their larvae, with the addition of wild seeds of various
kinds. The bird is one of the most useful that we have, and,
like all the tits, should be encouraged and protected.
Agriculture Act, 1937: Land Drainage
Under Part III of the Agriculture Act, 1937, the Minister is
empowered to make grants, out of moneys provided by Parlia-
ment, towards the cost of land drainage schemes undertaken
by Drainage Authorities in England and Wales (other than
Catchment Boards), such authorities including all County
Councils, and those County Borough Councils, having Agri-
cultural Committees. The object of these grants is to contribute
towards the increased productivity of the soil by encouraging
the promotion of schemes for the improvement of land in need
of proper arterial drainage. The grants made during
the past seven years under the Land Drainage Act, 1930, have
been available only in respect of schemes carried out by Catch-
ment Boards on the main rivers for which they are responsible,
but under the new programme it will be possible for State-aid
to be given in the case of schemes carried out for the improve-
ment of the smaller arterial watercourses, main drains, etc.,
as was the case almost continuously up to 1931. The grants
available will be at the fixed rate of 33^ per cent, for ordinary
drain clearing work and 50 per cent, in the case of schemes or
portions of them involving the provision of machinery
or expensive material. All schemes require the Ministry’s
approval in the first instance, and will be confined to the period
October 15 to April 30. The facilities will be available for
three winters, with the possibility of extension for two further
winters.
Where the necessity for schemes arises within a Drainage
District, such schemes will be in the hands of the Drainage
Board on Drainage Authority concerned, but County Councils
and those County Borough Councils with an agriculutral com-
mittee will be able to organize voluntary schemes outside Drain-
age Districts among landowners and farmers, who in such cases
613
Notes for the Mqnth
should get in touch with the Council affected. It is not intended
that grants will be available for schemes of field drainage, or
even for arterial drainage schemes designed to benefit only one
holding.
Circulars announcing these facilities have been addressed to
all concerned, and a number of schemes have already been
submitted to the Ministry for approval.
Eradication of Bracken: Demonstration Scheme
The Ministry has recently advised Local Authorities in
England and Wales in districts that are infested with bracken
that it will provide financial assistance for the demonstratiop,
by the county agricultural education staffs, of the efficacy
of approved types of cutting or crushing machines for the
eradication of bracken.
Under the scheme, the Authorities concerned will carry out
demonstrations, on heavily-infested land in their areas, of the
use of machines for cutting or crushing bracken, at appropri-
ate seasons, over a period of two or three years. The only cost
to the occupiers of the land on which the demonstrations are
conducted will be that of the supply of the necessary power and
labour for the operation of the; machine used.
It is anticipated that when these demonstration schemes have
been in of)eration for three years the demonstrations will have
served to create a demand for the machines, which will then
be available for hire from the Local Authorities at economic
rates.
Inquiries relating to these demonstrations should be
addressed to the Agricultural Organizer of the ('ounty in which
the inquirer lives.
National Rat Week, November 1-6, 1937
National Rat Week begins this year on Monday, November i,
and the Ministry appeals to all concerned to make every effort
during that week to destroy rats and mice and to take all
possible step>s to secure concerted action to bring them under
control.
The Rats and Mice (Destruction) Act, 1919, requires every
occupier of land or premises to take steps to destroy any rats
or mice on his property and to prevent the property from be-
coming infested. Some 728 local authorities in England and
Wales are responsible for the enforcement of the Act in their
respective areas, and the Ministry has addressed a circular
letter to these authorities inviting their co-operation in this
614
Notes for the Month
year’s campaign and making suggestions regarding special
measures that may be taken in connexion with rubbish dumps,
sewage farms, and other properties that are particularly subject
to infestation.
In order to assist in the campaign the Ministry has arranged
for local authorities to be supplied with copies of an illustrated
“National Rat Week ’’ poster and of literature on the subject
of rat destruction, and has also offered to lend copies of its
cinematograph film “ Your Enemy the Rat ’’ illustrating the
depredations of rats and the means for their destruction.
The Ministry’s Advisory Leaflet No. 49 on the “ Destruction
of Rats and Mice ’’ contains much useful information and
advice, and a copy of this Leaflet, together with a pamphlet
that makes simple suggestions for rat destruction and a list ot
firms from whom poisons, etc. , are obtainable, may be obtained
free of charge on application to the Ministry.
Further information on the subject is contained in the
Ministry’s Bulletin No. 30 “ Rats and How to Exterminate
Them,’’ copies of which are obtainable through any bookseller,
or direct from His Maje.sty’s Stationery Office, price 6d. {'jd.
post free).
Diseases of Animals in 1936
The Report of Proceedings under the Diseases of Animals
Acts for the year 1936. recently issued,* opens with a brief
outline of the (iovernment’s scheme for the inauguration of a
large-scale campaign for the eradication of diseases of animals
in Great Britain. Part I of the Report describes the incidence
of the notifiable contagious animal diseases, and records the
continued absence of the following diseases from Great Britain,
namely: — cattle plague (rinderpest), pleuro-pneumonia of
cattle, sheep pox, rabies, glanders or farcy, epizootic lymphan-
gitis and fowl pest. There were 67 outbreaks of foot-and-
mouth disease, distributed among 12 English and 2 Welsh
counties ; 62 of the outbreaks occurred after October 10, and 40
of these were due to the distribution of infected animals through
two markets. This disease continues to be dealt with by the
slaughter policy, which involves the immediate compulsory
slaughter of all affected animals and of those directly exposed
to infection. There was a decrease of 176 (9 per cent.) in the
number of outbreaks of swine fever as compared with the
* Report of Proceedings under the Diseases of Animals Acts for the
year 1936 ; H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway, London,
W.C. 2. iVice net is. 6d. (by post, is. 8d.).
615
Notes for the Month
previous year, and a further satisfactory decline (46.5 percent.)
in the number of outbreaks of sheep scab, the total figure, 255,
being the lowest recorded for 32 years. On the other hand, the
confirmed cases of anthrax showed an increase of 21 per cent,
and there was a slight increase in the number of outbreaks of
parasitic mange in equines.
The usual details are given showing the results of the
administration of the Tuberculosis Order of 1925 by Local
Authorities. The number of cattle examined in Great Britain
by veterinaiy in.spectors was 438,267 on 26,744 premises, and
the number of cattle slaughtered increased by 1,479 to 23,716.
The Tuberculosis (Attested Herds) Scheme continued to make
steady progress during the year and showed signs of rapid
development at the close of the year.
This Part of the Report also describes the three new Orders
issued under the powers conferred by the Diseases of Animals
Act, 1935, for dealing with poultry diseases, and the general
principles governing action in relation to poultry.
Part II of the Report deals with the measures taken to
prevent the introduction and spread of disease in this country.
It gives particulars of the animals imported from Ireland and
other countries and of the instances of disease found in imported
animals, these instances being limited to one case of bovine
tuberculosis and 99 cases of sheep scab — 30 from Northern
Ireland and 69 from the Irish Free State.
Part III describes the administration of the measures for the
protection of animals from unnecessary suffering during transit
by land or sea. The proportion of casualties among the large
number of animals carried from Ireland fell to 16 per 100,000,
the lowest figure yet recorded.
Part IV deals with the certification of exported pedigree and
other livestock and of raw animal products, to comply with the
regulations of the importing countries, where such certification
has to be made under the Ministry’s authority. The record
number of 788 animals passed through the London Quarantine
Station.
Part V contains a reference to the annual meeting of the
International Veterinary Bureau in Paris, and a report of the
operation of the Warble Fly (Dressing of Cattle) Order of 1936.
The volume includes a separate report by the Director of the
Ministry’s Veterinary Laboratory and Research Institute at
Weybridge, describing the diagnostic and research work car-
ried out at that Institution during the year under review.
6t6
Notes for the Month
The Appendices to the Report contain the usual statistics as
to animal diseases, the livestock population, animals imported
and exported, and the incidence of certain animal diseases in
European countries, together with a memorandum describing
the action taken by the Ministry under the Diseases of Animals
Act, 1935, in regard to the control of poultry diseases.
Land Drainage Act, 1930, Report
The Ministry has recently issued a Report on the operations
and proceedings under the Land Drainage Act, 1930, from the
date of th(! passing of that Act (August i, 1930) to March 31,
1937 -
The Report gives a full account of the functions imposed
upon the Ministry under the Act, and the extent to which they
have been exercised. It also deals with the activities of
Catchment Boards, and includes a brief account of the more
important improvement schemes being carried out by these
Boards with the aid of (iovernment Grants under Section 55
of the Act. The Report also contains information with regard
to the making of by-laws by Catchment Boards, with the
Board’s powers of control over their main rivers and with the
lowland reorganization of the various catchment areas. In
addition, it deals with the provisions of the Act in relation to the
revenue of Catchment Boards, the powers of Drainage Boards
(other than Catchment Boards), and the powers of County and
C'ounty Borough Councils. Various appendices are included
showing the relative positions of the catchment areas as regards
size, rateable value, length of main river, lowland reorganiza-
tion, etc.
The Report appears in a striking cover showing a photo-
graph of a flooded area, taken from the air, and it is hoped that
it will prove of interest to all Authorities concerned with the
administration of the Act. It has been published at the price
of is. 6d. net (is. 8d. post free), and copies are obtainable from
His Majesty’s Stationer}^ Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, or through any bookseller.
Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act, 1924: Report
of Proceedings, 1935-36
The Ministry has recently issued a Report of Proceedings
under the Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act, 1924, for the
year ended September 30, 1936. The Report reviews the work
of the Agricultural Wages Board and of the Agricultural Wages
617
Notes for the Month
Committees during the period, and contains full details of the
minimum rates of wages for agricultural workers as fixed by
the Committees. In addition, the Report deals with the results
of the investigations made by the Ministry’s Inspectors for
the purpose of securing the proper observance of the minimum
rates, and with the state of employment in agriculture and
the demand for labour.
The Report is obtainable through any bookseller, or direct
from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price i.s. net (post free i.s. xd.).
Cereals for Autumn Sowing
The following Note has been contributed by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany, Cambridge :
At this time of the year farmers find it desirable to consider
which among the many available cereal varieties are likely to
give the best financial return. The kind chosen varies with
soil, climate, and many other factors.
There is a wide choice of good winter wheats, among the
best being Juliana, Victor, Wilhelmina, the Yeomans, Holdfast,
Little Joss, Steel, Rivett and Squarehead’s Master or Standard
Red. In respect of baking quality. Holdfast is worthy of
special attention, for tests have shown it to be superior to the
Yeomans, or in fact any other English wheat.
As regards barley, where winter hardiness is of first import-
ance the ordinary six-row winter is the most satisfactory.
Under favourable conditions. Plumage- Archer or Spratt-
Archer both withstand normal winters and give good malting
samples as well as high yields.
Among winter oats, Grey Winter and Black Winter
are the most hardy. On richer soils, Boiintiful stands
better but is not so hardy. Where extreme winter hardi-
ness is not required, and for very fertile soils. Resistance can
be recommended on account of its resistance to lodging, good
quality straw and very high yields. The use of the term
“ White Winter ” as a varietal name for loats should be
avoided, as it is ambiguous.
Brief particulars of the purposes for which the above varieties
are adapted are given in Farmers’ Leaflet No. i issued by the
Institute. Copies can be obtained free of charge from the
Institute at Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, or from any County
Agricultural Organizer, and inquiries about these or other
varieties are always welcome.
6i8
BRITAIN’S GRASS LAND MUST BE IMPROVED
Very large areas of our grass land, in both uplands and
lowlands, are in a bad state, but can and must be improved.
Britain is pre-eminently a grass country, but good grass land
can only be maintained with skill and attention.
Grass land is one of the most valuable but least used of our
national assets. Much of it, however, is in poor condition,
some areas being so jX)or that their grazing value is almost
negligible.
The farmer pays special attention to the growing of his
arable crops, studying their need for cultivation and fertilizers,
and building up a standard of yield that is a measure of his
success. Regarding the appearance and condition of his live
stock he also has standards that are closely connected with
economic production, and these standards he maintains with
great care. Permanent grass, however, is often left to look
after itself. The urgent need to-day is that farmers should
pay as close attention to their grass as to their arable fields and
their live stock.
Poor and neglected grass land is wasteful : it has a very
short season of production; its output is of low quality: and
it is continuing to deteriorate. I.ow quality grass leads to
malnutrition and disease of live stock.
The present is an appropriate time for farmers to consider
the advantages of improving their grass land. Just as in
business " it pays to advertise,” so in farming ” it pays to
fertilize.” Under the Agriculture Act, 1937, jarmers can
obtain lime at one-halj and basic slag at three-quarters of the
cost delivered to their farms. This is indeed an opportunity
for farmers to improve their pastures and make them more
profitable.
Rent and overhead charges form the highest items of grass-
land costs. By increasing output overhead charges are pro-
portionately reduced. Most of the improvements brought
about by the application of basic slag have been made at a
very low additional cost in proportion to the increased output.
By lengthening the grazing season or by increasing the nutri-
tive value of his grass the farmer can reduce the net cost of
producing meat or milk. He can also shorten the period
required for producing lamb or beef.
Grass land from which milk or young stock is being produced
619
Improvement of Grass Land
is in special need of minerals, particularly lime and phosphates
— without which the grass deteriorates in quality and feeding
value.
Grass may suffer from lack of drainage, lack of aeration,
lack of lime, lack of manures. Even if a farmer can do no
more, the correction of one of these deficiencies will raise the
standard of a poor pasture. The improved quality, even apart
from any extra yield, means that the original numbers of live
stock obtain better fare. It is now well known to be cheaper
to provide extra protein and minerals through the herbage by
manuring than by supplementing poor grass by concentrates.
Grassland improvement means better grass, more grass and
a longer grazing season; it means more stock, better and
healthier stock, and smaller bills for feeding stuffs. This is
not mere theory but the experience of farmers who have put
their pastures and meadows in good condition.
In the following pages are indicated some of the more import-
ant factors in grassland improvement, and notes are given
regarding the use of lime and basic slag. More detailed informa-
tion is contained in the following publications : —
Bulletin No. 35. — Use of Lime in Agriculture. Price Od. (jd. post free)
from H.M. Stationery Office.
Advisory Leaflets Nos. 134 and 239. Free of charge from the Ministry.
A revised edition of Bulletin No. 3 (Improvement of Grass Land) is now
in preparation.
When a farmer is in doubt as to procedure he should consult
the County Agricultural Organizer.
Methods of Improvement. In improving grass land the
following points should be observed : —
1. Manures are needed on all worn-out grass. Phosphates
improve practically all pastures, and basic slag supplies phos-
phate in suitable form. Potash is occasionally needed in
addition to slag, and when lime, phosphate and potash have
been applied in adequate amounts, nitrogen may be used to
increase the yield and also produce grass earlier and later in
the season than it normally is.
2. If lime is needed, as indicated by weeds (e.g., sheep’s
sorrel), a “mat,” or a soil test, it is important that some form
of lime should be applied before using other fertilizers.
3. If had drainage is clearly the factor affecting the herbage,
as indicated by weeds, or by “ poaching ” or “ plunging ” of
the land, it is usually a wise policy to attend to the drain^e
before applying lime or fertilizer.
620
Improvement of Grass Land
4. Cultivation by some form of harrowing is very desirable
to speed up the action of lime and fertilizers on old grass. The
object of cultivating is to remove any hindrance to the spread
of clover and good grasses, and to bring fertilizers into direct
contact with the soil.
5. To plough out and re-sow is often the surest way of
getting the best return when the land is not too difficult for
cultivation. Good seeds mixtures should be used and carefully
sown. The plough can be used without increasing the actual
area of arable crops where a long-ley system is practicable.
6. “ Management ” is the deciding factor in the success
of any scheme aiming at high production from grass land.
Intelligent control and manurtal treatment will extend the
grazing season, improve the quality of the hay and grazing,
provide better winter keep, reduce weeds, and give opportuni-
ties for producing valuable home-grown food in the form of
grass silage or dried grass.
Lime. Lime is a fundamental improver, without which the
soil cannot make full use of the labour and manures applied
to it. The fertility of many farms to-day is due to the liming
and chalking that took place in bygone years. Failure to
keep up this practice has brought land in many districts into a
state in which neither grass nor crop can pay for want of lime.
In other districts the lime residues in the soil are approaching
exhaustion.
Some land is derelict for want of lime; some land needs no
lime; every condition between tliese two extremes can be
found. It is often difficult to judge by inspection whether lime
is needed and what amount to apply. These questions can be
settled scientifically by soil analysis. The Advisory Agri-
cultural Chemist for the particular area is equipped to under-
take this work, and farnxTs who need this service should
consult the County Agricultural Organizer.
The Main Types of Grass Land needing Lime are '. —
Most grass land in industrial areas, on Coal Measures and
Millstone Grit soils, and especially on areas subject to atmo-
spheric pollution or smoke damage.
Matted grass land, especially on light sandy soils, and soils
growing such plants as sheep's sorrel, heath bedstraw, creep-
ing bent and Yorkshire fog.
Land on which red clovers are apt to fail.
Most moorland and peaty soils.
621
Improvement of Grass Land
Forms of Lime. Lime may be applied to the soil in several
forms : —
(1) Calcium oxide (CaO), as quicklime or burnt lime, obtainable as
lump lime (shell lime or cob lime), ground lime (bagged lime)
or small lime (the residue at the kilns after lump lime is picked
out).
(2) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH),), as hydrated lime or slaked lime.
(3) Calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime (CaCX),), as ground chalk,
ground limestone or dried carbonate of lime from certain
industrial processes.
(4) Unground natural materials containing calcium carbonate, as lump
chalk, limestone dust, calcareous sea sand, shell sand, and marl.
(5) Waste lime, such as lime sludge from beet sugar factories, waste
carbonate of lime from ])aper works, and carbide waste lime.
Of these materials the first three groups, i.e., quicklime,
calcium hydroxide, ground chalk, ground limestone, dried
carbonate of lime, and mixtures of these forms, are standard-
ized materials with which a warranty under the Fertilizers and
Feeding Stuffs Act must be given on sale. For each material
the percentage of calcium oxide (CaO), calcium hydroxide
(Ca (011)2), or calcium carbonate (CaCOg) must be given in
terms of prescribed methods of analysis, and for Groups 2
and 3 the equivalent amounts of calcium oxide must also be
given.
Groups 4 and 5, being untreated natural products or waste
materials that vary considerably in composition, do not come
under the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act. Most vendors
of these materials are, however, prepared voluntarily to give a
statement of their approximate composition, for the informa-
tion of purchasers.
The unit price of CaO, i.e., the cost of the material delivered
at the farm divided by the figure representing percentage of
calcium oxide (CaO), is the basis for comparing costs of
different forms of lime.
When well distributed in the soil materials supplying equiva-
lent amounts of calcium oxide will have similar effects. For
“ pure ” materials, i ton of quicklime equals 27 cwt. of
hydrated lime or 36 cwt. of carbonate of lime.
The waste limes sometimes contain a large proportion of
water. They may occasionally contain small amounts of
material deleterious to plants, and untried materials should
therefore be applied in winter well before sowing the next crop.
Waste materials, such as sugar-beet Ume sludge, may contain
small quantities of other fertilizing substances, such as nitrogen.
622
Improvement of Grass Land
Basic Slag. Basic slag is particularly valuable for the im-
provement of poor, neglected, heavy land pasture, but it is also
useful on grass land of ordinary quality and on other classes of
soil. Much grass land suffers from a shortage of available
phosphoric acid, and this is remedied by slagging. The basic
slag increases the amounts of clover and fine grasses, and im-
proves the feeding nature and palatability of the herbage. In
conjunction with better grazing it builds up the fertility of the
soil.
How to Buy Slag. Basic slag owes its fertilizer value to the
fact that it contains phosphoric acid (PjOr,) in a form available
to plants. As it is a by-product from steel-making its content
of phosphoric acid may vary rather widely (from i8 to 8 per
cent.). Farmers may not always be able to obtain exactly the
grade ordered, but the prices of different slags generally follow
the phosphoric acid contents fairly closely. Different slags
may be compared in terms of the unit price of phosphoric
acid, which is the delivered cost of the slag per ton divided by
the percentage of phosphoric acid. Thus slag containing 14
per cent, phosphoric acid and offered at £2 5s. bd. per ton
costs p. 3^. per unit. A slag having a low phosphoric acid
content should of course be applied at a higher rate per acre.
Basic slags arc ground very finely, and the seller must declare
the percentage of the material (usually 80 per cent.) that will
pass through a prescribed sieve.
In order to dibtinguish between two main classes of basic slag, use is
generally made of the citric acid test, which is described as an optional
lest in the i^egulations of the b'ertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act. For
most slags, over 8o per cent, of the phosphoric acid is soluble by this
test, but m some so-called “ low-sol u!)le slags” the citric acid solubility
may fall to 40 per cent, or less. These ” low -soluble slags ” arc generally
sold at lower unit-]irices in the districts where tliey arc produced. Their
phosphoric acid is less available to ])lants than that in the ” high-soluble
slags,” and it is, therefore, advisable for farmers to ask for the guarantee
of high solubility by the citric acid test, unless they have satisfied them-
selves that the ” low-soluble slags ” are sufficiently eftectivc for their land.
For ” high-soluble slags ” with more than 80 per cent, of their phosphoric
acid soluble in citric acid, the fertilizer value depends only on the total
amount of phosphoric acid present and not on the jiarticular steel making
process (Bcs.senier or Open Hearth) by which they were produced.
The foregoing article is the substance of a manifesto published
recently by the Ministry. Copies of this manifesto may be
obtained free of charge on application to The Secretary,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, lo, Whitehall Place,
London, S.IF.i.
623
THE LAND FERTILITY SCHEME
The Land Fertility Committee have not allowed the grass
to grow under their feet. Formed on August 3, with Lord
Cranworth as Chairman, to administer the Land Fertility
Scheme made under the Agriculture Act, 1937, which became
law on July 30, they set up the necessary machinery of
approved suppliers — producers and distributors of lime and
basic slag — in time for operations to start on September 6.
The preparatory work involved the approval of some 300
producers and 2,500 distributors of lime and basic slag in the
United Kingdom, as well as bringing to the notice of more than
half a million occupiers of agricultural land the conditions that
must be satisfied before contributions will be made.
Any occupier of agricultural land* in the United Kingdom
may now apply for an exchequer contribution towards the cost
incurred by him in acquiring and transporting any quantity,
not being less than two tons, of lime and basic slag for the
purpose of adding it to the land in order to improve the fertil-
ity of the soil. The cost of spreading it on the land .after
delivery will be borne entirely by the occupier himself.
The contribution will not exceed one-half of the expenditure
so incurred in respect of lime or one-quarter in respect of basic
slag. Only lime or basic slag produced within the United
Kingdom is eligible for contribution.
A farmer who is thinking of using the Scheme may be doubt-
ful whether particular fields require lime or basic slag, or may
be uncertain as to the most suitable kinds or grades to buy
or the proper quantities to use. These are matters on which he
can obtain advice free of charge from the County Agricultural
Organizer.
Having made up his mind on these points, his next step is
to order his requirements from an “ approved supplier.” In
• The expression " agricultural land” means, in this connexion, any
land used as arable, meadow, or pasture ground, or for the purpose
of poultry farming, market gardens, nursery grounds, orchards, or
aUotments, including allotment gardens within the meaning of the
Allotments Act, jg22, or the Allotments (Scotland) Act, 192^. The word
farmer used throughout this article includes any occupier of agricultural
land so defined.
624
The Land Fertility Scheme
view of the large number of distributors who have been ap-
proved, it is more than likely that the agricultural merchant
with whom a farmer is accustomed to deal will be on the list, but
this is a matter on which it is not safe to take risks, since lime
or basic slag purchased from anyone who is not an “ approved
supplier ” will not be eligible for contribution. Copies of the
list of “approved suppliers ” are available for consultation
at County Council offices, including those used for Agricultural
Education, branch offices of the National Farmers' Union and
district offices of associations of agricultural merchants.
Freedom of choice of “ approved suppliers ’’ rests with the
farmer, but if the selection results in a charge for transport
that appears to the Land Fertility Committee to be unneces-
sarily high, the Committee may. after warning, disallow a sum
in excess of the amount which they consider to be reasonable
for transport charges in calculating contributions in respect of
subsequent purchases by the farmer in question from the same
source.
Having satisfied himself that the supplier with whom he
intends to place his order is an “ approved supplier,” the
farmer must obtain from such supplier an assurance that the
price proposed to be charged for the particular kind and quality
of lime or basic slag is permitted by the conditions subject to
which that supplier has been approved.
The question of price is all-important, not only because one-
half of the cost of lime and three-quarters of the cost of basic
slag will come out of the farmer's pocket, but because the
action which the Land Fertility Committee have taken to safe-
guard the farmer against a general rise in prices can only
be (iffeetive if it is supported whole-heartedly by farmers
themselves. As Mr. Morrison stated when introducing the
Agriculture Bill in the House of Commons, the problem is
how to prevent the increased demand which the Scheme will
stimulate from manifesting itself in an increased price; or, in
other words, to see that the money voted by Parliament for
this purpose does actually reach the pockets of the farmers.
The conditions obtaining in the lime industry make this a
peculiarly difficult problem. Lime sold for agricultural purposes
forms only a part, and by no means the larger part,
of the total output of the industry. Amongst the three hundred
or more producers of lime for agricultural purposes in the
United Kingdom, there will be found, naturally enough, a
great diversity in the matter of size and efficiency, which is
625
The Land Fertility Scheme
reflected in a diversity of prices. There is little or no standard-
ization of trade descriptions. The Land Fertility Committee
have to take the industry as they find it, and, fortunately
for the farmers, they find it reasonably competitive,
with the additional safeguard that there are, up and down the
country, many potential local sources of supply that may come
into production if demand tends to outrun supply.
Unlike lime, basic slag is not a primary product, but a by-
product of steel making, and its production is in relatively few
hands.
The map on the opposite page shows the situation of the
quarries or works of the producers of lime and basic slag who
have been approved under the Scheme.
The fundamental condition on which producers have been
approved is that the prices they will charge under the Scheme
will not exceed those they were charging to farmers on a cash
basis for lime or basic slag before the proposals that have been
embodied in the Scheme were announced. May i, 1937, has
been taken as the criterion for this purpose. The producers of
basic slag have agreed to reduce their May i prices by bd. a
ton for low-grade slags, qd. a ton for intermediate grades, and
I.?, a ton for high grades. These reductions will be in force
until May 31, 1938, before which date the question of price will
be reconsidered.
The suppliers who have been approved are so distributed
over the country that it is improbable that many farms arc out
of range of the distributive machinery that has been set up. The
“ May I ” principle applies to distributors’ margins in the
same way as it applies to producers’ prices.
Farmers may order supplies under the Scheme by the
ordinary methods employed by them lor obtaining their agri-
cultural requirements generally. No special order form need
be used. Each approved distributor has been supplied with
forms, one of which he must send to the farmer on the com-
pletion of delivery of each order. The form serves the dual
purpose of a delivery note and an application for contribution.
The farmer should complete and return to the supplier forth-
with the part of the form that requires his acknowledgment of
receipt of the lime or basic slag and a declaration that it has
been spread by him on agricultural land in his occupation,
or will be so spread within six months from the date of delivery.
The supplier should then complete the form by filling in the
particulars asked for in respect of his distributive margin, and
626
The Land Fertility Scheme
The Land Fertility Scheme
send the form to the Land Fertility Committee. The smooth
working of the Scheme will largely depend upon farmers and
suppliers dealing with these forms expeditiously.
In order to prevent unnecessarily small sums being handed
out to a great number of applicants, two tons has been fixed
as the lowest unit on which contribution will be made, but
special provision is made in the Scheme to enable associations
of farmers, allotment holders, small holders or similar associa-
tions, which purchase hme or basic slag in bulk for redistribu-
tion to their members, to be treated as if they were occupiers
of agricultural land. All that is required is that such an associa-
tion should have written rules governing its constitution and
management and should have been certified in writing by the
Land Fertility Committee to be an “ Approved Association ”
for the purpose of the Scheme.
Special provision has also been made to cover an occupier of
agricultural land who wishes to apply for a contribution in
respect of forms of lime (e.g. , chalk, marl for liming, calcareous
sea sand, shellsand, waste lime) which he has not purchased but
intends himself to produce, render suitable for use or bring
upon land in his occupation. In tliesc instances, the
occupier is required to furnish the Land Fertility Committee
on a prescribed form with particulars of what he proposes* to
do, and with a detailed estimate of the cost of labour, transport
and other incidental expenditure involved. Such estimate, if
approved, with or without modification, will form the basis on
which contribution will be calculated.
The most economical means of transport must be employed
and the Committee may disallow for the purpose of calculating
the amount of contribution any charges for distribution or
transport which they consider to be excessive. Only amounts
actually paid for transport by a farmer or supplier may be
included in an application, except when a farmer or supplier
uses his own transport to convey lime or basic slag under the
scheme, in which event he must include only such amounts
as would be charged for the service by a commercial carrier
operating under competitive conditions.
The Railway Companies have agreed to allow certain reduc-
tions from standard rates in respect of various categories of
traffic carried under the Scheme.
628
THE NEW OATS AND BARLEY SUBSIDY SCHEME
Under Part II of the Agriculture Act, 1937, the appropriate
Minister (in England and Wales the appropriate Minister is
the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries) is empowered, in
respect of the five years 1937 ^ 1941, to make subsidy pay-
ments to growers of oats and barley in any cereal year when
the average price of oats during the seven months September
to March is 7s. "jA. per cwt. or less. The average price per
cwt. is to be the average price of home-grown oats in the whole
of the United Kingdom.
Rate of Subsidy Payments. The Act provides that subsidy
payments shall be at a rate per acre equal to six times the
difference between the average price per cwt. ascertained for
the United Kingdom and a standard price of S.?. per cwt., with
a maximum of ;^t per acre. The rate of subsidy for land under
barley will be the same as that for land under oats, and will
thus be detenuined by the United Kingdom price of oats.
Subsidy will not be payable on any area of oats or of barley of
less than one acre, and fractions of acres are to be disregarded
in calculating any subsidies payable.
Persons to whom Subsidy Payments may be made. The
person to whom subsidy payments may be made is normally
the occupier of the farm on June 4, but if there has been a
change in occupancy before June 4, and the outgoing occupier
is entitled to harvest all or part of the crops of wheat, barley
or oats on the farm, the Minister may give directions regarding
the person who shall be authorized to make the application,
and regarding the person to whom the whole or part of any
subsidy shall be payable.
Subsidy Payments and Wheat Deficiency Payments. The
Act provides that a farmer choosing to receive any subsidy
payments payable in respect of land under oats or barley,
shall not receive wheat deficiency payments for wheat grown
on the same farm in the same cereal year. Each farmer must,
therefore, decide each year, and in respect of each of his farms
that is farmed as a separate unit, whether he will receive either
subsidy payments in respect of oats (and barley or wheat
629
Oats and Barley Subsidy Scheme
deficiency payments under the Wheat Act. Payments cannot be
made in respect of oats and barley, and of wheat, grown on
the same farm in any one year. It is also provided that if
there has been any change of occupancy before June 4 which
leaves the outgoing occupier with the right to harvest part or
all of the grain crops, the Minister may give directions as to
the jserson who shall make the choice.
Standard Acreage. The Act makes provision for the fixing
of a “standard acreage ’’ for each of the two crops. This
“ standard acreage ’’ will be eleven-tenths of the acreage of
oats and barley qualifying for subsidy payments in IQ37- If
in any future year, while the scheme is in operation, the acreage
of barley or oats qualifying for subsidy payments exceeds the
“ standard acreage ’’ the rate of subsidy payment per acre will
be reduced in proportion.
Mixed Crops. Land under mixed crops containing oats or
barley may be treated as land under oats or barley, but for the
purpose of the subsidy the equivalent oats or barley acreage
of such crops will be reckoned by calculating the proportion that
the quantity of oats or barley sown bears to the total seeds
sown on the land in question. Mixed crops of barley and oats
will be treated as if part of the land was under oats alone
and part under barley alone.
The Barley and Oats Subsidy Payments Regulations,
1937 . Regulations have been made jointly by the Ministers
concerned with agriculture in the three countries setting out
the form in which applications for the oats and barley subsidy
shall be made by farmers, and indicating the latest dates on
which applications for such subsidy payments will be received
by the appropriate Minister. The regulations provide that
applications shall be made not later than September 30 in the
year 1937, and not later than June 25 in each of the subsequent
years during which the scheme is in operation, except in
Northern Ireland, where the closing date in future years is
June 30.
The regulations also require that every person who has
applied for subsidy payment shall, within 14 days after service
upon him, by the appropriate Minister, of a notice requiring
him to do so, make a declaration that the barley or oats grown
630
Oats and Barley Subsidy Scheme
on the land in respect of which his application for subsidy pay-
ment has been accepted, was harvested as grain or, owing to
climatic conditions, was not cut until after the day specified
in the notice.
Copies of these regulations (price 2d. ) may be obtained from
H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway, London,
W.C.2. or through any bookseller.
Arrangements made for the Distribution of Application
Forms to Farmers. Forms of application as prescribed by
the above-mentioned regulations together with an explanatory
memorandum on the scheme were despatched on September 2
to all farmers in England and Wales whose annual return
on June 4 showed an acreage of land under barley or oats or
mixed corn. Instructions in the filling in of the application
form were printed to form part of the explanatory
memorandum.
631
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS:
THE VALUE OF THE SEPTEMBER INQUIRY
It is over 70 years since the first statistics of acreage of crops
and numbers of farm livestock were collected on a national
basis in this country. During that time the form of the annual
return has not changed to any material extent, and although
the number of items on the schedule has tended to increase,
the return has remained in most respects very much
the same as in the earliest years. The most important event
connected with the annual statistics has been the Agricultural
Returns Act of 1925. Until then the returns had been collected
by agents of the Department, who were unable to bring pres-
sure, other than the pressure of persuasion, to bear upon
occupiers of agricultural land who for any reason failed to
supply the particulars requested. Missing returns were com-
pleted by the collectors, either by personal inquiry among the
occupiers and their neighbours, or, in a minority of instances,
by estimating from the figures of earlier years. With the
passing of the Act of 1925, the position was regularized, and
it became a statutory duty of every occupier of agricultul'al
land exceeding one acre in extent, to make an annual return
on the prescribed form on such date in the year as the Minister
may determine. Almost throughout the 70 years (there was
some slight irregularity in the beginning) the returns have
related to the position on June 4 in each year.
Official estimates of production of the more important crops
date back over 50 years, and, throughout that period, estimates,
as reliable as circumstances permitted, of the average yield of
the major crops, and the estimated total production of these
crops, have been prepared regularly by the responsible Depart-
ments. As regards animal products, fruit and the less impor-
tant crops, the Census of Production Act of 1906 gave the
Board of Trade powers to require on a statutory basis statistics
of production of manufactured products, and although similar
powers were not taken by the Agricultural Departments, par-
ticulars have been collected on a voluntary basis regarding
5delds of milk, eggs and fruit, births and natural deaths of
livestock, and carcass weights of animals slaughtered, in the
same years as the Board of Trade have carried out censuses
Agricultural Statistics; September Inquiry
of industrial production. Commencing in 1935, instead of
quinquennial special inquiries, the necessary information is
being collected on a five-yearly programme, approximately
one-fifth of the additional statistics being obtained each year.
The new procedure is not only more convenient for the farmer,
but it also enables the results of the inquiries to be published
more expeditiously. The particulars so collected have enabled
the Departments to estimate, with reasonable precision, the
production of meat, milk and milk products, and eggs, and of
fruit and other crops, in the Census years; and by applying
the average yields to the ascertained numbers of livestock or
acreage of crops each year, rough estimates of annual produc-
tion have been made possible in intervening years.
Farmers as a class have proved to be willing collaborators
with the Agricultural Departments in the task of computing
agricultural production, and have readily furnished such in-
formation as they have, or such estimates as they could make,
when asked to do so. To most men, among whom farmers are
not exceptional, the filling in of forms is an uncongenial task.
Most of the voluntary inquiries carried out by the Ministry in
connexion with the Censuses of Agricultural Production have
brought in replies from well over one-half the farmers of the
country, and bearing in mind the frequently somewhat recon-
dite character of the questions asked, this proportion can be
regarded as surprisingly high.
The increasing importance of statistical information in rela-
tion to the development of government agricultural policy in
recent years, has led the Ministry to ask for yet further statistical
information from farmers. In 1933, and again in 1935 and
1936, a voluntary return of the numbers of cattle, sheep and
pigs on farms on December 4, gave authoritative figures of the
livestock population at a point midway between the returns of
the preceding and subsequent June. Here again the response
of farmers was very satisfactory, the proportion of completed
returns amounting to 73 per cent, in 1933, 85 per cent, in 1935
and 71 per cent, in 1936. The estimates of total numbers of
stock, based on so large a sample, can be accepted as accurate
within a very small margin.
The collection of particulars of cattle and sheep at intervals
of six months is perhaps adequate to enable reasonably accu-
rate forecasts of home supplies of beef and mutton to be com-
puted, and the information obtained through the medium of
these special inquiries, in conjunction with the June returns,
633
Agricultural Statistics: September Inquiry
has been of the greatest value to the Government in connexion
with the regulation of imports. The pig population, however,
can change very rapidly, and in the absence of other
statistics it is impossible to forecast with safety future
supplies of pigs for slaugliter upon data collected at such
lengthy intervals. While the contract system for bacon pigs
was in force, the future course of home bacon supplies was
known with fair accuracy, and the regulation of imports of
bacon to maintain the national supply at the Lane-Fox level,
was hardly more than an arithmetical problem. With the
breakdown of the contract system, it became a much more
difficult task to forecast supplies. Figures of the pig popula-
tion are needed at more frequent intervals, and the Ministry,
together with the other Agricultural Departments, has arranged
that, for the time being, statistics of pigs on agricultural holdings
shall be obtained from farmers on a voluntary basis every three
months. The first form of return for this purpose was sent
out to all farmers at the beginning of September.
The form of return for pigs provided also spaces in which
farmers were asked to state the numbers of turkeys and the
numbers of agricultural tractors upon their holdings on Septem-
ber 4. The question may well be asked what relation there is
between pigs, turkeys and agricultural tractors. The answer
is that there is none : it'merely happens that the Ministry is
anxious, for a number of reasons, to obtain information regard-
ing these items, and has taken the opportunity afforded by the
first quarterly pig census to collect information also about
turkeys and tractors.
It is a matter of common knowledge among poultry keepers
that the hatching season for turkeys has tended in the last two
years to extend beyond the early part of June into
July, the reason no doubt being the endeavour of
farmers to produce light-weight turkeys for the Christmas
trade, under the shelter of the import duty of 30!. per lb. on
foreign birds imposed in May, 1935. Hitherto, however, there
has been no satisfactory measure of the importance of this
development and no means of estimating with reasonable ac-
curacy the supplies of home-bred turkeys likely to be marketed
for the Christmas trade. The particulars collected in Septem-
ber, when the hatching season is over, will, it is hoped, afford
a reliable guide not only to the absolute supplies of turkeys
to be marketed this year, but also to the increase that these
supplies represent over those of earlier years, when the hatching
634
Agricultural Statistics: September Inquiry
season was virtually over by the time the June returns were
collected.
As regards agricultural tractors, it has been the Ministry's
practice to obtain, at the time of the Census of Production,
voluntary particulars of the number of the various kinds of
agricultural machinery on farms. The decline in the numbers
of farm workers makes the question of the increasing use of
machinery of the greatest importance. It is well-known that
the use of tractors on farms has been greatly stimulated in
recent years, but precise information regarding the extent of
this development has been lacking. The information collected
this year should .serve to remedy this deficiency, and should
also enable the Government to judge the rate at which the
tractor is replacing horse and human labour.
It is already evident that this, the latest of the Ministry's
applications for voluntary information from farmers, will meet
with a response as gratifying as when similar inquiries have
been made in the past. About 370,000 forms of inquiry were
sent out on September 2, and by the end of the following week
no fewer than 170,000 had already been returned, while by
the 23rd of the month the total of replies had reached 240,000.
Farmers, and the Ministry, may look with some satisfaction
upon this admirable* response to a voluntary questionnaire sent
out at a time of year when farmers have little spare time in
which to fill in statistical forms.
635
FARMING & FACTORY MANAGEMENT IN DENMARK
S. L. Corner, B.Sc.*
In order to complete the qualifications required for a degree in
Dairy Science in this country, it is necessary for students to
spend a month in a dairy factory. The writer of the article
being in statu puptllari took the opportunity that was
offered to spend that time at the Danish State Experimental
Dairy near Hillerod, on the island of Zealand, some 20 miles
north of Copenhagen.
The countryside gives the impression of wide plains studded
with neat whitewashed farms and cottages, and low rolling
uplands covered with large birch forests.
The soil and climate of this part of Denmark are particu-
larly suited to dairy farming and the intensive system of
cropping practised. In Zealand the soil is chiefly boulder clay
— rich soil — well managed. The boulders turned up during
ploughing are collected and used for building walls, and for
roads. They are mostly flints, and granite of both types — the
dark acid granite of quartz and black mica and the basic type
of quartz, pink orthoclase and white mica.
The beaches fringing the coastline are narrow, there being
little or no tide, and the sea deepens quickly, making the
harbour at Copenhagen accessible at all times of the day.
Denmark is said to be one of the windiest countries in the
world; while the prevailing winds are westerly owing to
cyclonic influence, easterly winds from Germany and Russia
due to anti-cyclonic conditions are also experienced. Compar-
ing the general weather conditions with those of England, it may
be said that they are similar, except that the summers arc
warmer and the winters colder owing to the influence of the
landmasses of Eastern Europe and Asia.
In order to get a general idea of Danish methods of fanning,
several farms were visited. The farmers themselves were very
helpful, and every other person one met seemed to speak a
little English. Two farms have been singled out as t5q)ical
examples of the agriculture as practised here. Both were about
♦ Miss Corner was awarded a Ministry of Agriculture junior scholarship
as a daughter of a farm worker, and later a senior scholarship for a degree
course in dairying at Readiag University, which she has just completed.
636
Danish Farming and Factory Management
TOO acres — which is quite large — the majority of farms being
less than this.
The first selected had no permanent grass and was worked on
a seven-course system — summer fallow, wheat, barley, roots,
oats and 2-years' seeds. The seeds mixture was Italian rye
grass, timothy and red clover. The pastures looked rather
rough, as could only be expected from the short ley, but there
was plenty of grass for stock feeding well on into September.
The other holding had a small acreage of permanent grass,
which is unusual and slightly affected the rotation, which con-
sisted of wheat, potatoes, barley, beet, grass and oats.
The one-year’s seeds mixture consisted of 40 per cent, early
red clover, 20 per cent, timothy and 40 per cent, trefoil. Skim
ploughing was practised to eradicate weeds.
Cows. Both farms had 15-20 cows in milk — giving an
average of 350 lb. of butter per lactation — i.e., about 650-700
gallons, of rich milk. On the first farm an attempt was being
made to eradicate tuberculosis, the tuberculin test being ap-
plied. The unaffected animals were kept in an isolated part
of the cowhouse. The cows are all of the Danish-red typ>e —
and except on the larger farms where there are fences, it is
usual to tether them in the fields. This is claimed to be a much
more economical method of grazing — and the land certainly
looked well.
Heifer calves are reared to come into the herd. Bull calves
arc usually sold as veal, except that those from the best cows,
if got by a good bull, arc kept for breeding.
Feeding is similar to that practised in England — hay, roots,
and kohl rabi, with a cake mixture, being used in winter, and
grass and cake in summer. The A.I.V. type of silage is made,
although this is not usual on the smaller farms. The food-
stuffs are home-grown whenever possible. Second-class grain
is used for feeding.
Milking is all done by hand — chiefly by women. At Faur-
holm, during the summer the 50 to 60 cows are managed on
a system similar to the Hosier plan, the cows being collected
into a corral, and then milked and fed in a shed. The milk
is sieved into churns, and cooled later by means of a carbon
dioxide cooling plant at the farmstead. Weighing and record-
ing are carried out twice a week.
Horses, Sheep and Poultry. In this district the horses were
of the local Fredensborg type, which it is thought were
637
Danish Farming and Factory Management
originally imported from Belgium. Farmers usually breed their
own horses — a farm of loo acres maintains 5-6 horses.
Nursing mares work during the day with the foal running
alongside. A pretty sight are these foals, so friendly, and
unafraid, which speaks well for their general treatment and
management.
The poultry are chiefly White and Brown Leghorns,
Plymouth Rocks, Light Sussex for table purposes, in addition
to turkeys, ducks and geese. Poultry are maintained on free
range on the smaller farms, but generally in pens of 20-50 birds
on the larger farms. Large numbers of the eggs obtained arc
sent to England.
Sheep in Denmark are an uneconomical proposition in view
of the intensive nature of the farming, and consequently there
are very few to be seen, except on the less fertile parts of the
peninsula of Jutland.
Pigs. The pigs generally kept are the well-known
" Landrace,” and a cross between the Large White Yorkshire
and a Danish variety. On the farms mentioned a few sows
were kept, the litters being fattened for the bacon factory. To
control bacon production farmers are only allowed by the
Government to keep a limited number of pigs, such numbers
being related to the size of the farm. Each farmer has an
official " ticket ” stating the number allowed. Farmers can,
however, keep more than their allocation by buying “ ticket
rights ” from farmers who do not wish to take up their full
“ quotas.” Thus the level of production is maintained and
individual farmers can regulate their own particular require-
ments.
The average number of pigs reared per litter is stated to be
8 or 9. The sows arc kept indoors, whilst the little pigs are
more or less on ” free range ” up to 8 weeks old.
The sour skim milk returned from the local manufacturing
depot is used for feeding together with a simple meal mixture —
usually ground at home and consisting of 20 per cent, wheat
meal, 60 per cent, barley meal, and 20 per cent, crushed oats.
Pigs on the State Farm — ^Faurholm. At Faurholm are
carried out experiments in feeding, housing, etc,, an adjacent
farm being used as a control for these experiments.
The pig houses have a brick base up to about 4 ft. 6 in.
which is the window level. Above this the whole is made of
wood. A loft is always made for storing bedding, etc., and
638
1 u. j IntciKH of tlu' Piji HouM* ,U I'.iiirliolni
To (ill r /’(/,4V 03S
Danish Farming and Factory Management
to assist in providing warmth in winter and coolness in summer.
The interior is whitewashed twice a year, and the pens whenever
they are empty. The floors are of concrete. A wooden
straw-covered bed is used. The size of the pens varies from
10 ft. X 8 ft. to 10 ft. X 10 ft, I according to the use and number
of pigs. Indoor farrowing pens arc lo ft. x 8 ft. There is a
feeding passage down the centre of the building, and dunging
passages on each side.
The sow breeding pens lie on the southern sheltered slope of
a hill near the farmstead. Separate wooden huts are provided
for each sow, with a good sized pen attached. The sows are
weighed once a fortnight and fed according to weight. Sows
and litters run outside until the little pigs are weaned at 8 weeks
old. Young boars are castrated whilst still with the sow. There
is no store ix'riod — the little pigs being fattened steadily from
weaning for bacon.
The amount of food given to baconers depends on their
weight. It consists either of sour skim milk, or skim
milk, or skim and whey together with a meal mixture of
wheat, oats, and barley in the proiX)rtions previously men-
tioned. Sometimes a little maize meal is added to the ration.
Fish meal is not used, since the skim milk provides the
necessary protein.
At Faurholni experimental work covers a wide range. Of
the more unusual experiments that are worth recording are
those on the control of flies, the effect of sunshine on sows and
their litters, and the feeding of thyroid glands to fattening pigs.
Flies similar to the common housefly persist in large numbers
in Denmark and are a fruitful source of contamination. They
are thought to breed most quickly in pig manure. As a result
of experiments a routine method of control has been elaborated,
in which the manure is covered with sacking for about three
weeks. By the end of this time the fermentation set up has
killed all the grubs and experience shows that the manure does
not become reinfected.
The object of the sunshine trials was to ascertain its effect
on the percentage of haemoglobin in the blood. Sows were
kept indoors and given no green food. Half the litter was
allowed to run outside while the other half was kept indoors
under shaded conditions. Fortnightly tests were made.
Those allowed out of doors showed a consistently high haemo-
globin content, while those kept inside decreased to 20 per cent,
or 30 per cent, and either died or became anaemic.
639
Fig. 5 — Danish State Elxpen mental Dair\' at Faurholm Lay-out of the Dairy Room
Danish Farming and Factory Management
Weekly feeding with cut-up thyroid glands was the routine
of another experiment designed to test the theory that by the
use of thyroid the percentage of fat in carcasses can be reduced.
Results, however, were not available.
The State Experimental Dairy. The dairy is a commodi-
ous E-shaped building made of red brick, with interior walls
faced with glazed tiles where desirable. The rough layout.
Fig. 5, shows the general disposition of departments.
The milk, which comes in from surrounding farms, is in
churns of approximately lo gallons each ; about 2,230 gallons
are received each morning. The churns are numbered serially
and are unloaded into the skim hall. The number is checked
on a record sheet, and the milk is tipped into the weighing vat
and the weight of the milk recorded. The empty churns are
then placed on a circular revolving table to drain, after which
they are taken off, and filled with skim milk, whey or butter
milk, since each farmer is allowed to take back 60 per cent, of
the amount brought in.
A sample is taken daily; this is bulked, and Gerber-tested
for fat percentage once a week -potassium dichromate being
added as a preservative. From this test is calculated the butter
percentage obtained from the milk and the weight of butter
delivered to the dairy. On this weight payment is made to the
owner at the current price of butter less a charge at the rate of
2-3 ore* per litre for the skim milk taken home. Any profit
made out of the sale of skim milk is paid out to farmers as a
bonus once or twice a year.
The methylene blue test for keeping quality is also carried
out, and 3rd and 4th grade milks are penalized ^ and ^ ore
respectively per litre. After weighing, tht; milk passes through
a muslin strainer and is pumped into a pasteurizer of the A.P.V.
type — the hot milk being partially cooled by the cold milk
entering. After being heated in the pasteurizer by hot water
to a temperature of 180° F. for one or two minutes the milk
passes to a small holding cylinder for i minute to ensure tlie
heating of all the milk and then back to be partially cooled for
separating.
The separators are of the large-power, non-foaming types,
Alfa-Laval, and Titan. The cream is taken off with 30 per
cent, fat — it is then rc-pasteurized in an upright pasteurizer
that both heats and cools it to ripening temperature, after which
♦ 100 ore are approximately ^ is.
B
641
Danish Farminq and Factory Management
it is passed into large circular tanks for ripening in the butter
room.
The skim milk is run over a large cooler and from there
pumped along an overhead pipe line to the cheese room. The
surplus skim milk not required for cheese passes into two large
vats, where i per cent, starter is added. After it has ripened
farmers have the advantage of taking back this properly
cultured milk on the following day for pig feeding.
Skim milk only is used for making the starter, which con-
tains the usual lactic acid streptococci. New starter culture is
used once a fortnight, being bought in the liquid form.
The machinery is fastened in position on to double sets of
rails let into the floor. The reason for this is that since the
dairy is essentially an experimental centre, it is necessary to
make the machinery easily movable for purposes of replace-
ment or rearrangement. During August and September, 1936,
the power was provided by electric motors, but on October i
an experiment was started to find the most economical form
of power. Electric, steam, and Diesel oil engines were to be
alternated, each running for a week, throughout the year and
running costs carefully calculated and compared.
On entering the buttermaking room one is struck by the
spaciousness and cleanliness of it, and by the purity of the
atmosphere. The air entering this room is filtered, and ijiay
almost be said to be sterile. This lessens the chance of con-
tamination with the wrong type of bacteria during ripening and
churning.
The large circular ripening tanks hold 900-1,000 litres
(approximately 200-250 gal.) of cream, and are fixed to a
pedestal that can be raised or lowered by means of a pump.
As the cream enters these vats about i jx^r cent, of starter is
added, and this gives an acidity of 90 cc. N/io NaOH per
100 cc. cream in 24 hours. The temperature of the cream for
churning goes down to 13° C. , and during very hot weather
ice is added just before churning.
The churns are of the large Silkeborg wooden type, with a
churning capacity of 250 gallons, with wooden rollers inside for
working.
No breaking water is added, since this greatly lengthens the
time taken in churning. The butter is washed, twice, then
worked by the rollers until the water content is just under 16
per cent. It is dry salted to the extent of i per cent.
The butter is finally packed into i-cwt. tubs or made into
642
Danish Farming and Factory Management
pounds avoirdupois by machine and wrapped, after which it is
packed into boxes.
When large quantities of milk and cream are being dealt with
daily it is of the first importance that the losses of butterfat
should be reduced to a minimum, and every care taken to
ensure that the conditions adopted are conducive to obtaining
the highest yields. Much experimental work is in progress to
ascertain the relationship between the fat content of the cream
and losses of butterfat in the resulting buttermilk under various
conditions, and also the effect of temperature during pasteuriza-
tion on butter qualities and the rate of butter formation.
The equipment for cheesemaking consists of two large vats
of 450-650 gallons each, with an automatic stirring device move-
able from one vat to the other. In these two, Danish-Swiss
cheese was made. Edam was also made in a circular Dutch
vat fitted with automatic cutting and stirring knives.
In order to get the correct fat percentage in the finished
cheese all the milk is separated, cream being added to the
requisite amount. For Danish-Swiss the pKircentage of fat
reejuired in the milk is approximately 2. 8-2.0 per cent., and for
Edam 2.5 jx^r cent.
The amount of starter varies from 0.5 to 0.75 per cent, in
Edam and Danish-Swiss respectively. Calcium chloride is put in
to counteract the deposition ot the soluble calcium salts due to
pasteurization. Saltpetre is also added, as well as a little
common salt, with the object of reducing the trouble due to gas
formation by coliforms. This it does j)resumably by acting
as a 'hydrogen acceptor, so that the hydrogen evolved by
the coliforms is thus absorbed.
Both the above tyjx's of cheese are very sweet during the
process of making ; acidity develops very slowly, and when put
to press the curd is still quite swet't. At moulding Danish-
Swiss gave an acidity of 0.13 per cent.
The method of scalding is not heating by means of a steam
jacket, but by removing 10 per cent, of the whey and adding 5
per cent, of boiling water. After pitching and pushing up the
curd it is pressed slightly for 20 minutes, cut into blocks and put
into moulds, turned once in the mould into cloths, and then put
to press. The cheeses are turned once in the press, and remain
there 2-3 hours, according to size, after which they go into
concentrated brine for 3-4 days. The cheeses are then ripened
in rooms at a controlled temperature of 15-18° C. and humidity
95 p>er cent. Here they remain 3-4 weeks, being turned daily
B 2 643
Danish Farming and Factory Management
and oiled, or washed with brine according to their condition.
On leaving these rooms for storage they arc dipped in hot wax
to seal the coat. Storage rooms have a slightly lower tempera-
ture and humidity.
The Danish-Swiss type is ripened i month and stored 2-3
months, while the Edam is ripened for 3-4 weeks and stored
I month.
The whey from the checsemaking is separated and then
pumped into a large tank on the roof of the dairy where it is
boiled and used by farmers for feeding pigs as mentioned
previously.
A certain amount of whole milk is set aside for liquid con-
sumption. This milk is stassanized and then put into i litre
or J litre cartons (i litre =:i| pints) made of a parchment-like
substance that shows up the cream line very w'cll.
In conclusion, a rather interesting matter in the development
of town milk supplies in Denmark is worth mentioning. Before
going to Denmark the writer had occasion to read H. Rider
Haggard’s book on Rural Denmark, written in 1910. In one
chapter a visit to the “ Copenhagen Milk Supply Company ”
is discussed, as well as the methods of handling milk and also
the alleged price-cutting carried on by milk supply companies.
Haggard suggested that the production of pure milk was a
matter to be considered in the interests of public health. At the
end of the chapter he states that the matter of municipal trading
is a somewhat thorny question and therefore leaves it with the
remark that “ those who arc alive 25 years hence will probably
see in every town an institution labelled ‘ The Corporation
Pure Milk Supply Depot.’ ” On making inquiries in 1936 for
such a depot, it was found that there were two such dairies in
the sinall town where I was staying. On visiting one of them I
found that the milk and cream were pasteurized and bottled
and capped by machine. Some of the milk went to Copen-
hagen. In addition large quantities of ice-crcam were made to
supply shops in the neighbourhood. The system of supplying
shops is to provide each shopkeeper with an ice chest and then
to supply ice and ice-cream daily. The deUvery vans are
insulated, and between the compartments for milk, ice-cream,
etc., are spaces with a mixture of 5 per cent, brine and ice, so
providing the necessary low temperature required during
delivery.
644
REARING YOUNG PIGS — II*
V. C. Fishwick,
Pig Husbandry Research Station.
South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent
It is common knowledge that piglings weaned at the age of
8 weeks are liable to suffer a check after weaning. During
the autumn and winter months this post- weaning check fre-
quently has very serious repercussions; between the ages of
8 and 12 weeks the growth rate of a large proportion of the
piglings is slow in most litters, whilst the mortality amongst
some litters is unduly high. This not only causes loss to
breeders, but helps to create a shortage of bacon pigs in the
late spring, and to accentuate the early autumn glut, for
during the latter period the more rapidly growing spring
litters catch up the slower growing late winter litters. The
results obtained in an experiment carried out during the year
1936-37 indicate that the post-weaning check is partly due
to malnutrition, and that its effects can be obviated or reduced
by suitable feeding.
The post-weaning check rarely occurs amongst piglings that
receive separated milk in their rations, but this material is
not available in many districts, especially during the autumn
and winter months. A trial was carried out in 1934 with
spray-dried separated milk, but it had to be discontinued
because the piglings receiving this material suffered from
violent diarrhoea. A second trial was made in 1935, and had
to be abandoned for the same reason. Subsequent to the
discovery of barley water-iron, recorded in Part I of this article,
it was found that piglings that received this material between
the ages of 2 and 6 weeks suffered no ill effects when spray-
dried separated milk was added to their rations between the
ages of 6 and 12 w'eeks. The evidence obtained indicates that
piglings receiving barley water-iron between the ages of 2 and
6 weeks are comparatively free from digestive troubles, and
the inference is that a healthy pig can take a ration containing
* Part I of this article appeared in the September, 1037, i'^sue of this
Journal.
645
Rearing Younq Pigs. — II
spray-dried separated milk without suffering any ill effects,
whereas if certain forms of digestive troubles are present they
are liable to be intensified by its use.
An experiment was started in October, 1936, to ascertain
whether the ill effects of the post-weaning check could be
avoided by, (a) using barley water-iron between the ages of
2 and 6 weeks and adding spray-dried separated milk to the
rations fed between the ages of 6 and 12 weeks, and (b)
placing barley water-iron at the disposal of the pigs between
the ages of 2 and 12 weeks.
The litters used were selected in pairs, the two litters in
each pair being as nearlj' as possible similar in regard to (i)
date of farrowing, (ii) breeding, and (iii) number of pigs alive
at 3 weeks old. Eight pairs were obtained during the autumn
and winter: one litter from each pair was put into Group III
and the other into Group IV. Four winter litters that could
be paired only with litters in Groups III and IV were put into
Group V. The treatment of the 3 groups was similar in all
respects except in the feeding of the sucking pigs.
The sucking pigs of all groups had access to barley water-
iron from the time they were 2‘ weeks old until they were
eating an appreciable quantity of soaked meal, at which stage
the barley water-iron was discontinued in Groups III and IV.
Group V received that material until the pigs were 12 weeks pld.
The quantity of barley water-iron used in this experiment was
I pint to each 8 piglings, no additional barley water being
given. A fresh supply was put into the pens daily. In the
early stages, when the piglings did not drink the whole of their
allowance, the unused portion was removed at the end of the
day and given to other stock.
When the piglings were 3 weeks old, a low trough containing
a little dry meal was placed beside that containing the barley
water-iron. Ration No. 4 (Table I) was used for all groups.
They were offered soaked meal twice a day as soon as they
would eat it, and when they were eating an appreciable
quantity of the soaked meal, dry feeding was discontinued.
Groups III and V received Ration No. 4 up to the time of
weaning, and Ration No. 2 after weaning. From the time
they would eat soaked meal. Group IV received the same
rations plus spray-dried separated milk — the quantity added
being 15 lb. to each 100 lb. mixed meal before weaning, and
10 lb. per 100 lb. mixed meal after weaning. The feeding of
the three groups is summarized in Table I.
646
Rearing Young Pigs. — II
TABLE I
Feeding of Piglings
(In Parts by Weight)
Group III
(Control)
Group IV
Group V
From age of 2 weeks to '
time piglings would
eat soaked meal |
Barley water-
iron
Barley water-
iron
Barley waters
iron
From age of 3 weeks to
time piglings would
cat soaked meal
1 Ration No. 4
1 dry — ad hh.
Ration No. 4
dry — ad hh.
Ration No. 4
dry — ad lib.
1
(soaked)
(soaked)
(soaked)
From time piglings
Ration No. 4
Ration No. 4
Ration No. 4
w^ould eat soaked meal
plus
plus
to weaning (8 weeks)
Spray-dried
Barley water-
Separated Milk
iron
Ration No 2
Ration No. 2
Ration No. 2
From weaning (8 w(*eks)
plu.s
plus
to 12 weeks j
Spray-dried
Barley water-
Separated Milk
iron
Harley water-iron was given at rate of i pint to each 8 pigs.
Spray -dried
separat(‘d milk was added at the rate
(d (a) before weaning — 15 lb.
per 100 lb. mixed meal, (b) after weaning-
10 lb per 100 lb
mixed meal.
RATIONS
(In Parts by Weight)
.V(>. 4 A
'0. 4 No. 2
No. 2
plus
plus
Sprav-dried
Spray -dried
Separated M%lk Separated Milk
Barley meal
35
35 30
30
Flaked maize
15
15 15
15
Weatings
50
50 45
45
F ish meal
. —
- 7 i
7 i
Soya -bean meal . .
—
Spray - dried separated
milk
—
15 —
10
rj lb. chalk and J lb. salt added to each loo lb. mixed meal in all
rations.
At the commencement of the experiment the dried milk
powder was kept apart from the meal mixtures until required
for use, when it was mixed with water and remade into separ-
ated milk, which was added to the meal instead of water. Since
December it has been found to be equally satisfactoiy and
much simpler to mix the powder in a dry condition with the
other constituents when they are mixed together.
The piglings were confined to styes with concrete floors, and,
except in the details enumerated above, the feeding and general
management were on the same general lines as in the 1935-36
experiment described in Part I of this article.
647
Rearing Young Pigs. — II
Results. The figures given below are for autumn and
winter litters.
Group IV. Between the ages of 8 and I2 weeks the differ-
ence in the growth rate of the comparable litters of Groups III
and IV was definitely in favour of Group IV in all 8 pairs.
It was sufficiently great to be detected by eye. Fig. i shows
a litter from Group III and Fig. 2 the comparable Group IV
litter. A clearly defined result was also obtained in connexion
with the mortality rate. Pigs were lost from 4 of the pairs,
and in all these instances the figures definitely favoured
the Group IV litter. The litter averages are summarized
in Table II.
TABLE TI
Litter Averages of Groups III and IV (Autumn and Winter Litters)
Number of litters
Group 111
8
Group IV
8
Number of pigs at 3 jveeks :
Total
, ,
. . 81
76
Average per litter
. .
.. 10 *T
0*5
Mortality :
Before weaning (3-8 weeks)
, ,
4
I
After ,, (8-12 ,, ) ..
()
2
Total (3-1^ .* ) ••
, .
• • 13
3
A verage weight per pig :
at 3 weeks
TO-O lb.
IT -o lb.
at 8 ,,
26 -o lb.
2Q*0 lb.
at 12 ,, ♦
.. 38-()lb.
40-6 lb.
* One of the control litters was reduced to 3 and the T2-week
figures for this litter and the comparative litter of Group IV were omitted
from the 12-week averages, which arc for 7 litters only in each group.
All the litters in Group III suffered from the post-weaning
check; between the ages of 6 and 8 weeks the increase in weight
was only 12 lb., and 9 pigs ( = 11 per cent.) were lost. No
noticeable check occurred in the growth of the pigs of Group
IV, the average increase in weight of this group being 20 lb.,
and only two pigs were lost ( = 2.7 per cent.). The superior
growth of the pigs in Group IV must be attributed to the
spray-dried separated milk, which was added to their rations
between the ages of 6 and 12 weeks, as this was the only differ-
ence in the treatment of the two groups.
Spray-dried separated milk is comparatively expensive, but
pigs only eat a small amount of meal before the age of 12
weeks. Those in Group IV consumed an average of 57 lb.
per head, containing less than 7 lb. of dried separated milk.
I o (lit t t-)4<S
Rearing Young Pigs. — II
the cost of which was trivial when compared with the benefits
that accrued from its use.
Group V. The 4 litters in Group V were all superior to
the comparable litters, both in regard to growth and death
rate. The results are thus worthy of consideration in spite of
the small number in the group. Table III gives the average
figures for Group V and of the comparable litters.
TABLE in
Litter Averages of Group V and Comparable Litters.
Controls
Group
V
Number of litters
.. 4
4
Number of pigs at 3 weeks :
Total
. . 44
42
Average per litter
. . II
10-5
Mortality :
Before weaning (3-8 weeks)
. . 5
3
After ,, (8-12 ,, )
8
2
Total (3-12 ,» )
.. 13
5
A verage weight per pig :
at 3 weeks
. . . . 10 *0 lb.
II *0
lb.
at 8 ,,
. . . . 26 • 4 lb.
28*3
lb.
at 12 ,,
.. 36*0 lb.
42*7
lb.
The relatively poor results obtained from these litters
was
largely due to the fact that they were bom in October, Novem-
ber and early December, which is the worst time in the year
for young piglings. The pigs in all the control litters suffered
badly from the post-weaning check; between the ages of 8 and
12 weeks the average increase in weight was only 9.6 lb., and
eight pigs ( = 18 per cent.) were lost. The pigs of all the litters
in Group V suffered slightly from the check, but the ill effects
thereof were definitely less than in the comparable litters; tiie
average increase in weight was 14 lb., and only two pigs (=5
per cent.) were lost. The inference is that in Group V the
ill effects of the post-weaning check were reduced by the action
of the barley water-iron given to the pigs of that group between
the ages of 6 and 12 weeks.
The cost of the barley water-iron used was about 2s. jier pig.
Necrotic Enteritis. Post-mortem examinations made by
the Veterinary Department revealed the fact that all the pigs
that died in Group III between the ages of 8 and 12 weeks were
suffering from necrotic enteritis. The 2 pigs lost from Group
V were also suffering from this complaint. One of the 2 lost
from Group IV had the lesions of necrotic enteritis, and the
other showed the symptoms of acute anaemia. The inference to
649
Rearing Young Pigs. — II
be drawn from the distribution of the cases of necrotic enteritis
is that this disorder is associated with malnutrition.
Summary. Observations made in carrying out these experi-
ments indicate thati.
I. Whilst a healthy pigling can derive benefit from a ration
containing spray-dried separated milk, the use of such rations
is liable to intensify certain forms of digestive trouble if they
are present.
II. Necrotic enteritis is associated with malnutrition.
III. The growth of a pigling weaned at 8 weeks old is liable
to suffer two checks, the first occurring between the ages of 2
and 5 weeks, and the second between the ages of 8 and 12
weeks. The ill effects of these checks are most noticeable during
the autumn and winter months, when they are liable to have
serious repercussions. In most litters the rate of growth is
reduced, whilst in some a heavy mortality occurs.
The results obtained in the experiment discussed in Part I
show that the first check can be avoided by placing barley
water-iron at the disposal of the piglings from the time they
are 2 weeks old until they are eating an appreciable quantity
of supplementary food, which the piglings in the treated group
did when they were about 6 weeks old.
The results obtained in the experiment discussed in Part II
indicate that, with piglings that reeeive barley water-iron
between the ages of 2 and 6 weeks the ill effects of the post-
weaning check can be, (a) avoided by the use of rations con-
taining spray-dried separated milk between the ages of 6 and
12 weeks, or (b) greatly reduced by placing barley water-iron
at the disposal of the piglings between the ages of 6 and 12
weeks.
These methods were observed to give the best results with
litters nursed by heavy milking sows and should be regarded
as a supplement to careful selection of breeding stock and
efficient feeding of the pregnant and nursing sow, which are
the foundations of successful rearing. They are liable to fail
with the litters of indifferent or ill-fed sows, especially if the
piglings are badly nourished before the age of two weeks.
The writer desires to express his thanks to the Veterinary
Department for help received in connexion with this work. The
Staff of the Department have made all the {xist-mortem
examinations and assisted on numerous occasions with helpful
advice.
650
CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE 18TH CENTURY:
LINCOLN AND RUTLAND
G. E. Fussell
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
There seem to have been some 200,000 acres of waste land
in Lincolnshire at the end of the eighteenth century, but the
county contained 2,748 square miles of land or about i| million
acres. The fenlands, still in a state of deplorable lack of culti-
vation at the end of the eighteenth century, amounted to a
quarter of the waste, and these, and the poor sheep and cattle
of the open field farms, led Ernie to a severe condemnation of
the little advance agriculture had made there during the
century;' but population advanced very slowly and the
attempts at drainage had not been completely successful.
Beeverell, in 1707, says that Holland was devoted to fishing
and bird snaring, Kesteven was drier without being more
fertile, and Lindsey was fertile in divers crops and in pasture,
with abundance of birds and sheep.® Defoe, admittedly not
greatly interested in agriculture, says of Lincolnshire, “ As
the middle of the Country is all hilly, and the West Side low,
so the East Side is the richest, most fruitful and best cultivated,
of any County in England, so far from London,” and he was
greatly impressed by the cultivation of hemp in the Fens both
here and in Norfolk and Cambridge.® The same method of
alternate hubandry as in the Fens already dealt with was prac-
tised here soon after the draining, grain and rape seed being
grown, while the Lincoln pippins were said to excel those of
Kent.^ The wastes, however, were terrible to strangers, who
were obliged to take a guide in crossing them, and the drowned
lands excited horror in 1769.® Lucerne was cultivated at
Thorney, Spalding and other places in Lincoln, as it was in
Cambridge, early in the century. It was recommended as a
ley for burnbaked land on which two or three crops of beans,
peas, Indian or common wheat or barley, followed by turnips
or buckwheat, had been taken.®
The Wolds, which were of a piece with those of Yorkshire,
grew fine barley and good grass for sheep, as well as some
turnips in 1770, and the Fens were regarded as pasture, but
hemp and flax were cultivated between Gainsborough and
651
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
Thom.^ The barley, if we can believe Mortimer, was Scotch.®
There was evidently some improvement upon tiie old three-
course system at Stamford, where a six-course rotation inclu-
ding turnips was prevalent and a great deal of sainfoin was
grown, while at Grantham a five-course rotation was used,
but paring and burning was the customary way of breaking
up old grass." At Bootiiam, on the small farms the course
was turnips, barley, rye, with sometimes peas after, and some
potatoes were grown. Liming seems to have fallen into disuse
here, and there was no sheep fold, but some farmers obtained
stable manure from Lincoln. Oxen were no longer used for
ploughing in 1771. A different system was in use on the ,
Wgher lands ; the meadows were fen, badly in need of draining.
On the Heath farms some open-field farmers used a course of
turnips, barley, wheat, peas, and turnip hoeing was beginning
to be usual, although there was little or no clover. Between
Lincoln and Sleaford many new enclosures were in the making
when Young passed through,^" and indeed it was twenty years
before then that Ellis had been asked to send a Hertfordshire
I^oughman to the county, because a new enclosure was being
made and a good deal of land was to be ploughed up.^^ It was
probably to the Heath that Meager referred when he spoke
of tile lighter implements, later cultivation and less labour
required in light sandy lands having a natural fertility, such
as many parts of Lincolnshire, Hampshire, etc., as well as
Surrey, Suffolk and Norfolk.**
About the same time as Young, another traveller records
that the Fens about Donington had been enclosed and “ now
appear in one continued field of Oats, a pleasing contrast to
their former condition,” and between Swineshead and Boston
also some of the Fen was then already cultivated, while the
remainder was about to be enclosed. TTie oats remarked upon
were probably the result of what Young calls the vile course
of three successive years of oats after paring and burning
followed by rape, and then let fall down to grass, which was,
however, obviously more productive than allovung the Fen
land to remain in its natural state. The hemp and flax in this
district are said to have been on the decline for some years.
Round Boston all was grazing exceprt for a little cultivated
land devoted to oats, and Crowland was in the midst of tiie
still undrained land. For six miles round Homcastie, too, fee
land was mostly arable, although somewhat depopulated owing
to fee enclosure of the common fields, and round Keale fee field
Many farmt-is in the eighteenth century dc'signecl new types t)l implements These
illustratiDiis are of (above) a scutller, and (below) a harrow designed by Mr Graburn,
a fatmer of Liiu olnshire Kepiodiieed from \rthur Young s Gcmtal View of the
A^riiuUuri of Lims 2 nd edition, iSoS
I o feu e t f 2
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
cultivation of potatoes for export was already carried on. This
traveller also comments generally on the vast crops of oats
found everywhere in the reclaimed Fens and on the improve-
ments that had been making on Lincoln Heath, although the
part north of the city was still wild, while even some new
enclosures near Torksey had remained in a state of nature.
On the improved Heath four or five horses were used in a
plough, but in the Fens only two, and a good deal of sainfoin
and some turnips were sown.'*^
The County Reports do not register any change from the
various systems prevalent twenty years before they were
written and described above. Paring and burning, oats, rape
and falling down were still the practice in the Fens; the four-
course system had been adopted on the heavy lands; something
similar but slightly modified to meet the necessities of the case
had been adopted on the Wolds and Heath ; and only farmyard
manure was used as a rule, the sheep fold having gone out of
fashion. Potatoes were largely cultivated round Spalding and
other places, and a good deal of sainfoin was grown round
Lincoln. Sticklebacks were used for manure in East and West
Fens.**
The average size of holdings in Lincoln was not large, and,
indeed, we are told that in South Holland the number of small
proprietors had been increasing.** In the low country there
was a good deal of copyhold and “ a considerable quantity of
church leases and crown lands let for years ” so that it is sur-
prising that under such security of tenure the county did not
advance more rapidly.*® The common plough used in the
county was known as the Dray or Drag plough,*® and the Fen
plough, a special type already spoken of, is mentioned in
Young’s report, as is Mr. Cartwright of Brotherton’s attempt
to construct a reaping machine.*’ The paring plough is also
mentioned under the name of the Rockcliff plough.*®
Rutland, the smallest county in England, occupies a tiny
comer between the counties of Lincoln, Leicester and North-
ampton. We leam little of it except that it was fertile,*®* until
1770, when it had a good wheat soil and was well enclosed,
half the county being under tillage and some turnips being
grown.*® The farms in the county were not large, although
of greater extent in the enclosed -part of the county than in the
open fields. A great many gentlemen farmed part of their
lands and some the whole, and these must be the respectable
class of yeoman referred to by Taylor®* as being common to
653
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
the whole midland district, including Leicester, Rutland,
Warwickshire, with the northern margin of Northants, the
eastern portion of Staffordshire, and the south extremities of
Derby and Nottingham.
In the open fields the three-course rotation was followed,
but some turnips had been introduced : on the enclosed land
the Norfolk four-course system had been adopted. Some
wheat was sold to Leicestershire for seed; this was the Red
Lammas. Potatoes had been introduced and were much culti-
vated when the report was written, while the use of lime on
the grass land was common, and applications of eighty bushels
an acre were made, while some draining had been done. The
reporter states that in the height of the enclosure movement,
about 1760, some land was turned to grass, but that the open
field remained arable. Some of the less favourable enclosed
land was, however, under the deplored system of alternative
husbandly.®^
REFERENCES.
1 English farming past and present, pp. 237, 238, 2^5-249. * Les deltces
de la Grande Bretagne, 1707, p. 164. * Tour, 4th cd , 1753, ITT, pp. ii, 25.
•Herman Moll, New Description . . . 1724, ]). 187 ; New General Atlas,
1721, p. 217, and other topographers. ® Description of England and Wales,
1769, V, pp. 228, 232. ‘'Stephen Switzer, A dissertation . . . 1731, p. 38.
’Charles Varlo, New System . . . 1770, p. 125. ® Whole art of husbandry t
1707, p. 600 ff. ® Young, Northern Tour, 2nd ed., 1770, I, pp. 64, 84.
Eastern Tour, 1771, I, pp. 433-462. Modern Husbandry, 1750, I,
Jan., p. 1 19. My?,tery of Husbandry, 1697, P- "I - ^
the Midland Counties ... in .. . 1772 ; Gents. Magazine, XLIV,
pp. 206, 208, 209, 253, 234, 299, 410. i*Thos. Stone, Report, 1794, pp. 15,
16, 26, 38, 39, 42 ; A. Young, Report, 1799, pp. 95, 96, 9H ff., 121, 142,
147, 250 ; see also Annals, VIII (1787), p. 168 ; Thos. Stone, Essay on
Agriculture, 1785, p. 186 ff.; Young, Political Essays, 1772, p. 129,
Young, Report, 1799. p. 39; Hy. Chas. Taylor, Decline of landowning
farmers, 1904, p. 32. Young, ibid., p. 21 ; Taylor, Introduction . . .
1905, p. 292. Hale, Compieat Farmer, 1756, p. 28911. Ibid. pp. 69,,
70. Thomas Hitt, A treatise on husbandry, 1760, p. 126. See the
topographers. ^“Charles Varlo, op. cit., p. 129. Decline . . . 1904,
p. 33i citing Marshall ; see also John Crutchlcy, County Report, 1794, p. 8 ;
and Annals, XXII (1794), p. 354. Crutchley, op cit., pp. 8-12, 30;
Annals, ibid., pp. 355, 357, 359, 360.
654
ECONOMICS OF TURKEY PRODUCTION
A. J. Macdonald, B.Sc. (Agr.), N.D.A.
AND
Margaret S. Miller, B.Sc. (A gr.)
National Institute of Poultry Husbandry, Newport, Shropshire
During the past four years the weight and value of dead
turkeys imported into Great Britain were as follows ; —
cwt .
L
1933
. . 255,709
1.014797
1934
261,098
916,669
1935
.. 219,509
941.594
1936
. . 216.045
(not yet available)
The total imports have shown a decrease, and there is con-
siderable scope for the expansion of the home production of
turkeys. Home-produced turkeys are generally recognized to
be of superior quality to those imported and invariably com-
mand higher prices. The prices received by home producers
during the last few years have been, generally speaking,
satisfactory, and turkey rearing has been a profitable occupa-
tion for those who were able to rear and market a high per-
centage of good quality birds. The ordinary outdoor meAod
of rearing involves risks of losses, however, particularly on
specialized poultry farms, through attacks of Blackhead
disease.
Experiments (i, 2, 3,)* carried out at the National Institute
of Poultry Husbandry during the last five years have demon-
strated that land heavily stocked with poultry is unsuitable for
normal methods of turkey rearing, but that an intensive system,
in which the birds have no contact with the soil, will give very
satisfactory results. Under the irftensive system, the risks
of blackhead infection and losses from the disease can be
reduced very considerably.
Until recent years, the popular demand was for large turkeys,
but changing conditions have created a very considerable
demand for smaller birds. The question of the relative profit-
ability of large and small birds, to the producer, has thus
become one of practical importance, and it was to obtain
information on this point that the experiment herein described
was carried out at the Institute.
♦ For references see p. 666 .
655
Economics of Turkey Production
Two breeds of turkeys, the American Mammoth Bronze and
the smaller Black Norfolk, were used. In order to obtain more
complete information, a group of each breed was hatched at
die end of May and another early in July.
Scheme of Experiment. A total of 146 day-old poults,
comprising 66 American Mammoth Bronze and 80 Black
Norfolk, was used in two hatches. Hatch i consisted of 38
poults of each breed hatched on May 28, 1936, and Hatch 2
consisted of 28 American Mammoth Bronze and 42 Black
Norfolk poults hatched on July 8, 1936.
Brooding. The management of both hatches was identical
Each group was brooded under a 200 chick, electric hover, in
a i2-ft. by lo-ft. compartment of a sectional brooder house.
The brooder temperature during the first week was maintained
at approximately go" F. at one inch from the floor at the outer
edge of the hover; thereafter, the temperature was gradually
reduced until heat was discontinued at the end of six weeks.
The birds were confined near the hover during the first week
to prevent chilling; after this they were given access to the
whole compartment. They were kept intensively during the
whole brooding period, but had access at two weeks to a 12-ft.
by 4-ft. sun-porch.
Rearing. At 8 weeks each breed of Hatch i was transferred
to a 14-ft. by lo-ft. colony house fitted with a lo-ft. by 4-ft. sun-
porch. Perches were provided at 12 weeks, and, at 14 weeks,
half of the poults from each house were transferred to two
similar houses.
Hatch 2 remained in the brooder house throughout the entire
rearing period, and at 14 weeks each breed had access to a
double compartment but perches were not provided. The
birds of both hatches were kept intensively throughout tJjc
entire period.
Feeding. During the first four weeks, the poults were fed
on a grain mixture morning and evening, and wet mash four
times daily. Thereafter, they were given dry mash ad lib. with
two supplementary feeds of wet mash, and the usual morning
and evening grain feeds. During the first eight weeks, a
liberal amount of chopped clover was included in the wet mash.
After the brooding stage, weighed amounts of marrowstem
kale were fed to all the birds daily. The kale was hung up
at a suitable height according to the size of the birds. During
656
Economics of Turkey PRODiyctioN
the final fattening period of one month, the birds were given a
growers dry mash ad lib., a fattening wet mash daily, green
food, and grain in the morning. From day-old onwards, the
birds could take oyster shell at will.
RATIONS (Parts bv' Weight)
Ingredient
Mash
0-8 weeks
Growers
Maize meal . .
20
20
Weatings
35
35
Bran . .
^4
20
Sussex ground oats , .
lO
lO
Lucermel
—
5
Meat meal (Go per cent, protein) . .
3
Soya bean meal
5
6
Dried skim milk
5
3.
Salt
I
I ’
Cod-liver oil . .
1
2
—
(rRAIN
o-O weeks j 6 weeks to fattening
Pinhead oatmeal . . i j Wheat . . . . . . i
Maize grits . . . . i Kibbled maize . . . . i
Cut wheat . . . . i i
Faitening Ration
Mash I Grain
Maize meal
. . 30
Barley meal
. . 30
Sussex ground oats
. . 30
Soya bean meal
•• 5
Dried skim milk
5
Salt
I
Wheat . . , . . . I
Kibbled maize . . . . i
Results of Experiment : Growth Rate. The average weights
of the American Mammoth Bronze and Black Norfolk poults
for each group at day-old and at intervals of four weeks are
given in Table i.
The rate of growth of the American Mammoth Bronze poults
in both hatches was satisfactory and compared favourably
with that obtained in previous years. The growth rate of the
637
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE I
Average Weights or American Mammoth Bronze and Black
Norfolk Poults
Hatch
I
Hatch
2
A.M.B.
B.N.
A.M.B.
B.N.
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Female.s |
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
Ih .
oz.
oz.
Day-old
0
2*4
0
2*2
0
I *9
0
1*9
0
2*4
0
2*4
0
1*8
0
2- I
4 weeks
0
I 0‘8
0
lO- 1
0
8-4
0
9*1
0
11*2
0
10*3
0
7.9
0
8-5
8 „
2
9-0
2
2*0
2
2*0
I
130
2
9-0
2
2*0
2
50
I
14*0
12 ,,
5
9-0
4
7-0
4
10*0
3
14*0
5
3-0
4
3*0
4
10*0
3
6*0
16 ,,
9
90
7
8-0
8
0*0
6
90
9
2*0
7
30
8
15*0
6
8*0
20 ,,
13
6-0
9
9-0
12
1*0
8
12*0
12
4*0
9
13-0
12
30
8
10*0
23 ..
—
—
—
—
13
i 3‘0
10
12*0
12
11*0
9
6*0
24 ..
16
70
II
8-0
15
9*0
10
9*0
—
—
—
—
28
20
10 -0 j
12
14*0
18
10*0
12
4*0
Black Norfolks throughout was slightly less than that of the
American Mammoth Bronze poults. In Hatch i, at 28 weeks,
the American Mammoth Bronze males averaged 20 lb. 10 oz.,
and the Black Norfolk males 18 lb. 10 oz., the American
Mammoth Bronze females averaged 12 lb. 14 oz., and the
Black Norfolk females 12 lb. 4 oz. In Hatch 2, at 23 weeks,
the American Mammoth Bronze males averaged 13 lb. 13 oz.,
and the Black Norfolk males 12 lb. ii oz.; the American
Mammoth Bronze females averaged 10 lb. 12 oz., and the
Black Norfolk females g lb. 6 oz.
Mortality. The losses during the brooding stage in Hatch
I were three Black Norfolks; and, in Hatch 2, one American
Mammoth Bronze and four Black Norfolks. The losses for the
whole period are given in Table II.
TABLE II
Mortality from Day-old to Marketing
Hatch i
Hatch 2
A.M.B.
B.N.
A.M.B. j
B.N.
No. of birds at start
38
28
42
No. of deaths
6
3 1
4
Percentage mortality
10*7 j
9-5
The mortality in both breeds was fairly high in the first
hatch, owing to a slight outbreak of blackhead disease at 12
w^eks. This was probably introduced on the attendant’s
658
Economics of Turkey Production
boots, as the surrounding ground is known to be highly infected
with blackhead organisms. The mortality was checked by
daily removal of the litter and disinfection of boots before
entering the houses. The available data do not warrant any
conclusions as to the relative mortality of the two breeds, but
in the early stages the Black Norfolks appeared weaker and
required more careful management.
! Food Consumption and Cost. Table III gives a summary of
the mash and grain consumption in ounces per poult per day
for each period.
TABLE III
Mash and Grain Consumption Per Bird Per Day for Each Group
Hatch 1
Hatch 2 |
Period
(weeks.)
A.M.B.
BN.
A M.B.
B N. 1
Mash
Grain
Total
Mash
Grain
Total
Mash
Gram
Total
Mash
Grain
Total
I- 4
OM
078
OK
0 07
OK
0 83
ox
0 63
ox
0 02
ox.
0 65
ox.
0 90
ox.
0-04
ox.
0 94
ox
0 63
OK.
0 04
ox
0 by
5 " 8
30
0 06
3 of)
2 6
0 06
2 66
3*33
o* 14
3*47
2 66
0 IX
2*77
9-12
5 I
0 3
5 ♦
2 9
0 2
3 I
5*9
0 4
6 3
4 8
0 4
5 2
X3--X6
7 X
0 5
7 6
6-6
0 5
71
8-3
0 5
8 8
8.4
0 3
8*7
17-20
7 4
0*6
8 0
8-8
0 6
9 4
[ II-8
0*9
I27
9 9
0*6
10 5
21-23
-
-
-
-
9*3
x-o
10*3
7 6
0 8
8-4
21-24
13 3
2-9
15'2
13 2
x -7
14 9
(
-
-
-
-
-
25-28
9 9
X X
XX'O
9 6
1 2
xo 8
1 -
—
—
—
—
The food consumption per day in Hatch i was considerably
higher for the American Mammoth Bronze poults than for the
Black Norfolks during the first 12 weeks, but thereafter the
food consumption was very similar for both breeds. The food
consumption per day in Hatch 2 was considerably higher for
the American Mammoth Bronze poults at all stages except
from 13 to 16 weeks. The food consumption for both breeds
in the two hatches was at a maximum in the penultimate period.
Table IV gives a summary of the average cost and consump-
tion of mash and grain, green food and oyster shell, per bird
reared, in Hatches i and 2.
In Hatch i the average food consumption of mash and grain
for the American Mammoth Bronze poults was 89 2 lb. at a
cost of 6 s. gid., whereas, the Black Norfolks consumed 81-9 lb,,
of food at a cost of 6s. sid. In Hatch 2, the corresponding
figure for the American Mammoth Bronze turkeys was 737 lb.
at a cost of 5s. y^d.. whereas the Black Norfolks consumed
59 8 lb. at a cost of 4s. y^d. In Hatch i, the average cost of
659
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE IV
Summary of Food Consumption and Costs per Bird Reared
Hatch I
Hatch 2
A.M.B.
B.N.
A.M.B.
B.N.
Length of period (weeks) . .
Total number of turkeys
28
28
23
23
reared
32
31
25
38
Average consumption of
mash and grain . .
Average cost of mash and
89*2 lb.
81 -9 lb.
73-7 lb.
59-8 lb.
grain
6s. 9j(i.
6s. 3|rf.
5 S. 7id.
4s. 7id. -
Average cost of green food . .
Average consumption of
3 K
lid.
Id.
oyster shell
2 • 6 lb.
2 • 7 lb.
2*9 lb.
3-2 lb.
Average cost of oyster shell
Average cost of total food
id.
id.
lid.
i\d.
per poult reared . .
Average cost of food per lb.
7s. 2.d.
6s. yld.
5s. lod.
44. 9id.
of live turkey
5ld.
5id.
5id.
all the food, including oyster shell and green food, was 6 d. less
for each Black Norfolk reared; in Hatch 2, tlie Black Norfolks
cost IS. o\d. less for food than the American Mammoth Bronze
poults. The average cost of food per pound of live turkey in
Hatch I was5jii. for both breeds; in Hatch 2 the corresponding
food cost was sJd. for the American Mammoth Bronze turkeys
and . for the Black Norfolks.
Marketing. In order to obtain more complete information
on the relative values of the different breeds and weights, some
birds were sold plucked on the Smithfield Market, others were
sold alive in the local market and the remainder were sold to
private customers.
Table I gives the average weight of the males and females in
the first hatch on December 9, and the average weight of the
males and females in the second hatch on December 16.
Table V gives a summary of the numbers and total starved
live weights of birds of each breed sent to the London Market,
the total amounts received, the average weight and price per
fioult and the average price per lb.
The Black Norfolk turkeys realized i\d. per lb. more than
the American Mammoth Bronze poults. All the birds were of
good quality, but the Black Norfolks were slightly better
fleshed, this probably being the reason for the better returns.
660
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE V
London Market Returns
American
Mammoth
Bronze
Black
Norfolks
Number of birds
Total starved weight . .
Total receipts . . . . . . . .
Average weight of poults . . . .
Average price per poult
Average price per lb. (live-weight) . .
22
324^ lb.
£23 15s. 7d.
14-75 lb.
£x IS. 7id.
IS. 5 id.
24
306 lb.
£23 15s. I Id.
12*75 lb-
19s. lod.
IS. 6id.
In Table VI, the London Market data have been rearranged
on the basis of size, regardless of breed. The small turkeys
ranged from g lb. to 12 lb. and the large turkeys from 14 lb.
to 24 lb.
TABLE VI
London Market Returns for Large and Small Turkeys
1
Large Turkeys
Small Turkeys
Number of turkeys
Total starved weight . .
Total receipts . .
Average weight per poult
Average price per poult
Average price per lb. . .
23
388^ lb.
£2g 2 s. lid.
16-9 lb.
£1 5S. 4d.
IS. ^d.
23
242 lb.
£iS 8 s. jd.
10*5 lb.
165. o^d.
IS. 6 \d.
The average price received for the larger turkeys, average
weight i 6 g lb., was is. 6 d. per lb. and the average price
for the smaller turkeys, average weight 10-5 lb., was is. 6 ^d.
From the reports received from the London salesmen, it would
appear that the small difference in returns from the large and
small turkeys was entirely due to the quality. The reports
indicated that lai^e turkeys sold as readily as small ones of
similar quality.
Table VII gives a summary of the numbers of each breed sold
alive in tire local auction market, the total weights and the
prices obtained.
The returns from the local auction market were again better
for the Black Norfolks, which brought ifi. per lb. more than
the American Mammoth Bronze, partly owing to better
demand on account of their smaller size, and partly to their
slightly better quality.
661
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE VII
Local Market Returns
American
Mammoth
Bronze
Black
Norfolks
Number of turkeys
Total starved weight . .
Total receipts . .
Average weight
Average price per bird
Average price per lb. . .
23
3o8i lb.
£20 IS. od.
13 4 lb.
17s- 5 d.
IS. i\d.
20
•246J lb.
£l^ 13s. od.
12*3 lb.
17s. 7jar.
IS. 5 id.
Table VIII gives a summary of the returns obtained at the
local auction market for birds of different weights.
TABLE VIII
Local Market Returns for Poults of Different Sizes
Weight in lb.
Over
14 lb.
All birds
13 lb.
and over
All birds
under
13 lb.
All birds
II J lb.
and under
Number of birds . .
Average weight (lb.)
Average price per lb.
II
15*7
IS. 2 d.
20
14*6
IS. ^\d.
The returns from this market show very clearly that there
was a marked preference for small birds up to 13 lb. ; large
birds of the very best quality were not in demand and realized
lower prices per lb. than small birds of the same quality.
The remaining birds were all sold privately at a flat rate of
IS. 6 d. per lb. (starved weight).
Table IX gives a summary for each hatch of the average
starved weights of the American Mammoth Bronze and Black
Norfolk when marketed; the average returns per bird, the
cost of food per bird reared, the margin of profit over food
cost per turkey, and the average margin of profit over food
cost per lb. of turkey reared.
The average weight of the American Mammoth Bronze
turkeys in Hatch i was i lb. 9 oz. greater than that of the
Black Norfolks. In Hatch 2, the American Mammoth Bronze
poults were 15 oz. heavier than the Black Norfolks. It is diffi-
cult to compare the average weights of the two breeds from
the above tables owing to unequal numbers of males and
females in each breed, but Table i shows clearly that both
6 ^
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE IX
Summary of Average Returns and Food Costs
Hatch i
Hatch 2
A.M.B.
B.N.
A MB.
B.N.
Number of turkeys
32
31
25
38
Weight of turkeys sold
4H5 lb.
422 lb. 10 oz.
290 lb.
403 1 lb.
Average weight per bird
15 lb. 3 oz
13 lb 10 oz.
II lb. lo oz.
10 lb. 11 oz.
£ s. d
( s. d.
£ s. d
£ s. d.
Total receipts . .
33 2 10
31 <> 9
21 4 II
30 15 3
Average receipts per bird
I 0
I 0 2|
0170
0 ib 2j
Average cost of food . .
072
067!
0 5 10
0 4 9 l
Average profit per bird
over food cost
0 13
0 13 c>i
0 11 2 1
0 II 4J
Average selling price per
lb. of turkey . .
014*
0 1 5}
1
0 I 5 i
0 I 6J
Average cost ot food per
lb of turkey . .
1
0 0 si
0 0 si
005!
0 0 si
Average profit over food
cost per lb. of turkey
0011
0 1 ol
0 0 II j
Oil
the American Mammoth Bronze males and females in each
group were appreciably heavier than the corresponding Black
Norfolks. The average receipt per bird in Hatch i was
£i os. 8 \d. for the American Mammoth Bronze and£i os. 2 \d.
for the Black Norfolks; in Hatch 2, American Mammoth Bronze
realized 17s., and the Black Norfolks i6s. 2 \d.
In Hatch i both breeds made lower prices per lb. of turkey
but realized a greater return per bird on account of the greater
weights. The average profit over food costs per lb. of turkey
in each hatch was ijd. more for the Black Norfolks than for
the American Mammoth Bronze. The average margin per
bird over food cost in Hatch i was 13s. t\d. for the American
Mammoth Bronze and 13s. 6Jd. for the Black Norfolks; in
Hatch 2, the margin was iis. 2d. for the American Mammoth
Bronze and iis. 4|<i. for the Black Norfolks.
Shrinkage Losses. Information respecting the shrinkage
losses is available for 12 American Mammoth Bronze and 12
Black Norfolk poults sold privately. The percentage losses in
plucking and dressing are given in Table X.
The percentage losses in plucking the American Mammoth
Bronze poults ranged from 6 3 to 15 0; the corresponding
figures for the Black Norfolk ranged from 41 to io-6. The
average losses were ii i per cent, and 7 4 per cent, resp^tively.
There appeared to be no relationship between the weight and
percentage loss in either breed. The total losses in plucking
663
Economics of Turkey Production
TABLE X
Percentage Losses in Plucking and Dressing
Breed
Average
weight
Loss in
plucking
Total loss, feathers,
head, feet,
intestines and
giblets*
American Mammoth
Bronze . .
Black Norfolk
12*3 lb.
10 •! lb.
per cent.
ii'i
7*4
per cent.
32-5
31*9
♦ The giblets include neck, gizzard, liver and heart.
and dressing the American Mammoth Bronze poults ranged
from 23-6 to 402 per cent., the corresponding range in the
Black Norfolks being 29 2 to 35 0 per cent. The average total
loss in the American Mammoth Bronze poults was 32 5 per
cent, and in the Black Norfolks 31-9 per cent. Again, there
appeared to be no relationship between the weight and percent-
age loss in either breed.
Summary. Details are given of the growth rate, mortality,
food consumption and returns from American Mammoth
Bronze and Black Norfolk turkeys hatched at the end of May
and the beginning of July, 1936. All the birds were reajed
intensively.
In Hatch I, at 28 weeks of age, the average weight of the
"American Mammoth Bronze males was 20 lb. 10 oz. and the
females 12 lb. 14 oz. ; at the same age the Black Norfolk males
were 18 lb. 10 oz. and the females 12 lb. 4 oz. In Hatch 2,
at 23 weeks, the average of the American Mammoth Bronze
males was 13 lb. 13 oz. and the females 10 lb. 12 oz. ; at the
same age, the Black Norfolk males were 12 lb. ii oz. and the
females 9 lb. 6 oz. The rate of growth at different stages and
the final weights show that the American Mammoth Bronze
males and females are appreciably heavier than the corre-
sponding Black Norfolks. The available data do not indicate
that there is any difference in mortality in the two breeds, but
the Black Norfolks appeared more delicate and were more
difficult to rear during the brooding period. The total losses
in rearing the American Mammoth Bronze poults was 13-6
per cent. ; the Black Norfolk mortality was 15-7 per cent. The
mortality would have been considerably lower if there had
not been an outbreak of Blackhead disease in Hatch i. This
664
Economics of Turkey Production
disease was checked in Hatch i, and prevented in Hatch 2
by strict attention to hygiene and precaution against the intro-
duction of further outside infection.
The average food consumption per poult reared was higher
in the American Mammoth Bronze group but diere was less
difference in the food utilization, i.e., the amount of food con-
sumed per lb. of live- weight gain. In Hatch 1 the average
consumption of mash and grain per lb. of live turkey was 5 6
lb. for the American Mammoth Bronze and 57 lb. for the
Black Norfolks. In Hatch 2, the average consumption of
mash and grain per lb. of live turkey was 61 lb. for the
American Mammoth Bronze and 5 4 lb. for the Black Norfolk
turkeys. The average cost of all food consumed per lb. of
turkey produced was for both breeds in the early hatch
and 5|ii. for the American Mammoth Bronze and for the
Black Norfolks in the later hatch.
There was little difference in quality between the two breeds,
but, on the average, the Black Norfolks were slightly better
fleshed than the American Mammoth Bronze. The early-
hatched birds, especially the American Mammoth Bronze, were
inclined to be rather “ leggy ” and contained fewer really
first-class birds; this difference is shown by the better prices
per lb. received for both breeds hatched in July.
The losses in plucking 12 birds of each breed indicated that
the American Mammoth Bronze poults carried a higher per-
centage of feathers. The percentage shrinkage losses (in-
cluding giblets) were very similar for both breeds, the losses
being very similar to those obtained in dresssing table poultry.*
The returns from birds sold in London and the local markets
indicated that prices vary very considerably in different
markets. In the local market small birds (13 lb. and under)
made better prices than larger birds, whereas in London there
was very little difference in the prices received for birds of
various weights. From a survey of the prices obtained in differ-
ent markets, it would appear that there is a good market for a
limited number of first quality heavy birds, but at the same
time the demand for such birds is easily met by home supplies.
The larger birds are in demand for catering, but such birds
are no longer in demand by the average house- wife. The
small or medium-sized birds are more suitable for the present-
day small family, which cannot readily consume very large
birds; further, modern ovens are too small for roasting large
birds.
665
Economics of. Turkfx .Production
■ Both breeds gave a very satisfactory margin of profit over
iood costs. In both hatches, there was no appreciable differ-
ence between the two breeds in the profits over food costs per
bird reared. The early-hatched birds of both breeds proved
more profitable than those hitched later; the American Mam-
moth Bronze poults hatched in May gave 2s. ^\d. more profit
than those hatched in July, and f^e early-hatched Black
Norfolks gave 2 s. 2d. more than those hatched at a later date.
The above figures show that turkey production can be a profit-
able undertaking. Maximum profits, however, can only be
obtained by making a careful study of market requirements.
There is still room for considerable expansion in the home pro-,
duction of turkeys, but it is doubtful if there is an economic
market for a considerable expansion in the production of large
birds.
Acknowledgments. — The authors desire to acknowledge the valuable
assistance of Messrs. Dudley and Hirschfeld for assistance in the analysis
of data relating to growth rate and food consumption ; Mr. A. P. F.
Grant, of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, for his kind co-
operation in the collecting of market returns ; and various members of
the Institute staff for their practical assistance.
References
1 V. K. Tallent : ** Intensive Turkey Rearing/' Report from the National
Institute of Poultry Husbandry, 1932.
V. K, Tallent: “Intensive Turkey Rearing," Harper Adams 13 til.
Poultry Jour., Mar. 18, 1933.
?A. J. Macdonald and M. S. Miller: National Institute of Poultry
Husbandry, Bulletin No. 12, 1936.
^ W. B. Benjamin : “ Marketing Poultry Products," 1925, p. 88.
m
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Acts 1934 to 1937: Manufacturing MUk. Advances
made by the Ministry up to September 15, 1937, in respect of
manufacturing milk were as follows : —
Section
of Act
1
Pe?-iod of
Manufacture
Quantity
Advances
,1
(a) Milk Marketin g Board for Englan
In respect of milk :
Manufactured at April, 1934,
factories other ' March, 1937
d and Wales
Gallons
524,218,802
£ '
2,243,346
2
than the Bond's
Manufactured by
the Board
April, 1934, to
March, 1937
10,157.541
36,691
3
Made into cheese
on farms
April, 1934, to 1
March, 1937
45.598,022
196,317
Total for Englan
d and Wales ♦ . .
579.974.365
.1.476.354
6
(b) Government of
In respect of milk :
Manufactured into
cream and butter
at registered
creameries
Northern Ireland
j April, 1934. to
June, 1937
72,976,311
405,492
Total . .
652,950,676
2,881,846
* Owing to the Cheese-Milk Prices for April to July, 1937 (inclusive),
being in excess of the Standard Price, no advances are payable in respect
of milk produced and manufactured in these months.
Milk in Schools Scheme. The following figures show the
gallonage of milk consumed in the first nine months of the
third year of the scheme compared with the corresponding
period in the first and second years. The figures for the third
period will be slightly increased when further returns are
received.
Exchequer
Gallons Contribution
October. IQ34. to June. 1935 .. 18.586.830 ^364.556
October, 1935, to June, 1936 . • 17.536.802 ;i 357.079
October, 1936, to June, 1937 •• 17,889,666 £367,587
Wheat Act; 1932: Sales of Home-grown Wheat — Cereal
Year, 1937-38. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commis-
sion by registered growers during the period August i to
September 3, 1937, cover sales of 444, cwt. of millable
wheat, as compared with 284, 742^ cwt. in the corresponding
period (to September 4) in the last cereal year.
Anticipated Supply for the Cereal Year. 1937-38, and new
Quota Payments Order. The Minister (on the recommenda-
667
Marketing Not^s
tion of tile Wheat Commission) has made Orders giving an
estimate of the supply of home-grown millable wheat in the
cereal year 1937-38 and re-imposing the quota pa5niient which
every miller and every importer of flour is liable to make to the
Wheat Commission in respect of each hundredweight of his
output of flour. The Wheat (Anticipated Supply) No. 2 Order,
1937, estimates the quantity of home-grown millable wheat of
their own growing that will be sold by registered growers during
the cereal year 1937-38 at 26,000,000 cwt. By the Wheat
(Quota Payments) No. 3 Order, 1937, the Minister has, in the
light of estimates furnished by the Wheat Commission and of
the surplus in the Wheat Fund at July 31, 1937, prescribed
that the quota payment in respect of deliveries of flour during
the period commencing on September 19, 1937, shall be 2.4a!.
per cwt. (equivalent to 6 d. per sack of 280 lb.). This Order
supersedes the Wheat (Quota Payments) No. 2 Order, 1937,
under which quota payments were suspended as from April 18,
1937 -
Copies of the present Orders — ^Statutory Rules and Orders,
1937, Nos. 831 and 823 — can be obtained from H.M. Stationery
'Office, or through any bookseller, price id. each, post free ijd.
Appointment of Member of Wheat Commission. Mr. C. E,
Palmer, one of the members of the Wheat Commission repre-
senting the interests of consumers of flour, has resigned owing
to pressure of business, and Mr. Philip Carr, of Petersham,
Surrey, has been appointed in his place.
Final Deficiency Payment to Wheat Growers for 1936-37.
The Wheat Commission despatched cheques on September 10
to 81,902 registered growers in respect of the final pa3nnent of
deficiency payments for the cereal year 1936-37. The aggregate
amount involved was approximately ;^768,35o, but, after
taking into account 694 further payments which, for various
reasons, have had to be delayed pending investigations of the
title of persons claiming deficiency payments by the Commis-
sion, the amount disbursed in this final payment will amount
to approximately £777,000,
This will bring the total deficiency payments for the year,
including the advance payment made in April, 1937, to approxi-
mately £1,337,000, or an average of just over £16 per grower.
The deficiency payment for 1936-37 is equivalent to is. 1.53d.
per cwt. (approximately 5s, id. per quarter) in respect of all
sales of wheat credited to growers for that year from wheat
certificates delivered to the Wheat Commission.
668
Marketing Notes
Approximately 23,713,000 cwt. of millable wheat were sold
by the 82,596 growers who have qualified for deficiency pay-
ments, and 174,040 certificates relating to the sales of this
wheat were delivered to the Wheat Commission.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Accounts of
British Sugar Corporation, Ltd. The Minister, with the con-
sent of the Treasury, has made the Sugar Industry (Accounts
of British Sugar Corporation) Rules, 1937 (S.R. & O. 1937,
No. 782), prescribing the accounts of the Corporation to be
included in the Report that the Sugar Commission are required
by Section 28 of the Act to submit annually to the Minister.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of pay-
ments made out of the fund set up under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provision) Acts 1934 to 1936, and the Livestock
Industry Act 1937.
Average Payment
Period
Payments
' £
Animals
per A nimal
L s. d.
April to August, i<)35
I,5.j8,«y6
64 (>. 7 y 3
273
April to August, 1936
(>«J.345
266
April to August, 1937*
From commencement of sub-
sidy payments to August 31,
i.5-’9,yoS
651,671
2 6 II
1937
ii,40'r.95‘
4,819,528
-274
* The August, 1937, payments comprised for 38,354 animals
certified under the Emergency Provision Acts and ;^9i, 227 for 29,117
animals of quality standard and ;^82,9i8 for 41,771 of ordinary standard
certified under the 1937 A.ct.
Milk Marketing Scheme: Contract Prices 1937-38. The
prices and other terms of the wholesale milk contract to operate
for the period October i, 1937, to September 30, 1938, have
been agreed between the Milk Marketing Board and the Central
Milk Distributive Committee, representing purchasers of milk
by wholesale, and the contract has been prescribed by the
Bpard.
The monthly wholesale prices of milk for liquid consumption
are to be as follows : — is. $d. per gal. in October, is. 6 d. from
November to February, is. 5<f. in March, is. 4 d. in April,
IS. id. fromMay to July, and is. ^d. in August and September,
giving an average price of 15s. ltd. per 12 gal. over the year,
an increase of M. on the 1936-37 average price. An additional
ii. per gal. is to be paid on purchases during May, 1938, being
the distributors' share of a joint contribution of \d. per gal.
for milk publicity. The corresponding yearly prices in each
year since the commencement of the Scheme have been as
follows: —
669
Marketing NotEfe
1933- 34 . . . . 145. ^d. per 12 gallons in the S.E. region.
13s. 9rf. „ 12 „ other regions.
1934- 35 •• •• 15s. i<i. „ 12 „ all regions.
1935- 36 . . • . 15s- id - .. 12 „ ■
1936- 37 • • • • I 5 S' id - .. 12
Appropriate minimum retail prices have been prescribed
which show an increase of ^d. or d,d. per gal. in certain months
and represent a total increase of is. per dozen gallons on those
operating in 1936-37. The prices are as follows : —
Urban District
Urban District,
Borough or Countv
Urban District,
Borough or Countv
City of London
and Metropolitan
Police District or
or Borough of less
Borough exceeding
Borough exceeding
Urban District,
than 10,000
10,000 but not
25,000 inhabitants
Borough or County
inhabitants or
exceeding 25,000
outside S.E.
Borough exceeding
25,000 inhahilants''
Rural District
inhabitants
Region
s* d.
s. d.
s. d.
within the S.E.
Region
s. d.
October
2 0
24
24
^ 4
November
. . 2 0
24
24
2 6
December
2 2
24
24
2 6
January
2 2
24
24
2 6
February
. . 2 0
24
24
2 6
March
. . 2 0 . .
24
24
4
April
. • 2 0 . .
2 0
24
2 4
May
. . 2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
June
. . 2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
July
. . 2 0 . «
2 0
2 0
2 0
August
2 0
2 0
24
2 4
September
. . 2 0
2 0
24
2 4
The provision for the sale of milk at the farmhouse door at \d.
per quart less than the appropriate minimum is continued.
Prices of all milk used for manufacture are to be increased
in the new contract. The formulae for ascertaining the prices
to be paid monthly for milk manufactured into cheese and
butter are given below :
Product Price per Gallon
I. (a) Cheese (other than soft The weighted average less i\d. of
curd cheese, cream cheese, Stil- (i) the average price per Jb. for the
ton cheese and Blue Vein chcesfe) previous month of Finest White New
manufactured from milk dc- Zealand Cheese, and (2) the average
livered in the months of October, of (a) the average price per lb. for the
I937i to February, 1938 (in- previous month of Finest White
elusive), and September, 1938. Canadian cheese (excluding old and
exceptional quotations), and ( 5 ) the
, . average price per lb. for the previous
month of Finest White Canadian
' * ‘Cheese New Season's Make, and to the
; resultant price there shall be added
* , one halfpenny.
The weights " to be used are the
total imports of New Zealand and
Canadian cheese, respectively, in the
month preceding the ** previous
month."
670
Marketing Notes
Product
(b) Cheese (other than soft
curd cheese, cream cheese, Stil-
ton cheese and Blue Vein cheese)
manufactured in other months.
(c) Stilton Cheese and Blue
Vein cheese.
2. Soft Curd Cheese and
Cream Cheese.
3. Butter.
Price per Gallon
The average price per lb. for the
previous month of Finest White New
Zealand Cheese, less the sum of
per lb.
One penny per gallon more than the
manufacturing price for cheese (other
than .soft curd cheese and cream
cheese).
8irf.
For milk produced outside the County
of Cornwall. The weighted average
price per cwt. in the previous month
of New Zealand Fine.st and Danish
butter (excluding exceptional quota-
tions and quotations for unsalted
butter) less 165., divided by 265 from
October, 1937, February, 1938
(inclusive), and in September, 1938*
and by 285 from March to August,
1938 (inclusive), plus six-tenths of a
penny (which is to include one half-
penny allowance for the value of
separated milk).
The “ weights " to be used are the
total imports of New Zealand and
Danish butter respectively, in the
month preceding the “ previous
month.”
For milk produced in the County of
Cornwall. The above weighted
average j)rice of imported butter less
1 6s. divided by 225 from October,
i937» February, 1938 (inclusive),
and in September, 1938, and by 245
from March to August, 1938 (in-
clusive), plus one-tenth of a penny.
The prices for milk manufactured into condensed milk
and into milk powder are y^d. and yd. per gal. respectively,
fresh and bottled cream per gal., tinned cream yd. from
October i to December 31, 1937, and from Januaryi, 1938,
y\d. per gal. , ice cream %\d. per gal. , exported natural sterilized
milk y\d. per gal., and other products lod. per gal. If any
condensed milk is exported the price is to be reduced to the
manufacturing price, for the mpnth in which the milk was
delivered, of hard cheese (other than Stilton and Blue Vein
cheese) but with a minimum of ^d. per gallon.
A premium of id. per gal. over the above-mentioned prices
is to be paid for milk used for manufacture in the Metropolitan
Police District or the City of London. For milk manufactured,
671
Marketing Notes
in other towns and cities with more than 60,000 population,
into a product for which the scheduled price is less than 8Jd.
per gallon the manufacturing price is to be increased by \d.
per gallon or such smaller sum as is necessary to bring the
manufacturing price up to S\d. per gallon.
The level delivery premiums of xd. per gal. for exact daily
deliveries and ^d. per gal. for daily deliveries with a maximum
variation of 10 per cent, are continued.
Tuberculin Tested Milk. A separate form of contract, in
substantially the same form as the ordinary contract, except as
regards prices, has been prescribed by the Board for sales by
wholesale of Tuberculin Tested Milk. In this contract the
regional price in each month is 2 d. per gal. higher than that
prescribed for ordinary milk.
Appropriate minimum retail prices for Tuberculin Tested
Milk have also been prescribed, which range from 2d. to ^d.
f)er gal. higher than those prescribed for ordinary milk
according to areas of population.
Farmhouse Cheese. The Board, after consulting the National
Cheese Council, have prescribed a farmhouse cheese contract
on the same terms as last year.
Prices for August, 1937. Pool prices and rates of producer-
retailers’ contributions for August, 1937, are given below, with
comparative figures for July, 1937, and August, 1936. In each
month the wholesale liquid milk price was is. id. per gallon.
Region Pool Prices Prodmer-Retailers*
Contributions
A ugust
July
August August
July
A ugust
1937
1937
1936
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
. . loj
10
9 i
2*
2 *
3
North-Western . .
loi
10
9 i
2*
2 ^
3
Eastern . .
.. loi
loi
10
itt
2 lV
2 f
East Midland
loj
lol
9 j
2 |
2 «
West Midland
loJ
9 i
9 i
2 *
2}
3
North Wales
.. loi
9 i
9 h
2 i/lr
2 f
3
South Wales
loi
10
94
2*
2 -Ar
3
Southern . .
.. loi
10^
10
lii
2 i
2 t
Mid-Western
.. loi
9 }
94
2*
2 }
3
Far-Western
10
9 i
94
24
2 f
3
South-Eastern
II
10}
104
2
24
Unweighted Average
10*41
10*09
9.70
2*19
2*49
2-85
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited pro-
ducers’ premium of id. per gallon.
672
Marketing Notes
The accredited premium was paid on 29,893,570 gal. , and the
sum required for the payment of the premium was equivalent
to a levy of .344^. per gallon on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at id.
per gallon, compared with i^d. per gallon in August, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
August, 1937
(estimated)
August, 1936
Gal.
Gal.
Liquid
48,688,898
45,820,956
Manufacturing
26,648.343
34,179,538
75*337.241
80,000,494
Percentage liquid sales . .
64-63
57-28
Percentage manufacturing sales
35-37
42-72
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
August was 6.2gd. per gallon compared with 5.26d..per
gallon for August, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured
into cheese on farms was 2,739,526 gallons compared with
2,995,614 gallons in the previous month and 2,519,131 gallons
in August, 1936.
Potato Marketing Scheme. New Riddle Regulations.
The Board on August 26 made new riddle regulations to oper-
ate from that date. The minimum riddle for King Edward and
Red King is ij-in. and for all other varieties i|-in. ; the 2-in.
riddle prescribed by the Board on August 5, 1937, for file
varieties Kerr’s Pink and Red Skin produced in Scotland re-
mained in force until September 6, 1937, after which date these
varieties became subject to the minimum riddle of if-in. for “all
other varieties.”
Purchase of Potatoes. With the object of steadying the
market, the Board has decided to purchase, anywhere in Great
Britain, as may be necessary, potatoes at 50s. per ton, or at
such higher price up to 60s. per ton as may be approved.
Hops Marketing Scheme. The Hops Marketing Board
have decided to make, through their agents, an advance of £$
per pocket in respect of sound 1937 quota hops delivered into
approved warehouses. This is file same rate of advance as was
made last year in respect of 1936 quota hops.
National Mark Cheese Schemes. Following a recom-
mendation of the National Mark Cheese Trade Committee the
Minister has made revised regulations amending the definition
C 673
Marketing Notes
of quality of Lancashire cheese by prescribing that the mini-
mum age of cheese at the time of grading diall be lo days
throughout the year. The regulations — ^Ihe Agricultural Pro-
duce (Grading and Marking) (Lancashire Cheese) Regulations,
1937 — supersede the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Mark-
ing) (Lancashire Cheese) Regulations, 1936, which provided
that the minimum age at the time of grading should be 10 days
during the months of June, July and August and 14 days during
other months.
The Minister has also given notice of his intention to amend
the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) (Leicester
Cheese) Regulations, 1936, and the Agricultural Produce (Grad-
ing and Marking) (Wensleydale Cheese) Regulations, 1936,
respectively, in order to give effect to the recommendations of
the Trade Committee that small Leicester cheeses ranging from
16 lb. to 20 lb. in weight and small Wensleydale cheeses of i lb.
and 2 lb. in weight should be brought witiiin the scope of the
National Mark Scheme. The minimum grading age for the
small Leicester cheese will be the same as for the larger cheese,
i.e. , 4 weeks. Under the new Wensleydale regulations cheeses
of I lb. or 2 lb. in weight may be graded at the age of 5 days,
while cheeses over 2 lb. in weight will continue to be gradable
at die age of 14 days.
#
National Mark Publicity. A National Mark " Week "
and Exhibition will be held at Taunton during the period
October 6-15 with the co-operation of the Civic Authorities.
The Ministry will stage appropriate exhibits at tiie Marden
Fruit Show, October 6-7, the North London Exhibition,
October 13-20, the Dairy Show, October 19-22, and the Imper-
ial Fruit Show, Birmingham, October 20-28. Arrangements
have been made for demonstrations in the testing, grading and
packing of National Mark eggs at the North London Exhibi-
tion; and demonstrations of the grading and packing of apples
will be given at the Imperial Fruit Show, while a special dairy
exhibit is to be staged on the Ministry’s Stand at the Dairy
Show.
Samples of National Mark produce will be on sale at the
Taunton National Mark Exhibition and at tiie North London
Exhibition.
A full range of the Ministry's publications will be on sale on
each occasion.
OCTOBER ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King’s College, NewcasUe-upon~Tyne
Except in late districts harvest is now completed and progress
is being made with autumn cultivations. Up to the time of
writing, conditions for harvesting have been good in most dis-
tricts and com crops have been secured in good condition if
somewhat disappKjinting in yield. The ploughing of stubbles
is going on apace in many places, and on several of the stiffer
soils the ploughed furrow reveals indiEerent physical condition.
On die stronger soils in particular there is no doubt that the
poor crops were due to lack of good cultural condition. Last
spring it was most difficult to obtain satisfactory soil conditions
for putting in the seed, and examination of the cornfields after
ploughing shows that the variation in crop obtained on different
parts of a field coincides with the differing states of the soil.
Potato Crop. During the present month the greater part
of the main crop potatoes is lifted. The large grower is as
concerned about the weather at this season of the year
as is the com grower at harvest time. Wet weather involves
extra labour, poaching of the soil, bad conditions for sowing
wheat, and the sample of potatoes is not so good. In many
districts early varieties have cropped wtell, but main crop
potatoes were planted late and under poor conditions, and the
prospects do not appear so good. In some parts disease has
cut down the foliage, resulting in a very short growing season
and light yield as well as probable loss from diseased tubers.
Even where little disease is to be seen the tops died down quite
early in some districts Last season the state of tubers in the
clamp was a matter of concern to the grower throughout the
winter, and it seems as if during the coming winter there will be
simil ar worries for many. Frequent examination of the clamp
is important. This involves cutting right through, as the out-
side tubers give no true indication as to the real state of affairs
in the bulk.
Much seed will be put into boxes for sprouting and an exten-
sion of the practice would result in better returns. In areas
where large acreages of ware potatoes are grown the practice of
sprouting seed is almost general. In Jersey, Cheshire and
I ^cadiir e sprouting is mainly done in farm buildings, while
675
October on the Farm
in the potato-growing district of Lincolnshire large glass-houses
are specially built for the purpose. Last spring, which was a
late one, the writer saw a remarkable instance of the advantage
of sprouting, sprouted tubers planted in June having produced
a good crop. Unsprouted seed planted under the same condi-
tions are not likely to produce more than two tons per acre.
Milk Recording. The present month sees the commence-
ment of another recording year. It is one thing to keep records
and another to utilize them; too large a proportion of breeders
limit themselves to the former.
While recording is of great advantage to the milk producer
in showing the daily yields, which supply information with
regard to health, feeding, etc. , it is in relation to breeding policy
that recording is likely to prove of the greatest future value to
the dairying industry. The true value of the information ob-
tained needs to be duly assessed before being utilized in con-
nexion with breeding policy.
Until recently breeders followed Bake well’s methods of
breeding, which involved the conception of an ideal type of
animal, and the mating of animals that together most nearly
approached this ideal. This method has been practised with
some measure of success, but its chief weakness is the fact that
conformation and external appearance do not indicate 'the
hereditary make-up, and consequently the breeding ability of
an animal, with any degree of exactness. This fact is realized
only too frequently. How often have breeders been dis-
appointed in fte results obtained from animals of outstanding
character and quality ? How frequently do we find animals
showing similar external characters producing offspring with
markedly different characters ?
Selection for type, or purely on the basis of external charac-
ters, has often produced disappointment from the breeder's
point of view, and, indeed, no great success can be claimed
for it on the basis of relating these external characters to
performance.
For this reason breeders, particularly breeders of dairy
stock, have worked on a performance basis, taking into account
milk and butter fat yields. These are factors capable of exact
measurement, and the practice of keeping such records of
performance is now widely adopted amongst the most up-to-
date breeders. Nevertheless, although the milk jneld of an
animal is capable of exact measurement there are many factors
676
October on the Farm
that come into play in practice and affect the yield, and these
must be taken into account by the breeder in assessing the
productive ability of any individual animal. Milk yield alone
may be most misleading as a basis of assessing the value of an
animal both as a yielder and as a breeder of dairy stock.
It has been demonstrated that feeding has a most marked
effect on the yield, and this factor must always be considered.
While all cows in the same herd may be looked upon as having
similar treatment as regards feeding, it does sometimes happen
that cows with high productive capacity do not have the
opportunity to show their ability in this respect, and may be
classed with inferior cows. On many farms the maximum
yield does not exceed 800 gallons, on account of management,
although the herd may include animals capable of giving well
over 1,000 gallons, and on such farms there is no possibility
of discriminating between 8oo-gallon and what may be 1,000-
gallon cows.
It frequently happens that dairy cows are fed largely on
home-produced coarse fodders, which may vary very much
from season to season, and the result of this is often reflected in
milk yield.
The season of calving must also be taken into account. On
most farms, particularly on arable farms, or on farms where
a careful system of rationing is adopted, autumn- and winter-
calving cows will usually be found to give a higher yield than
those calving in spring and early summer.
Age is another factor that must be considered, as it is said
that as a rule a cow’s yield increases up to seven or eight years
of age, after which it decreases. The highest yield will usu-
ally be obtained with the fifth or sixth calf. It may be generally
assumed that under similar conditions of management a first-
calf heifer giving 700 gallons would give 800 gallons with her
third and 1,000 gallons with her fifth or sixth calf.
The effect of pregnancy is usually seen in a falling off in
milk yield after the twentieth week. A cow served 85 days
after calving should calve on the anniversary of the previous
calving date, and this is the standard taken for comparison
of official records. Cows served in the first heat period after
calving may calve less than 10 months after, and are thus
penalized. Sanders suggests that an allowance of 26 per cent,
should be added to the actual milk yield under such conditions.
Cows allowed a long run before a service have a distinct ad-
vantage, and here again Sanders suggests that deductions
C* 677
October on the Farm
should be made for service periods over the standard 85 days up
to 27 per cent, for 360 days.
The period of rest before calving also plays an important part
in the yield. It is usually recommended that a cow should be
diy for six weeks before calving. It would seem that there is
little advantage in a rest period of more than eight weeks, but
if the rest period is reduced to less than six weeks the yield
during the following lactation may be materially decreased.
Another important factor affecting the actual yield of the
animal is the conditions under which the animal has been
brought to maturity. We know that an animal when born hjas
inherent possibilities, but whether these are realized or not
depends to a very great extent on the conditions under which
the animal is developed and brought to maturity. Hence it
frequently happens that an animal which, owing to conditions
of environment and management, shows in itself poor standards
of form and performance, may prove a breeder of superior
progeny. Our knowledge of heredity helps us to understand
these facts, and to realize that, while nurture may seriously
affect the development of the inherent characters of an animal,
the inheritable characters are already established at birth.
In selecting animals for breeding, therefore, the breeder
must be careful to put a correct value on the record figure of
any individual animal. When one considers the probable
errors involved and the effect of the various factors already
mentioned, it will be understood that the errors involved in a
more rigid method of measurement such as milk 5deld alone
may be as great, or even-greater, than the errors involved in
the system of estimating values from type and external
characteristics.
It must be borne in mind that the system of judging animals
on form and external characters has the advantage that it
allows for the assessing and balancing of numerous factors that
cannot be measured in toto. For this reason it seems desir-
able that the breeder should not neglect the study of the animal
from the point of view of form in relation to performance in
selecting for increased production, or attach undue importance
to milk yield alone.
There is little doubt that the study of animal type and tiie
relation of body characters to performance, whether it be for
milk yield or for flesh production, has been the foundation
of our live stock improvement. Performance standards,
whether in milk yield or carcass production, as well as pedigree
^8
October on the Farm
records and breeding tests, are valuable assets to the breeder,
but only when the principle of selection for type is properly
understood.
The risk of disaster in carrying out breeding operations
purely on the beisis of performance is particularly great unless
due attention is paid to type and constitution.
Grazing Cattle. Since the middle of August, in most graz-
ing areas, cattle have made less progress than in normal years.
In some instances this is due to shortage of pasture, but even
where pasturage is plentiful and appears to be of good quality,
cattle are not doing well.
Many of the best graziers of fattening cattle who do not
normally need to feed supplementary food have been giving
an allowance of concentrates for some time now. Although
purchased foods are dear it is sound policy to keep cattle in
improving condition.
Turnips, kale and cabbage are useful home-produced supple-
mentary food for some classes of stock where such is needed,
but in order to get the best returns it is important to maintain
the digestive system in right condition. Undue laxativeness
and cold weather do not make for well doing.
It is usually cheaper to maintain condition with livestock
than to recover it after it has been lost, and during the present
month stock may lose condition if not carefully watched.
Finger-and-Toe Disease. Many complaints of loss from
Finger-and-Toe disease in swedes and turnips have been
received this season. Where loss has occurred it is desirable
that the soil should be tested for acidity, and consideration
given to the application of lime to infected land.
On soils where loss is experienced from this disease it is
advisable to adopt measures of control before the time of
sowing the succeeding cruciferous crop. The success of lime
treatment depends upon the lime being thoroughly mixed with
the soil, as well as the application of sufficient to neutralize
the acidity. The guidance of County Agricultural Staffs should
be obtained where necessary both as to quantities required, and
as to the most economic form of lime to apply, as it is not sound
policy to apply lime for any purpose without knowing the
actual requirement. Where Finger-and-Toe has been present
in the root crop there is a danger of the barley crop not doing
well. Lime applied for the barley would also be advantageous
for the succeeding root crop,
c**
679
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
The Use of Lime and Basic Slag to Increase Soil Fertility.
{a) Grass Land. In last season’s notes on manuring frequent
mention was made of the importance of lime and phosphate in
the routine manuring of much of the land in this country, and
in the notes for May, 1937, particular emphasis was placed
on the apparent fall in the estimated consumption of phosphoric
acid during recent years as compared with the consumption of
nitrogen and potash.
The Government's Land Fertility Scheme includes financial
assistance for the purchase of lime and basic slag, and provides
an opportunity for restoring the soil reserves of these’ two
plant foods at much less expense to the farmer than has been
possible for some years. (See pp. 609, 619, 624.)
Frequent reference to the opportunities offered by the Scheme
has already been made in the press, but it may be worth while
to mention here some of the directions in which a farmer can
and should make use of the concessions in the cost of lime and
slag. One objective of the Scheme on which considerable
emphasis is placed, is the desirability of raising the fertility of
our permanent grass land. The reason for this emphasis on
grassland improvement is of course twofold : (i) the fact that
grass is one of our greatest natural resources and should be
utilized to the fullest extent, and (2) good grass land, well
managed, constitutes a valuable reservoir of fertility for use in
a national emergency. The need for improvement is apparent
not only in some of the old established grass land but also in
much of the land which, during the recent depression years,
went down to grass because it had ceased to be profitable under
arable crops. Such land was frequently farmed out, and con-
ditions in the live-stock industry were not sufficiently attractiw
680
Noits cffr MiomiiiNG
to induce farmers to spend Ihe money necessary to convert it
into decent grass.
Good grass land is not only valuable from the standpoint of
the health and productivity of the live stock it carries but is
continuously accumulating fertility, a fact that is obvious from
the crops it produces if and when it is ploughed up.
Poor grass land, on the other hand, cannot be regarded as
a reservoir of fertility. Valuable time, money, and fertilizers
would be necessary to raise its productivity to the standard
necessary for the high level of production that a national emerg-
ency might demand. A weak sward, devoid of clovers, and
growing on soil deficient in lime or phosphate, can never
represent a high level of fertility. It is surprising, however,
what an improvement can nowadays be brought about, even in
the poorest swards, with the aid of the right fertilizers, suitable
cultivations and proper seeds mixtures, where re-seeding is
necessary.
There are in this country many thousands of acres of grass
land that could be improved in respect of quantity and quality
of produce by a suitable dressing of basic slag, possibly in
conjunction with some light cultivation such as harrowing.
This treatment usually encourages the spread of wild white
clover, and, with careful stocking, the sward will then automati-
cally improve. In other instances, on very acid soils, it is a well
known fact that basic slag alone is not sufficient, and liming
must be carried out before such soils will show a worth-while
response to slag. Many of the more valuable herbage species,
including such useful and often all-important types as wild
white clover and perennial rye grass, will only withstand a
certain amount of lime deficiency. At a higher degree of
acidity they die out and their place is taken by less desirable
and often less palatable species, with consequent development
of rough, badly-grazed patches. In such circumstances an
initial dressing of lime is essential, and if this is later backed
up by an application of basic slag, coupled with suitable
mechanical treatment, then the desired improvement will
usually follow in time.
The fact that improvement of this type of grass land, very
deficient in lime as well as phosphate, is frequently slow has,
in recent years, often led to the adoption of an alternative
method of treatment, namely, ploughing out and then re-
seeding after the application of the necessary lime and a good
dressing of slag. This latter meffiod usually brings about
68i
^<%CE$ 4>N. Manuring
a more rapid improvement, especially if care is taken to re-sow
with a suitable seeds mixture.
In the past it was usually considered safest to rely on the
improvement of old herbage by the action of lime, fertilizers,
etc., even if this meant waiting several years. The rapid
increase during recent years in our knowl^ge of the forma-
tion and management of grass land has shown that it is often
unnecessary to wait for such slow improvement. The adoption
of the more drastic method of ploughing and re-seeding not
only accelerates the improvement, but, with the help of modem
seeds mixtures and a full realization of the importance of wild _
white clover and basic slag in the laying down of grass land,
frequently results in the establishment of a better sward than
would ever have been obtained by the older and slower
method.
There is still considerable opposition in some quarters to the
ploughing up of old grass land, and it is not intended to suggest
here that such a practice should be universally adopted. It
is a fact, however, that much poor and worn-out grass land
could be improved more quickly and more successfully with
the help of the plough than by the action of lime and fertilizers
alone. This applies both to old matted grass land and to the
thin and weedy sward so characteristic of arable land that has
been allowed to ” tumble down ” to grass.
Information as to whether basic slag alone will bring about
the desired improvement on any particular field, or whether
lime is also necessary, can be obtained through County Agri-
cultural Organizers, who will also advise as to the desirability
of ploughing out and re-seeding. In any programme for
improvement of a particular piece of grass land the important
points to bear in mind are (i) to make quite sure whether both
lime and slag are necessary, (2) to give enough lime to satisfy
the requirements of the soil, (3) if phosphate is required, as it
usually is, to give a heavy initial dressing of basic slag, usually
8 to 10 cwt. per acre, (4) to carry out any mechanical treatment
of the turf Aat is considered likely to assist the action of the
lime or slag, (5) to sow a suitable seeds mixture, if ploughing
and re-seeding are necessary, and (6) that skilful management
and stocking will not only materially assist and accelerate
die process of improvement, but will largely determine how
long such improvement will be maintained.
One cannot place too much emphasis on the need for ascer-
taining whether or not lime is necessary, and if so, in what
682
Notes on Manuring
quantity. To apply lime to land not in need of it is waste of
money and effort, but it is equally futile to withhold lime from
land that needs lime as well as phosphate. Any farmer who is
in doubt on this or any similar point can obtain reliable
information based on experience in his own district by
applying to his County Agricultural Organizer or local
Advisory Centre.
(b) Arable Land. The cost of basic slag has been reduced
mainly to encourage its extended use on grass land. Some
farmers may consider that they have little to gain by substitut-
ing basic slag for their usual phosphatic fertilizer on arable
land, despite the reduction in the cost of the slag. There are
certainly instances where the adoption of such an attitude may
be justifiable. There are circumstances in which other t5q)es
of phosphatic fertilizer may be preferable to slag, and where
past experience has shown this to be so it would obviously be
wrong to change to a less suitable fertilizer merely because it is
cheaper. The best solution of the problem probably lies in
giving a little more careful thought and consideration to the
actual choice of the phosphatic fertilizer than has been
customary in the past, and, wherever possible, basing the final
selection on definite experimental evidence as to the compara-
tive merits of the various fertilizers under similar conditions.
Farmers who have been using fairly heavy dressings of phos-
phate, and have, in consequence, built up a substantial reserve
of phosphate in their arable soils, may be justified in taking
advantage of the reduction in the cost of slag to recover some of
their former expenditure by reverting to normal dressings at the
reduced cost. There are, however, relatively few farmers in
this position compared to the number whose land would prob-
ably do rather better if its phosphate reserve could be improved.
In view of the importance of an adequate supply of
phosphate to all crops during their seedling stage, and the part
it plays in the establishment of a strong and vigorous root
system, it is always safer to maintain a good resei-ve of phos-
phate in the soil than to rely on the immediate availability
of a fertilizer applied at or very near the time of sowing the
crop.
On many heavy soils, where phosphate is particularly valu-
able, basic slag is often as effective as any other source of
phosphate, especially if it is applied early in the season. In
such instances it is to be hoped ttiat farmers w'ill at least decide
683
Notes ok Manuring
to devote as much money to the purchase of phosphatic fertil-
izer as in past years. In view of the reduction in the cost this
would mean that, where slag is used, the land would receive a
slightly larger quantity of phosphate per acre. Since any
phosphate in the slag that is surplus to the requirements of the
first crop will not be washed out, it will automatically serve to
raise the phosphate reserves in the soil.
For farmers who intend to apply phosphate for their autumn-
sown crops, basic slag is generally a suitable source of phos-
phate for winter beans and autumn-sown cereals. On most
soils about 5 cwt. per acre of a good grade of slag would be a
suitable dressing for these crops. On very light soils it is often
desirable to obtain local advice as to the relative merits of slag
and other t5qjes of phosphatic fertilizer.
When one comes to the question of lime there can be no
doubt that a very large area of arable land would derive sub-
stantial benefit from an application of lime. This applies not
only to land that has become so deficient in lime as to cause
serious crop failure, but also to those borderline cases in which
the farmer, by careful selection of crop and fertilizer, has been
able to delay the time when liming must be done to avoid loss
of crop.
To prolong such a system of farming is usually unwise. Not
only does it restrict to some extent the choice of crop dnd
fertilizer, but on heavy soils shortage of lime frequently leads
to difficulties in maintaining the soil in that friable and open
condition that is so helpful to root development and the free
drainage of surplus water. Several fertilizers do supply small
amounts of lime, but when the acidity of a soil has become so
pronounced as to cause visible interference with crop growth
the time has come to resort to liming.
The concession in the cost of lime and basic slag under the
Scheme is intended to be available for at least three years, and
as far as possible this should be borne in mind when drawing
up a liming programme for any farm. Attention should first
be given to fields to be sown with crops such as barley, sugar
beet, mangolds, etc., which are intolerant of acidity. Fields
to be sown with wheat, oats, potatoes and other crops resistant
to acidity can well be left till a later season. In this way the
fullest advantage will be taken of the scheme by ensuring that
the lime is applied for those crops most in need of it, whilst
the cost and labour will be spread over a period of years. Space
does not permit of further discussion of the subject, but one
684
Notes on Manuring
other point must be emphasized, namely, if the 1938 crops are
to derive benefit from lime applied this winter, then the sooner
the liming is done the greater will be the response in the 1938
crop.
Finally, the need of a soil for lime is a subject on which
advice can usually be given with considerable confidence.
Before embarking on any liming programme farmers should
first ascertain through their County Agricultural Organizer if
fiieir soil is likely to benefit from liming and if so what quantity
it requires.
6S5
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb )
during week ended Sept. 15
Description
Costs
Bristol
HuU
L’pool
London
per
Unit^
i
s.
£
5.
£
s.
£
s.
s.
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 1 5*%) . .
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
10
4
,, ,, Granulated (N. i6%)
Nitro-Chalk (N. i5i%)
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
10
0
*
7
JOC
7
IOC
7
10c
7
IOC
9
9
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20*6%) . .
7
5 ^
7
5 ^
7
5 ^
7
5 ^
7
0
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20*6%)
7
yd
7
yd
7
yd
7
yd
7
I
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . ^
2
18
2
15
2
15
2
15
3
II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
,, ,, (Pot. 20%)
5
0
5
1
4
19
4
17
3
3
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8
3
8
8
8
5
8
I
3
3
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
9
13
10
0
9
17
9
IT
4
0
Basic Slag (P.A. 152%)
2
106
2
2b
>
yb
3
0
„ ,. (P.A. 14%) ..
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P. A. 26-
§
2
1
1
5 b
1
17b !
i
I
176
2
3^
3
X
27i?/o)
1
2
17a
-
1 2
15a
2
12a ^
2
0
Superphosphate (S P.A. 16%)
1
' 3
4
-
— i
3
3^
3
0/
3
9
(S.P.A. i3i%)
Bone Meal (N. 3j %. P.A. 2oi%)
3
I
[ 2
17 i
2
itje
2
4
I
—
t 7
5
1
5 g
7
2
—
Steamed Bone Flour (N. i%.
1
P.A. 27i~29j%) . . , . /
5
5 h
5
10
5
og
5
0
-
Abbreviations : M. = Nitrogen ; P.A. = Phosphoric Aci^ ;
S.P A. = Soluble I’hosphonc Acid ; Pot. — I’otash.
♦ Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser's nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carnage-paid prices.
§ Prices are foi not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are ciculated on f.o r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
h Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is, per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. extra.
d Delivered in 5-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, and for lots of 4 cwt. and under i ton, 20s. extra,
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, I5. 3d. extra.
g Prices shown are f.o r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
f These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 “ units ” (equal parts
of 22*4 Ih.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 10 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such “ units ** in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a ** unit ” of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,” obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
686
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College
Restricted Rationing of Pigs. In the Notes on Feeding
in the February issue of this Journal (Vol. XLIII, p. 1099),
attention was drawn to the accumulating evidence of the possi-
bility of securing better economic returns in pig feeding by
restricting the daily rations, after the pig has completed its
first stage of rapid growth, to a level rather below that reached
in the common practice of allowing the pig as much as it will
eat in 20-30 minutes at two meals daily.
One disadvantage of the restriction system when applied
to groups of pigs is that many pigs are inclined to be restless
owing to not feeling “satisfied,” whilst those pigs that are
least able to maintain their place in the competition at the
trough may secure much less than the average amount of food.
If the object of the restriction be viewed as being simply that
of reducing the amount of digestible nutrients taken by the
pig per day, a way round the foregoing difficulties might
perhaps be found by reducing the concentration (or increasing
the bulkiness) of the ration and feeding up to appetite as usual.
Each pig is then fully satisfied, whilst the rate of growth and
fattening is slowed down to the desired extent by the reduced
nutritive value of the diet. An experiment along these lines has
just been completed at the Harper Adams College, and the
results indicate that the solution of the practical problem of
restricted rationing of groups of pigs may perhaps be attainable
along these lines, although in this particular instance the lower-
ing of the concentration of the ration proved to be excessive and
led to economic loss.
In this experiment with two Lots, each of 15 Large White pigs
of average initial weight, about 70 lb.. Lot I received normal
rations containing a moderate proportion of bulky foods, and
Lot II received mixtures of the same foods, but containing a
much higher proportioh of the bulkier ingredients. The general
character of the rations is indicated by the following summary :
687
Notes on Feeding
Start Finish
Loti
Lot II
Loti
Lot II
(Normal)
0/
(Bulky)
0/
(Normal)
0/
(Bulky)
/o
53
/o
27
/o
77
/o
57
Sharps
35
55
20
33
Bran
. . —
10
—
10
White-fish Meal
. . 12
8
3
—
Minerals
—
I
2
The outstanding difference between the rations may be
described as relatively high cereals, low " offals ” for Lot I,
and low cereals, high " offals " for Lot 11 . Some adjustment
in the proportions of white-fish meal was necessary to equalize .
the protein supply in the two sets of rations. A similar necessity
explains the differences in the use of mineral supplements.
Both Lots were fed twice daily, receiving at each feed as
much as they would take. In accordance with expectation, the
rate of growth and efficiency of food utilization of Lot II soon
fell behind the record of Lot I, and continued thus throughout
the experiment. It followed that the pigs of Lot II required
much longer to bring up to baconer weight, and by the time all
had been marketed the average food consumption per head
(and per i lb. liveweight gain) was much higher for this Lot
than for Lot I. The grading of the carcasses was excellent in
each Lot and showed no significant difference between them^ in
this respect, so that a substantially higher financial surplus over
food cost was obtained from Lot I than from Lot 11 .
The main features of the results are summarized in the
appended table. The pigs were marketed in three batches,
after feeding for 13, 16 and ig weeks respectively, so that the
average period of feeding is expressed in “pig-days.”
Loti
Number of Pigs . . . . . . . . 14*
Average Period of Feeding (" Pig Days ") . . 1 15 • 5 days
Average Initial Weight .. .. 67*5 lb.
Average Liveweight Gain .. .. .. 149*8 ,,
Average Food Eaten .. .. .. .. 616 -6 ,,
Average Food per i lb. Liveweight Gain .. 4*ii ,,
Average Carcass Percentage .. .. .. 74*4
Payment Grades iia, 2b, ic
Average Gross Returns per pig . . . . £5 2s, 6d.
Average Cost of Food per pig . . , . £2 ^s. ^d.
Average Surplus over Food Costs per pig . , £2 i6s. 3^.
♦ One pig removed owing to rupture.
t2 pigs underweight, not graded.
Lot II
15
125 aays
67 • 4 lb.
675.0 „
4*S7 »
71*8
lOA, 2B, ICf
£^ 135- od .
£2 105 . loi.
£2 25 . 2d,
It will be noted that, despite the longer average period of
feeding, the pigs of Lot II were on the whole marketed at
688
Notes on Feeding
rather lighter weights than those of Lot I, and, moreover, ate
on the average about | lb. more meal for each pound of live-
weight gain, although the record of Lot I in the latter respect
was not up to average experience. They also showed a rather
greater percentage loss in killing. By itself the experiment
proves nothing more than that the feeding of Lot II was less
remunerative than that of Lot I ; further experiments on the
same lines are needed to demonstrate whether the difference
was associated with the “ bulk factor ” or was due to specific
inferiority of the rations given to tlie second Lot.
Protein Requirement of the Laying Hen. The dry sub-
stance of the hen’s egg is relatively rich in protein, which can
only come from the proteins of the food-supply, and conse-
quently it is a matter of obvious importance that the supply
of food-protein shall be adequate to sustain the level of egg-
production at which the bird is operating. Unless the' level
of production is already high, an increase of food protein may
augment egg-production, but for each level of production there
is an optimum protein supply, beyond which further increase
of protein becomes uneconomic. Since protein is usually
more expensive to supply than carbohydrates, it is clearly
desirable, especially in times of high food costs, to have as
accurate knowledge as possible of the limits of economic supply
of protein.
Until recently it has been customary to recommend for the
laying flock of good laying quality a mash consisting roughly
of about 40 parts ground cereals, 50 parts milling “ offals,”
and 10 parts " protein concentrate ” (fish meal, etc.), to be
given with about an equal quantity of grain. Such a ration
(mash and grain combined) would contain 13J-14 per cent,
of protein. Evidence from exp>erimental work in recent years
has raised a strong presumption, however, that this dietary is
unduly rich in protein for the needs of birds that have access
to outside runs. In many instances the level of egg production
under such conditions has been substantially maintained with-
out the use of any ” protein concentrate ” in the mash, and
there is now a general tendency to advise a reduction of this
item from 10 to 5 per cent. In a few instances, however,
reduction of the protein supply has been less successful, and
since there is an obvious possibility that breed and environ-
mental factors (such as climate, soil and grass supply) may
influence the results, it would be premature to generalize upon
689
Notes on Feeding
the point until it has been tested more thoroughly with different
breeds and under a variety of conditions.
. On one point field experiments on this subject must always
leave an element of doubt, namely, as to whether the good
results obtained on the lower protein diet are not achieved to
some extent at the expense of the stock of protein in the hen’s
body substance. This point can only be decided by experi-
ments in which the whole dietary of the hen is controlled, so
that an exact record can be obtained on the one hand of the
amount of protein consumed by the bird, and on the other
hand of the amounts coming away from her in the form of
droppings, eggs and cast feathers. The results of an experi-
ment of this kind, carried out by Macdonald at the National
Institute of Poultry Husbandry, have recently been reported
{Poultry Science, Vol. XVI, No. 4, July, 1937), and tend to
confirm the adequacy of the lower protein dietary.
In this experiment two Rhode Island Red pullets were kept
in separate cages on low protein rations similar to those used
in the field experiments, supplemented by a small proportion
(10 per cent.) of alfalfa meal, and a little cod-liver oil. Great
care was taken to secure as accurately as possible a complete
record of the intake and outgo of protein for each bird separ-
ately. The birds kept in good health and maintained a very
satisfactory level of egg production, 62.8 and 64.8 per cent,
respectively.
With bird No. i a continuous record was obtained for 28
weeks, during which period she consumed a daily average of
130 grms. (4.58 oz.) of mash and grain, containing 15.8 grms.
protein (12. i per cent.) of the food. Over the whole period
she lost from her body only 20.3 grms. of protein, or an average
of only about o.i grm. per day — a negligible quantity.
The other bird was on test for 13 weeks, during which she
consumed an average per day of 153 grms. (5.4 oz.) of mash
and grain contaning 18.3 grms. protein (12.0 p)er cent, of
the food). Over the whole period she showed a body gain of
128 grms. protein, or an average of 1.4 grms. per day.
That the general bodily condition of the birds was satis-
factorily maintained was shown by small increases in live
weight of about 2 oz. each.
It is clear, therefore, that in these two individual cases a
dietary containing about 12 per cent, of protein was ample
in itself to cover the needs of the birds for maintenance and
egg production. Such a dietary can be constituted from a
690
Notes on Feeding
mash of 35 parts ground cereals and 65 parts milling “ offals ”
(plus a little salt) fed along with about an equal amount of
grain. Whether this level of protein supply will also suffice
to cover the requirements for fertility and hatchability remains
as yet undecided, but it seems probable.
With both birds the protein consumption and the protein
" balance ” (gain or loss) fluctuated considerably from week
to week, the two data being closely correlated. In weeks of
good food consumption the bird usually stored a little protein,
whilst in weeks of poor consumption the body usually lost a
little protein. Storage or loss of body protein did not appear
to be correlated with intensity of egg production ; in other words,
the protein required for the production of the egg can appar-
ently be drawn largely, if not directly, from the food consumed
during the period of production. There was also no evidence
of any better utilization of the food protein in periods of high
egg production than in periods of relatively low production.
691
WWnTVr! QTfTWd
Description
pr
per
ton
per
ton
per
ton
100 lb.
siarci
equiv
Price
per
lb.
11 stare!
. equiv
1
Pro-
tein
i equiv.
Wheat, British. .
£ i-
8 5
£ «•
0 9
£ s.
7 16
72
5.
2
d,
2
1 d .
fi6
%
9-6
Barley, Canadian No. 3
Western . ,
8 8t
0 8
8 0
71
2
3
1*21
6*2
„ Argentine
7 IO§
1 0 8
7 2
71
2
0
1*07
6*2
„ Persian
7 7 §
■ 0 8
6 19
71
I
II
1*03
6*2
„ Russian
8 0
0 8
7 12
71
2
2
I *16
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
8 13
0 9
8 4
60
2
9
I ‘47
7-6
„ „ black and
grey . .
8 10
0 9
8 I
60
2
8
1-43
7-6
„ Scotch, white . ,
9 17
0 9
9 8
60
3
2
1-70
7*6
„ „ mixed feed
8 10
0 9
8 I
60
2
8
1-43
7-6
„ Chilian, white . .
10 lot
0 9
10 I
60
3
4
1*79
7-6
Maize, Argentine
6 13
0 7
6 6
78
I
7
0-85
7-6
„ South African,
No. 2 White Flat
6 lof
0 7
6 3
78
I
7
0-85
7*6
Peas, Japanese. .
20 lof
0 15
19 15
69
5
9
3-08
i8-i
Milling Offals —
Bran, British
7 7
0 16
6 II
43
3
I
1*65
9*9
„ broad..
7 10
0 16
6 14
43
3
I
1-65
10*0
Middlings, fine,
imported . .
7 17
0 13
7 4
69
2
I
I- 12
I 2 -I
Weatings, } . .
8 0
0 14
7 6
56
2
7
1*38
10-7
* Superfine^
8 10
0 13
7 17
69
2
3
I‘ 2 I
I 2 ‘ I
Pollards, imported . .
7 2
0 14
6 8
50
2
7
1-38
11 -0
Meal, barley . .
8 17
0 8
8 9
7 ^
2
5
1-29 •
6-2
„ „ grade II
8 2
0 8
7 14
7 ^
2
2
I -16
6-2
„ maize
7 7
0 7
7 0
78
I
10
0*98
7-6
„ „ South
African . ,
6 7
0 7
6 0
78
I
6
o*8o
7-6
„ „ germ
7 0
0 II
6 19
84
I
8
0-89
10*3
„ locust bean
7 15
0 5
7 10
71
2
I
I • 12
3*6
„ bean
9 5
0 17
8 8
66
2
7
1-38
19*7
„ fish
15 0
2 5
12 15
59
4
4
2.32
53*0
„ Soya bean
(extracted) J . .
9 10
I 9
8 I
64
2
6
1*34
38*3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .
7 17
0 7
7 10
84
I
9
0-94
9-2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil . .
10 2
I I
9 I
74
2
5
1*29
24*6
9 % M ..
9 10
I I
8 9
74
2
3
I- 2 I
24*6
8% „ ..
9 5
I I
8 4
74
2
3
1*21
24*6
Cottonseed cake —
English, Egyptian
seed, 4i% oil
5 17
0 19 \
4 18
42
2
4
1*25
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian, 4i% oil ..
5 7
1
0 19
1
} 4 8
42
2
1
1*12
X 7-3
Cottonseed cake,
decorticated, 7% oil
8 5 t
I 9
Le
68
2
0
1*07
34*7
Cottonseed meal,
decorticated, 7% oil •
7 i 5 t
6 6
70
I :
10
0*98
36*8
692
TOICKft OP PBPDINO STUFFS {conHnwd)
Descripti
Ion
■inu-
nal
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
i s-
£ s.
1
s. d.
d.
%
Coconut cake, 10 % oil •
Ground nut cake,
7 i 7 t
0 18
6 19
77
I 10
0*98
16-4
decorticated, 6-7% oil
Ground nut cake, im-
ported decorticated,
9 5 *
I 9
7 16
73
2 2
I ‘16
41*3
6-7% oil
Palm-kernel meal,
7 X 7
I 9
6 8
73
I 9
0*94
4 X -3
1-2% oil
7 0
0 13
6 7
71
I 9
0*94
i6*5
Feeding treacle
Brewers’ grains, dried
5 0
0 8
4 X2
51
I 10
0*98
2-7
ale
Brewers’ grains, dried
6 7
0 II
5 16
48
2 5
1*29
12*5
porter
6 0
0 II
5 9
48
2 3
1*21
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp. .
From ^s.
C>d. to £^ 155. od. per ton ex-factory
(according to factor}’')
* At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
I In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note. — The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex-mill or store. The prices were current
at the beginning of September, 1937 , ^ considerably lower
than the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to
carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market
by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake
is offered locally at £ii per ton, then since its manurial value is £1 is.
per ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is £g 19s. Dividing
this figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table,
the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 25. 8 r/. Dividing this again
by 22*4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost
per lb. of starch equivalent is 1*43^. Similar calculations will show the
relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the
same local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer can
determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices
quoted on his own markets. The figures given in the table under the
heading manurial value per ton are calculated on the basis of the following
unit prices : — N., 75. 4</. ; 25. Sd . ; K^O, 35. 6 d.
693
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ 5 .
Barley (imported) . .
71
6-2
7 16
Maize
..
7-6
6 13
Decorticated ground-nut cake
•• 73
41-3
8 II
„ cotton-seed cake
68
34*7
8 5
(Add 105 . per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 1*98 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent I'Oi shillings. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The ’’ food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
1 equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm •
Per cent.
Per cent.
£
Wheat
72
9-6
7 12
Oats
60
7-6
6 6
Barley
71
6 ’ 2
7 7
Potatoes
18
0*8
I 16
Swedes
7
0*7
0 15
Mangolds
; 7
0*4
0 14
Beans . .
66
19*7
7 II
Good meadow hay . .
37
4-6
3 18
Good oat straw
20
0-9
2 I
Good clover hay . . . .
38
7-0
4 2
Vetch and oat silage
13
1-6
I 7
Barley straw . .
23
0*7
2 6
Wheat straw . .
13
0*1
I 6
Bean straw . ,
23
1*7
2 7
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6(i,, post free
694
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The August index number of prices of agricultural produce at
133 (base 1911-13 = 100) is 2 points higher compared with the
previous month and 14 points above that of a year ago. If
allowance be made for payments under the Wheat Act, 1932,
and the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1934, the
revised index becomes 136. Barley, fat pigs, eggs, butter,
cheese and wool were the principal items showing an increase
in price while wheat, oats, fat cattle and sheep and potatoes
were lower on the month.
Mofitkly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. Corresponding
months of 1911-13 ^ 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
114
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
112
1^5
118
129
March
113
102
108
112
llG
130
April
117
105
II I
no
1-^3
140
May
T15
102
112
111
1 15
133
June
111
100
1 10
in
11(3 '
131
July
. . toG
lOl
II4
114
117
131
August
105
105 ;
no
T13
no
133
September . .
104
107
1 19
120
127
—
October
. . 100
107
114 '
1 13 '
125 •
—
November . .
. . , roi
109
114
113 !
125 !
—
December . .
103
no
113
114
126 '
—
Revised monthly index mtmhers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and the Cattle Industry {JEmergency
Provisions) Act (b).
Month
: 1^02
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
. . ( —
in
no
124
125
133
February . .
i
no
117
122
123
133
March
. . ' —
loO
112
118
122
134
April
109
n6
126
128
143
May
105
116
117
120
13 ^
June
• • 1 —
i 104
114
117 j
i I2I
i 134
July
. . 1 —
j
117
120
; I 2 I
i 134
August
, . 108
1
122
120
; 124
I 136
September . .
, . i to8
in
125
128 1
1 133
1 —
October
104
112
121
no 1
129
—
November . .
.. 105
113
120
no
129 1
—
December . .
.. 1 107
114
120
120 i
130 1
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932- (*») Commenced September, 1934.
695
Miscellaneous Notes
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of May
to August, 1937, August, 1936, and August, 1935; base, the
corresponding months of 1911-13 = 100.
Commodity
1937
1936
r -
1935
Aug.
July
June
May
Aug.
Aug.
Wheat
II8
120
123
124
96
60
Barley
147
127
129
133
100
103
Oats
125
I 2 I
120
119
98
92
Fat cattle . .
II9
II4
III
IT 2
102
92
,, sheep . .
I4I
145
152
160
128
114
Bacon pigs . .
120
II7
114
II8
III 1
98
Pork ,,
119
II5
113
II6
107
97
Eggs
144
129
II 2
130
133
Poultry
13-2
130
13-2
122
II3 i
115
Milk
175
175
162
162
175 1
175
Butter
110
II 2
109
106
100 i
92
Cheese
126
128
122
II 2
113 j
85
Potatoes . . . .
127
142
189
196
109
137
Hay . . . .
97
95
•)8
100
98 .
lOI
Wool
147
143
138
‘ 141 1
95
89
Dairy cows
1^4
115
115
IT 2
103
102
Store cattle
1 19
120
II7
1 15 i
101
89
,, sheep , . 1
14^
139 '
23^
133 i
126
III
„ pigs .. ;
141
133
127
1^5 '
133
118
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Act.
and ihe
Wheat .. .. }
^24 ,
1^3 1
1^5
125 i
Fat cattle . . . . j
134
128 {
1^5
126 j
General Index . . ;
136 i
134 i
^34
136 1
♦ Superseding figure previously published.
Grain. Wheat, at an average of 9s. ^d. per cwt. , was 3d.
lower on the month and the index declines by 2 points to 118.
(If the “ deficiency payment ” under the Wheat Act, 1932,
is taken into account, the figure becomes 124.) Barley rose by
IS. 8 d. to an average of iis. 2d. per cwt. and the index conse-
quently appreciates by 20 points. A fall of 6 d. to 8s. gd. per
cwt. was recorded in the price of oats but, owing to a heavier
reduction having occurred in the base years, the index rises by
4 points. A year ago wheat averaged 7s. 8 d., barley 7s. yd.,
and oats 6s. lod. per cwt.
Live Stock. Fat cattle prices were again slightly lower, the
average of 40s. 3d. per live cwt. for second quality showing a
reduction of 5d.; the fall during the base months, however,
696
Miscellaneous Notes
was more pronounced and the index risfes by 5 points to 119.
The addition of the subsidy under the Cattle Industry (Emer-
gency Provisions) Act, 1934, brings the index to 134. At
per lb. for second quality, fat sheep were lower in price by \d.
per lb. and the index moves downwards by 4 points. Quota-
tions and indices advanced for both baconers and porkers, the
former averaging 12s. ^d. and porkers 12s. yd. per score (20 lb.)
for second quality, the relative indices being higher by 3 and 4
points respectively.
Compared with July, dairy cows were slightly dearer but,
as the rise in the base period was greater, the index falls by i
point. Store cattle were cheaper during the month under
review and the index is lower by one point. Store sheep were
unchanged in price but the index advances by 3 points owing to
the reduction which took place during the corresponding months
of 1911-13. Store pigs at 32s. 3d. per head averaged is. iid.
more than last month and the index shows an increase of 8
points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. The regional contract price of
liquid milk was unchanged on the month and the index remains
at 175. At IS. 2jd. per lb. butter averaged |d. per lb. more
than in July, but, with a greater rise in the base period, the
index falls by 2 points. The upward movement in egg prices
continued during August, second quality averaging 15s. 2d. per
120 compared with 14s. 2d. a month earlier. The increase,
however, was not so pronounced as during the base months and
the index declines by 6 points. Cheese, at £4 6s. 6d. per cwt.,
although slightly increased in price, advanced more during the
base period and, as a consequence, the current index at 126 is
2 points lower on the month. The combined index for poultry
rises by 2 points.
Other Commodities. First early potatoes, prices of which
are used in compiling the potato index during July and August,
showed a considerable fall, the average of £5 2s. 6d. per ton
being £2 i6s. lower. This is reflected in a drop of 15 points in
the index to 127 and compares with 109 a year ago. Clover
hay was unaltered in price at £4 i6s. per ton but, in conse-
quence of a fall in tiie base price, the index is 6 points higher.
At £3 4s. per ton quotations for meadow hay were slightly
reduced and the index is lower by i point. The combined
index for hay appreciates by 2 points. At is. y\d. per lb.
wool showed a rise of |d. per lb. and the index moves upwards
by 4 points.
697
Miscellaneous Notes
Advisory Leaflets
Since the date of the list published in the August, 1937, issue
of this Journal (p. 494), the undermentioned Advisory Leaflets
have been issued by the Ministry : —
No. 214. — Lamb Dysentry (Revised).
,, 281. — Fowl Pest.
,, 284. — The Potato Root Eel worm.
,, 285. — Meadow Saftron.
„ 286. — The Chrysanthemum Midge.
„ 287. — Weed Seeds in Grasses and Clovers Harvested for Seed in
Great Britain.
Copies of any of the above-mentioned leaflets may be pur-
chased from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House,
Kingsway, London, W.C.2, or at the Sale Offices of that
Department at Edinburgh, Manchester, Cardiff, and Belfast,
price id. each net (ijd. post free), or gd. net per doz. {lod.
post free).
Single copies of not more than 20 leaflets may, however,
be obtained, free of charge, on application to the Ministry.
Further copies beyond this limit must be purchased from
H.M. Stationery Office, as above.
A list of the Ministry’s publications, including leaflets, on
agriculture and horticulture may be obtained free and "post
free on application to the Ministry.
Scholarships for the Sons and Daughters of
Agricultural Workmen and Others
The selection of candidates for this year’s awards under the
Ministry’s scheme of scholarships for the sons and daughters
of agricultural workmen and others has been made. The total
number of applications received was 587, and 134 scholarships
have been awarded. These awards were allocated as follows :
10 Senior Scholarships tenable at University Departments of
Agriculture or Agricultural Colleges for Degree or Diploma
Courses in an agricultural subject; 10 Extended Junior
Scholarships of one year in duration for advanced or special-
ized courses of instruction at Farm Institutes or Agricultural
Colleges; and 114 Junior Scholarships tenable at Farm
Institutes and similar institutions for courses not exceeding one
year in Agriculture, Horticulture, Dairying or Poultry
698
Miscellaneous Notes
Husbandry, or in a combination of two of these subjects.
The following obtained Senior Scholarships:
DEGREE COURSES:
Melville R. Dewings
(Northamptonshire Institute of Agriculture)
Beryl Jones
(Neath County School for Girls)
Evan J. Jones (University College of Wales) . .
Mair Roberts (Madryn Castle Farm School) . .
Doris M. Spurgeon
(Bl>d:h Secondary School, Norwich)
Aneuryn Lloyd Williams
(Denbighshire Farm Institute, Llysfasi)
DIPLOMA COURSES :
Ronald O. Boon
(Seale-Hayne Agricultural College)
Evelyn A. Grant
(Northamptonshire Institute of Agriculture)
Edward J . T.ovell
(Seale-Hayne Agricultural College)
Roscoe E. Riley (Somerset Farm Institute). .
Reading University.
University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.
University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.
Reading University. .
Horticultural College,
Swanley.
School of Veterinary
Science, Liverpool
University.
Sealc-Hayne Agricul-
tural College.
Harper Adams Agricul-
tural College, New-
port, Salop.
Scale - Hayne Agricul-
tural College.
Reading University.
United Dairies* Scholarships, 1937-38
The United Dairies’ Scholarships awarded for the year
IQ37-38, the colleges at which they are tenable, and the names
of the successful candidates (with the schools at which they
were educated) have been announced as follows : —
Name and Address
Douglas John Curtis,
Blandford, Dorset.
Ruby Sylvia Mary
Pearcey, Kennford,
Nr. Exeter.
Geoffrey Howard
Withers, Portis-
head, Somerset.
Monica Joyce Brunt,
Cerne Abbas,
Dorset.
Arthur Myrus Toms,
Bude, Cornwall.
Cynthia Mary Pratt,
S. Brent, Devon.
School
Bishop Word-
worth's School.
Bishop Blackall
School, Exeter.
Bristol Grammar
School.
St. Gildas Con-
vent, Yeovil.
County Secondary
School, Bude.
County School for
Girls, Totnes.
A ward
I year Agriculture and
Daiiynng, tenable at
Sparsholt Farm Insti-
tute.
I year Dairying, tenable at
Somerset Farm Insti-
tute, Cannington.
1 year Agriculture, tenable
at Somerset Farm Insti-
tute, Cannington.
I year Dairying, tenable at
Somerset Farm Insti-
tute, Cannington.
3 years B.Sc.Agric. Course,
tenable at The Uni-
versity, Reading.
3 years B.Sc. Dairying
Course, tenable at The
University, Reading.
These scholarships, which are awarded annually,^ are
provided from the Fund created, in 1924, by United Dairies,
699
Miscellaneous Notes
Ltd., for the puipose of promoting and encouraging prac-
tical and scientific education in dairying and dairy farming.
They are available for the sons and daughters of farmers and
smallholders in the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset and
Somerset, and are tenable at various agricultural centres of
education.
A New Method of Harvesting Roots
It is regretted that, owing to an oversight, the article that
appeared under the above title in the September issue of
the Journal (pp. 510-523) omitted all reference to its author,
Mr. J. St. Bodfan-Griffith.
The illustrations accompan5dng the article were reproduced
by courtesy of Jordbrukstekniska Foreningen, Uppsala,
Sweden.
Agricultural Returns of England and Wales, 1937
ACREAGE OF HOPS
Preliminary Statement compiled from the Returns collected
ON June 4, 1937. showing the Acreage under Hops in each
County of England in which Hops were grown, with a
Comparative Statement for the Years 1936 and 1935.
Counties, &c.
1937
1936
1935
r East
1,880
1,990
2.05t
Mid
3.090
3*032
2,969
Kent
Weald
4^950
5.084
5*122
^ Total, Kent
9,920
10,106
10,142
Hants
. .
530
556
573
Hereford
4*050
3.994 1
3.998
Surrey
no
115
no
Sussex
• . . . . .
1 1*570
1,586
1,462
Worcester
1,820
1.894 1
1,901
Other Counties . .
70
66 :
65
Total
••
18,070
18,317*
)
18,251*
* These figures include the acreage left unpicked, which was estimated
in 1936 to be about 1,122 acres and in 1935 about 632 acres.
appoin™ents
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS: ENGLAND.
Wilts : Mr. A. F. Johnson, N.D.A., N.D.D., has been appointed Assistant
Instructor in Dairying vice Mr. J. R. Keyworth, N.D.A., resigned.
Herts : Mr. C. T. Riley, N.D.P., has been appointed Assistant Instructor
in Poultry Keeping. This is a new post.
700
SAMPLING OBSERVATIONS ON WHEAT 1936-7:
Report for Third and Fourth Quarters
The sampling observations for the third quarter cover the
period from tillering date until ear emergence and are summar-
ized in Tables I and II. The mean values during the period
1932-6 are also given for the more important entries and show
how the crop compares in condition and rate of growth with
past years. Unfortunately the observations at Carlisle have
been discontinued, as the observer left and no substitute was
available.
Maximum shoot densities were reached somewhat earlier this
year than usual, except at Seale-Hayne and for the very back-
ward crop of Yeoman at Newport, while the actual values
attained are lower than usual at most stations. It has been
found in past years, however, that the values of the maxima
have relatively little influence on the final progress of the crop,
as the shoot numbers even out considerably towards ear emerg-
ence. Yeoman tillered very freely at Newport and Plumpton ;
at tillering date, the plant numbers were unusually low — 198
and 367 respectively — and to make good the deficiency the
crops produced an average of over 6 shoots per plant.
Six stations took sufficient observations on shoot height to
determine the maximum growth rates. The dates differ by
only a few days from the average and are generally somewhat
earlier. The actual growth rates are much the same as usual
and represent an increase of about 2 cm. per day.
The remarkable regularity from year to year of the dates of
ear emergence has been one of the most striking results of the
observations. The range this year is from June 16 at Seale-
Hayne to July 5 at Boghall, as compared with the average
range from June 14 to July 3 (at the same stations). The
individual stations show considerable divergences from the
average of the past few years both in the density and in the
height of the crop, but no consistent deviation in one direction
can be noticed.
Varietal differences are well marked at this stage. Square-
head’s Master is some 12 cm. taller than Yeoman, not so dense
a crop and slightly ahead in progress.
The yields of grain and straw, summarized in Table III,
show that the year has been a poor one for wheat. For the
five stations for which a full set of reliable observations is
available, the mean yields of undressed grain of the two
701
TABLE I.
Sampling Observations on Wheat 1936-7
702
1934 - 6 . •• Omitting 1934-5. t Squarehead’s Master.
station j Variety ' ■ I Shoot Density Shoot Height
Sampling Observations on Wheat 1936-7
»ox
1 1
t>. M
1 «o 0 0
1 1
M in
N PO
O' «n
CC rf)
0 I'l
1 1
0 • *
• 0 00
X 0
i I
0 X
On
ro
tN.V 0
0 •r * '
C> 10
" r* II
r>. 0 \
I vO N 0
0 M
N \0
\0 0
X M
X l"^
in N
00 ^
^ .0 1 *
X In.
1 In. IT)
10 10
-n o^
X \o
On
M
t'^.vO
ro M
X i'% m
r^OO
R 3 1 1
r^so N
1 in M 00
1 0 ^
1 1
Cn
in 0
in
PO'O
0 X
• • 4 - 1 .
0 0 'n
0 'N c X
fn c i'^ 0
M N
i-T M
*-7 tH
M* M
> 1 ^ H» M M
^^ooo 0*1 OC' “IN o*-NM
0\ ^ Ni'«C' 00 c^*-^ rnoo m m
t>. M CO 00 t>. *^0 00 rT) OX t-OXM
<D
^ Ja
N ro
1 1
1
►- N Pl
N N -S
000
4-I-4-*'
N ^
N N
0 0
N ^
N N
0 0
0 «
N N
0 0
♦ *
N rf)
N N
0 0
4 +
in '*#•
0 0 1
^
N N
0 0
> 0
-
's a
C C G
3 3
3 3
►->>—»
3 3
3 3
»— > 1 — )
3 3
3 3
1— »»— j
3 3
3 3
»— »*-n
3 3 ‘
3 3
»—»*—»
3 3
3 3
»— >1— ,
; M tx
c
X
'TON
lx 6 pn
W vO
vO M
X tn
'«+' lx
0 «n
M
0 N
fxX
0
C X
0 «
0 H
N 'f
in t"*
Px
1 . .
T
1
1 rf) in
tx 0
0
lx 1x30
Tx 0\
in N
tx px
^vO
no
X M
>-« N
''INN
M M
N
»M M
M M
^ 1
M N
1 rn
1 £
0 0
0
0 0 3
0 0
^ i>s
0 0
0 0
0 0 '
0 0
1
3 3
c
3 3 3
3 3
3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
1
( 3 3
»— ,1— j
3^ 3^ 3^
3 3 3
3 3
^>1— >
3 3
*-n*-n
3 3
>— >>">
3 3
3 3
3 3
4— fc-
5? E
^ MM
rt
•n g 0
sis
- 5
F:
w nJ
^ 3
3
vJ It *— PC rt
gIS gv5
a s
a 2 I
E S a
0
0
as
E 8
M 0 T' 0 .
*J-I 0 0 0
X
!/)‘f" J
i/)>>
in >•
xjx
c /5
c/i c/i E
703
773
TABLE III.
Sampling Observations on Wheat 1936-7
704
I’s Master. t *93 4-^- ♦ Lodging. ^ Received too late for discussion in text.
Sampling Observations on Wheat 1936-7
standard varieties during the past five years are (in cwt. per
acre).
1932-3 1933-4 1934-5 1935-6 1936-7
27-0 34-3 33-7 262 I8-I
This indicates that the present year is distinctly the worst
of the set. The figure of 18. i cwt. per acre is perhaps unduly
low, as it contains two unusually poor yields, at Rothamsted,
where the crop suffered from waterlogging of the soil in early
spring, and at Newport, where the site chosen was a poor one.
Of the remaining stations, however, Woburn and Wye both
give yields below the average of the past five years, while
Cirencester, with the highest yield of all stations this year, is
just on the average. The past winter and spring were excep-
tionally wet in all parts of England and p>oor yields were antici-
pated generally. A spell of fine sunny weather during August
enabled the crops to ripen quickly and harvesting took place,
under excellent conditions, about the same time ns usual.
As a result, more optimistic opinions about the yields prevailed
in many quarters, but the yields show that the crops have by
no means fully recovered from the unsuitable conditions in
the earlier stages. A good deal of loose smut was rep>orted by
the observers, but the actual reduction in yield due to this
does not appear to have been serious.
The prediction formula, based on the shoot height at ear emergence
and the plant number at tillering, has been re-calculated to include i935'-6
and the earlier results of 1936-7. The results are of sufficient interest to
justify a provisional report. In the previous formula, no relation was
found between yield and ear number. This result, at first sight rather
surprising, means that in the first three years ear numbers were in all
instances reasonably high, so that the gain due to an increase in ear
numbers was offset by a decrease in weight of ears due to competition
effects. With the inclusion of extra material, the ear number is now of
importance and the formula reads
Yield 28.5 -f 0.034 (h — 712) — o.oo5o (p — 1,250) 4 0.0073 (e — 1713)
where h = shoot height, p — plant number, e ear number.
If ear number alone decided the size of the crop, the factor for ear
number in the formula would be 28*5 4- 1713 -- o*oi66 instead of
0*0073, so that a 10 per cent increase in ear number only increases the
yield by about 4 per cent.
The observed and predicted yields are shown in Table IV. The predicted
yields have been adjusted as if calculated from the first four years only,
and give a genuine prediction of the present year’s yields. It will be seen
that the predictions are all too high this year and indicate an average
yield of 26 cwt., instead of 19 cwt. for the five stations included in the
formula. It seems reasonable to search for the cause of this discrepancy
in the exceptional weather of the past winter and spring, and we may hope
that we now have a sufficient variety of seasons so that meteorological
705
Sampung Observations on Wheat 19^7
effects will begin to show themselves. As regards rainfall, this hope is
strengthened by the fact that in 1934, which was an unusually dry year,
the observed yields were consistently up on the predicted yields. A full
examination is being undertaken.
The dry matter observations at Newport and Rothamsted are sum-
marized in Table V. At Rothamsted there has been a drop in total
produce between the last dry matter observations and harvest, which
may be partly due to lodging. The remarkably high yield of straw for
Squarehead's Master at Newport is partly supported by the dry matter
figures. The crop was, however, very weedy. The importance of dry
matter observations is that they take into account weights, which are
only indirectly estimated by the other observations. The results, both
in this and previous years, show that dry matter does not necessarily
increase steadily towards harvest.
TABLE IV. — Observed and Predicted Yields
Station
! 1933
1934
1935
193b
' 1937 1
Obs.
Pred.
Obs.
Pred.
Obs.
l*red.
Obs.
Pred.
Obs.
1 Pred
Newton Abbot
(Seale-Hayne
Coll.) . .
1
1
21
^7
i
I 3-2
26
26
28
23
22
20
Rothamsted
I 22
26
! 32
29
35
35
32
10
■ 18
Newport
35
3 b
i 44
40
40
35
28
32
38
12
, —
Boghall . .
; 33
34
, 3 b
34
30
28
20
33 *
3 =*
Sprowston
Plumpton
25
31
28
28
21
*24
21
27
2t
24
1 —
35
26
47
40
23
28
25
' 33
Wye . .
'll
—
, 48
43
^5
26
21
21
19
30
Mean . .
!
36
32
1 31
' 31
26
i
IC)
29
Ix>ng Sutton
: 28
29
j
“ 1
i
27
—
Woburn . .
—
—
—
19 '
I
21
2 (>
21
31
Cirencester
— 1
—
—
—
—
24
25
30
—
♦ Received too late for discussion in text.
TABLE V. — Dry Matter Observations
Dry Matter j Dry Matter
cwt. Per I cwt. : p„
P®*" I cent '• ' cent
acre | acre .
Station
and
Variety
Newport 1
S.H.M.* .. I
Yeoman . . i
Rothamsted
S.H.M.
Yeoman . .
Victor
July 14 ,
72-6 I 38-7 I
44-9 i 35-1 I
I I
July 12 I
39-5 " 41-4 I
36-1 ; 42-1
42-4 ; 41-2
July 28
74-2 ■ 45-0
57-2 42-1
July 26
39-9 i 49-5
38-6 I 52-2
45-8 I 47-2
Yield
cwt. per acre
I
Grain j Straw
i
Aug. 19
I0‘3 ; 8o*o
14-6 j 48*2
Aug. 12
10*0 ! 20*7
9-8
12-8
22*1
23*4
706
• Squarehead's Master.
MINIMUM RATES OF WAGES
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. During the month ending
September 12, 1937, legal proceedings were taken against thirteen
employers for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the
Orders of the Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
workers
Involved
£ s-
d.
£
5.
d.
£
5.
d.
Cornw'all . .
Trigg
5 0
0
2
2
0
30
0
0
I
Derbyshire
New Mills ..
0 5
0
0
4
0
I
13
0
I
Durham . .
Gateshead . .
4 0
0
31
7
9
I
Lancashire
Gars tang . .
(A)
0
5
0
18
0
0
1
Wigan
5 0
0
—
60
15
0
2
Notts
1 Bingham
5 5
0
I
16
6
50
12
7
‘ 4
Shropshire
1 Wellington . .
(A)
0
8
0
10
0
0
I
Wiltshire. .
I Tisbury
2 0
0
—
24
2
0
I
Worcs.
; Droitwich . .
5
0
4
17
0
20
0
0
2
Yorks(W.R.)
' Bradford
(B)
—
! I
Breconshire
Talgarth
(A)
i 2
IcS
0
' 3 ^
12
0
i 0
1 *
Cardigan
, Tregaron
2 0
0
—
! 10
0
0
1 I
Glamorgan
i Merthyr Tydfil
2 0
0
—
j 7
3
6
1 I
j
0
0
0
12
10
6
{296
5
10
1
(A) Dismissed under Probation of Olienders Act. (B) Dismissed.
Note. — In the case taken at Droitwich, proceedings were also instituted
under Section 9 (3) (b) (Refusing to produce documents), but a separate
j>cnalty was not imposed.
Foot>and-Mouth Disease. A further outbreak of Foot-and-Moutb
Disease was confirmed on August 15 at Hawarden, in the existing
Flintshire Infected Area, making a total of 9 outbreaks confirmed in this
area subsequent to the initial outbreak at Broughton, Flintshire, on
July 24. No further outbreaks were confirmed after August 15 and the
Area was consequently contracted on August 29 to approximately 5 miles
round Hawarden, and was finally released from restrictions on September 6.
An outbreak was also confirmed at Marske, Richmond, Yorks, on
September 12, and, in consequence, restrictions of the usual kind were
imposed over an area of approximately 15 miles radius round the farm
on which the disease w'as discovered. This area covers parts of the
North Riding of Yorkshire and of the County of Durham.
The area of restriction will be contracted on September 27 to one of
approximately 5 miles radius round the Infected Premises.
707
WIRELESS TALKS, OCTOBER, 1937
AGRICin^TURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p,m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
Oct. 6
6.20
Mr. W. S. Mansfield
Farming To-day : —
Introduction : Autumn Clean-
ing.
.. 13
6.20
99 9 9
Autumn Sowing.
„ 20
6.20
II II
The Dairy Show (with Mr,
Allday).
27
6.20
99 99
Harvesting Root Crops.
North :
Oct. I
9.0
Mr. W. B. Mercer
Survey of Farming in thfi
North-West
» 15
6.40
Mr. J. A. Hanley
Survey of Farming in the
h'our Northern Counties.
29
—
Mr. J. Strachan
Survey of Farming in the
East.
Midland :
Oct. 7
6.40
Mr. W. B. Thompson
For Midland Farmers.
West :
Oct. 7
6.40
—
For Young Farmers' Clubs.
» 13
9.0 j
—
A Commentary on the Tavi-
stock Goose Fair
,, 14
8.15
—
For Western Farmers m par-
ticular.
„ 21
6.30
—
For Young Farmers' Clubs.
Welsh :
Oct. 8
Northern
Ireland :*
730
Mr. E. V. Merchant
!
The Government’s White
Paper : Milk Marketing
Board.
Oct. I
8.0
i
Rt. Hon Sir Basil
Brooke, C.B E , Minis-
ter of Agriculture
The F'utuie of Ulster Agri-
culture.
„ 8
7-30 j
1
Prof. S. P. Mercer
For Ulster Farmers : Winter
Green : A Talk on Grasses.
15
7*30 i
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Farmers’ Work and Worry.
22
1
9.0 j
Discussion on the Lime and
Basic Slag Scheme, between
representatives of the
Northern Iieland Ministry of
Agriculture and the Ulster
Farmers' Union.
1
• A conference on Agriculture is being held by the B.B.C, in Northern Ireland
in October, under the chairmanship of the Northern Ireland Minister of
Agriculture, the Rt. Hon. Sir Basil Brooke, Bart., M.P. It is hoped that
valuable infomiatioix about agricultural talks and discussions on which future
pf'ogramme policy may be framed, will emerge from the conference. A special
pamphlet giving full details about the conference can be obtained free, on
application to the Public Relations Officer, B.B.C. , 31 Linenhall Street, Belfast.
The conference date will be either October 15 or 22.
708
Selected Contents of Periodicals
HORTICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
Oct. 3
2.0
Mr. C. H. Middleton
In Your Garden : —
The Autumn Show (with Col.
Durham).
,, 10
2.0
1 * *,
Vegetables.
.. 17
2.0
,, ,,
Fruit Varieties.
24
2.0
*, **
—
.. 31
2.0
..
Rock Gardens (with Mr C.
Elliott) .
North :
Oct. 8
6.40
Mr. W. E. Shewell-
Cooper and Mr. R.
Walthew
Planning a Garden.
,, 22
6.40
Mr. W. K. Shewell-
Cooper and Mr C
Beilis
Strawberries
West :
( )ct 8
7-30
Mr. U. Harris
For Western Gardeners : I'he
Beginner.
*, 22 '
6.45
Mr. D. Harris and Mr
T. H. Harraway
For Western Gardeners *
Roses.
Welsh :
Oct 15
8.0
Mr. T. Jones
Picking and Storing Fruit
and Vegetables.
28 '
Northern
7*30
»* ** 1
Planting Bulbs and Flowers
Ireland :
Oct. 23
”-45
1
Mr H. G. Fleet
An Ulster Garden : Autumn
Gardening.
SELECTED CONTENTS OF PERIODICALS
Agricultural Economics
Changes in the Value of the Agricultural Output of England and
Wales. R. J, Thompson. (J. Statist. Soc. 102 (1937), PP- 291-295.)
Cost Accounting for Pigs. J.Wylhe. (Pig Breed. Annu. 17 (1937-38),
PP- 64-72-)
The Pig Industry in 1936 : A Survey of Pig and Feeding-stuff Prices
and a Review of Supplies and Marketing Schemes. K. A. H.
Murray. (Pig Breed. Annu. 17 (1937-38), pp. 104-117.)
The Operation of the Milk Marketing Scheme in Wales, 1935-36.
J. R. E. Phillips. (Welsh J. Agric. 13 (i937), PP- 94-107 )
Ai^rlcultural Machinery
Machine Horse. J. Wyllie. (Inc. Auct. J. ii, 127 (July, 1937),
pp- 422-455.)
Investigations on Machinery Used in Spraying, Part IV : Nozzles.
C. Davies and G. R. B. Smyth-Homewood. (J. S. E, Agric. Coll.,
Wye 40 (July, 1937), pp. 50-57 )
Studies on the Relation Between Cultivation Implements, Soil
Structure, and the Crop. III. Rolls : An Account of Methods
Employed and Study of their Actions on the Soil. C. Culpin.
(J. Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July. 1937). PP- 432-446 )
709
Selected Contents of Periodicals
Bees : Charles Butler and His Feminin Monarchi," 1634. G,E, FusselL
(Estate Mag. 37. 7 (July, 1937). PP- 503~5 )
Studies on American Foul Brood of Bees. I. The Relative Patho-
genicity of Vegetative Cells and Endospores of Bacillus Larvae
for the Brood of the Bee. H. L. A, Tarr. (Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2
(May, 1937). PP* 377-384-)
Addled Brood of Beesv H. L, A. Tarr, (Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2 (May,
1937). PP- 369-376 -f 2 plates.)
Botany and Plant Phyaioloi^
Investigations on the Root Nodule Bacteria of Leguminous Plants.
XIX. Influence of Various Factors on the Excretion of Nitro-
genous Compounds from the Nodule. A. J. Virtanen, S. V. Hausen
and r. Laine, (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July, i937)» PP* 332-348 -f
I plate.)
The Relation of Boron to Plant Growth. R, W, G. Dennis, (Sci.
Progr. 32, 125 (July, 1937). PP* 58-69 )
The Extraction of Leaf Area in Field Crops. D. J. Watson, (J.
Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July, 1937), PP- 474-483-)
Crops and Fertilizers
The Potato in its Early Home and its Introduction into Europe
(continued), R. N, Salaman. (J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 62, 6 (June, 1937),
pp. 253-266.)
New Strains of Grasses : Progress Report on Trials with certain
new strains of Perennial Ryegrass and Cocksfoot, January, 1937.
S. P. Mercer and P. A, Linehan, (J. MinLst. Agric. N. Ire. 5 (1937),
pp. 27 ~iS.)
Gra.ss Drying. C. A. Lee-Steere, (J. Land Agents' Soc. 36, 6 (June,
1937). pp- 300-307-)
The Spangenberg Fodder Process, Results of 1‘rials at Hawkesbury
College. C. Walkden Brown, (Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 48, 3 and 4
(March and April, 1937), PP- 121-125 and 187-190.)
Field Trials with Pedigree and Poligenous Strains of Grasses. M. T,
Thomas. (Welsh J. Agric. 13 (1937), pp. 160-172.)
The Cahn Hill Improvement Scheme. M. Griffith (Welsh J. Agric. 13
(1937). pp- 211-223.)
The Artificial Drying of Pyrethrum Flowers. 5 . G. J ary, J, M, Martin
and F. TaUersfield, (J. S.-E. Agric. Coll., Wye. 40 (July, 1937)1
pp. 108-114.)
The Effect of Low-Temperature Grain Pre-treatment on the
Development, Yield and Grain of Some Varieties of Wheat and
Barley. G, D. H. Bell, (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July, i937)» PP* 377-
393.) Seed Production of a Pasture Tjrpe of Rye-grass. G. Evans,
(Welsh J. Agric. 13 (i937)» PP- 195-211.)
Recent Developments in Grass Drying. G, P, Pollitt, (J. Roy. Soc.
Arts. 85. 4414 (25 June, 1937)* PP- 733-750.)
Symposium on Pasture and Forage Crops (J. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29, 6
(June. I937)» PP* 427-517-)
The Preservation of Green Fodder. T, W, Fagan and W, M, Ashton,
(Welsh J. Agric. 13 (1937)* PP- 129-144.)
The Development of Certain Grasses and Clovers During the Seedling
Year. W, Davies and J. H. Western, (Welsh J. Agric. 13 (1937),
pp, 152-160.)
7x0
Selected Contents of Periodicals
On the Spring Cultivation of Autumn-sown Wheat. F. H. Garner and
H, G. Sanders. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July, I937)» PP- 447“457 )
The Maintenance of Fertility. A. Howard. (J. Land Agents' Soc.
36, 7 (July, 1937)* PP- 360-365 )
Dairying
Present State of the Dairying Industry in the Different Countries :
(12) Lithuania, (13) Estonia. E. Gasser. (Mon. Bull. Agric. Sci.
Pract. 28, 6 (June, 1937), PP- 209-223.)
The Composition of Milk and Whey with Special Reference to the
Partition of Calcium and Phosphorus. E. R. Ling. (J. Dairy Res.
8, 2 (June. 1937). pp. 173-194-)
The Ayrshire Breed : Past — Present — Future. A . D, Buchanan
Smith. (Trans. Highl. Agric. Soc. Scot. 5th Series, 49 (1937).
pp. 73-110.)
The Nutritive Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk for Mice. G. S.
Wilson and Irene Waier. (J. Dairy Res. 8, 2 (June, 1937), PP-
203-217.)
The Resistance to Infection with Bact. Typhi-Murium of Mice Fed
on Raw and Pasteurized Milk. G. S. Wilson. (J. Dairy Res. 8, 2
(June, 1937). PP- 218-223.)
Lactic Bacteria in relation to Cheese Flavour, I. 1 . R.‘ Sherwood.
(J. Dairy Res. 8, 2 (June, 1937), PP- 224-237.)
Studies in Cheddar Cheese. VI. The Degradation of Milk Proteins
by Lactic Acid Bacteria isolated from Cheese, alone, with Sterile
Rennet and with whole Rennet. J. G. Davis, W. L. Davis and
A. T. R. Mattick. (J. Dairy Res. 8, 2 (June, 1937), PP- 224-237.)
Thermophilic Bacteria in Raw and Pasteurized Milk. S. B. Thomas.
(Welsh J. Agtic. 13 (i937)» PP- 295-308 + i table.)
The Bio-Chemistry of Milk Secretion. H. D. Hay. (J. R. Soc. Arts,
85, 4418 (July, 1937), PP- 841-859.)
Horticulture and Fruit Culture
Experimental Spawn and Mushroom Culture, I. Dorothy M. Cayley.
(Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2 (May, 1937), PP- 31 1-322 -f 3 plates.)
The Problem of the Blue Hydrangea. E. M. Chenery. (J. R. Hort.
Soc. 62, 7 (July, 1937), PP- 304-320.)
Incompatibility and Sterility in the Sweet Cherry, Prunus Avium L.
M. B. Crane and A. G. Brown. (J. Pomol. 15, 2 (July, i937)»
pp. 86-116 4- 4 plates.)
Livestock Breeding and Feeding
Animal Husbandry in Eighteenth Century England, Part I, Cattle.
G. E. Pussell. (Agric. Hist, ii, 2 (April, 1937), PP- 96-116.)
Sheep Dips and Dipping, J. Hendrick and W. Moore. (Trans. Highl.
Agric. Soc, Scot. 5th Series, 49 (1937), pp. 158-177.)
I. The Composition of Mare's Milk. II. The Variation in Composition
during Lactation. III. The Influence of Intra-mammary Pressure
on the Composition of Milk vrith Special Reference to the Mare
and Cow. R. G. Linton. (J. Dairy Res. 8, 2 (June, 1937)#
pp. 143-172.)
Pig Feeding Experiments ; A Comparison of Restricted Wet Feeding
with Unrestricted Dry Feeding. R. G. Baskett, R. W. Hale and
G. L. Gray. (J. Minist. Agric. N. Ire. 5 (i937)» PP- ^-90
The Use of Grassland Products in the Winter Feeding of Farm Stock.
S. /. Watson. (Trans. Yorks. Agric. Soc. 94 (1936). pp- 49~58-)
71I
Selected Contents of PERioDiciULS
Organization and Maintenance of Horse Breeding in the Different
Countries. 7. Moskovits, (Int. Rev. Agric. Mon. Bull. Agric. Sci.
and Prac. 28, 7 (July, I937)» PP- 250-257.)
The Composition and Digestibility, when Fed to Pigs, of Three Grades
of Meat Meal of Widely Differing Fat Contents. H. E. Woodman
and R. E. Evans, (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 3 (July, i937)» PP- 465-*473-)
Plant Diseases and Pests
The Chocolate Spot Disease of Beans (Vida Faba L.) Caused by
Botrytis Cinerea Pers. A, R, Wilson, (Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2
(May, 1937). PP- 258-288 4- 2 plates.)
Virus Diseases of the Potato : The Carrier Problem ; Its Relation
to Symptomatology and Commercial Potato Growing. T, White-
head, (Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2 (May, 1937), pp. 323-340 + i plate.)
Dollarspot Disease of Turf and Its Causal Organism. Sclerotinia
Homaeocarpa N.S.P. F, T, Bennett. (Ann. appl. Biol. 24, 2 (Me^,
1937). PP- 236-256 4- 3 plates.)
Manganese Deficiency of Oats and Its Relation to Soil Bacteria.
F, C. Gerretsen. (Ann. Bot., Lond. New Series i, 2 (1937), PP- 207-
230 4- 7 plates.)
The Honey Fungus (Armillaria Mellea) Attacking Fruit Trees and
Hops ; with Observations on Pholiota Squarrosa in Cherry Orchards.
E. S, Salmon and W, M, Ware, (J.S.-E. Agric. Coll., Wye, 40
(July. 1937). pp- 18-26.)
The Control of Apple Scab ; Allington Pippin and Newton Wonder,
1936. W. Goodwin, N. H. Pizer, E. S, Salmon and W. M. Ware,
(J.S.-E. Agric, Coll., Wye, 40 (July, 1937), PP- 9~i7 )
An Account of a Disease of Lawns caused by a Parasitic Fungus.
W. R. Ivimey-Cook, (J.Bd. Greenkeep. Res. 5, 16 (Spring, 1937),
pp. 18-22 4- I plate.)
The Apple Leaf Miner (Lyonetia derckella) (from Insect and Other
Pests of 1936). A. E. Cameron. (Trans. Highl. Agric. Soc. Scot.
5th Series, 49 (i937). PP- i47“i5o.)
Poisonous Plants
Poisoning by Ragwort. N. Bisset and J. Rees. (Welsh J. Agric. 13
(1937), PP- 321-325.)
The Chemistry of Stock-Poisoning Plants. J. F. Couch. (J. Chem.
Educ. 14, I (Jan. 1937), PP- 1^3®-)
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationehy Office,
By WitUAif Clowes k Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 8 November, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Nutrition and Agriculture
In their Interim Report the Mixed Committee of the League
of Nations dealt exhaustively with the physiological aspects
of the nutrition problem. In the Final Report* they are
mainly concerned with its agricultural and economic implica-
tions; but as the volume is intended as an expression of their
views on the problem as a whole, a section on "Nutrition
and Health ” is repeated from the earlier report.
The sections dealing with agriculture range over a wide
field. This subject is approached by considering the relation-
ship of agriculture, throughout the world, to food requirements
resulting from progress in nutrition. The report suggests that
an increased concentration on the production of protective
foods in certain countries is required and a relative lessening
of the importance of the energy-bearing foods. It is pointed
out, however, that existing diets of the poorer classes in many
countries are deficient in energy-bearing foods, so that " for a
long time to come the increase in the demand
for the energy-bearing foods among these population groups
will, if nutrition policy achieves its objective, much more than
counterbalance the fall in the demand for them which
accompanies the qualitative improvement in the diet of those
who are already securing an adequate quota of calories.”
After giving instances of successful adaptation of agriculture
to changing demand, which has occurred, not only in
Denmark, to which country the report specially alludes, but
in a number of other countries, it proceeds to discuss the
* Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on
the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture and Economic Policy.
Official No. A. 13. 1937 11 A. pp. 327. Geneva- 1937: London; Allen
and Unwin. Mce 75. 6 d.
A
713
Notes for the Month
obstacles that stand in the way of further adaptation; the
effects of recent changes in agricultural methods; and the
influence of improvements in nutrition on the demand for
agricultural products. Amongst the obstacles, the most
important in Continental Europe are the special menhiiity of
the peasant, the form of existing capital investment, and the
protection given to certain types of produce. Stress is laid
on the difficulties created by lack of capital and badly
organized distributive services and on the benefits of
agricultural co-operation.
The report then discusses the relation of food prices to
consumption and the factors affecting prices. The adverse
effects, from the point of view of nutrition, of a policy resulting
in high prices, such as occurs in certain Continental countries,
are naturally commented on. The Committee, however,
recognize that these considerations are “ not the only ones
determining agricultural policy,” but they urge that
Governments should give due weight, in framing their policy,
to “ considerations of a nutritional order.”
The chapter concludes with sections dealing with price and
production control and with distribution costs. The Conunittee,
however, conunent sparingly, merely observing that price and
production, control is a “ powerful weapon ” and that the
interests of nutrition should be given weight in its use. They
conclude their discussion of distribution costs by remarking
that the milk trade is a particularly important field where
improved methods of distribution are needed.
TTie final chapters of the report deal with the relation of
income and education to nutrition and with the evidence of
malnutrition in certain countries. Under the latter head is
summarized a large amount of information that has been
collected, first in regard to the United States, a coimtry in
whicjr the statistical study of food consumption has been
pursued in considerable detail and a large number of dietary
records collected, and, secondly, in Western Europe, where
information of particular interest has been obtained in Sweden,
Norway and offier countries. The chapter then refers to such
information as is available for South Africa and Australia,
Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, and colonial areas.
This report, which concludes the work of the Mixed Com-
mittee of the League of Nations, follows upon the four previous
volumes issued by it. Of tiiese, the first consisted of a
general review of the problem of nutrition; the second was
714
Notes for the Month
concerned with the physiological basis of nutrition and con-
tained a statement of the standards of nutrition agreed upon
by the Technical Commission of the League Health ^mmittee ;
the third contains a survey of steps recently taken by Govern-
ments, public authorities, and national organizations in some
twenty countries, to improve the nutrition of different classes
of the population; while the fourth, largely based on an investi-
gation undertaken by the International Institute of Agriculture
at Rome, attempts to assemble and classify such statistical
information as is available on food production, consumption
and prices in various countries, particularly in relation to
protective foods. The whole series constitutes an important
and exhaustive study of the various aspects of a problem that
is intimately related to the general question of public health
throughout the world, a subject to which increasing attention
has been paid in recent years.
Land Fertility Scheme
Although the Scheme, which was dealt with at some length
in the October issue of the Journal, has been in operation
only since September 6, some indication of the results already
achieved may be gathered from the fact that the number of
producers of lime and basic slag who had been approved
under the Scheme on October 25 approached the 400 mark,
while the number of approved distributors exceeded 3,000.
The number of applications for Exchequer contributions
received by the Lapd Fertility Committee exceeded 14,000, and
a considerable number of applications in respect of deliveries
already made had, it is understood, yet to be submitted.
Young Farmers’ Clubs: The Minister’s Address
On October 20 the Minister of Agriculture, The Rt. Hon.
W. S. Morrison, M.P., addressed the annual meeting of
the Young Farmers’ Clubs. After expressing his own deep
interest, and that of his Department, in the Young Farmers'
Clubs movement, Mr. Morrison referred to the gap that exists
in rural education; that is to say, when the boy or girl leaves
the elementary school it may be some time before he or she can
get the opportunity of going to a fann institute, agricultural
college or other centre of real rural learning. He thought that
the Young Farmers’ Clubs had stepped into that breach and
provided a continuance of rural education that, without their
A i 715
Notes for the Month
endeavours and existence , would not generally exist. That was
a very valuable thing for the countryside and for agriculture,
because an important problem in agricultural education to-day
was that of making available in the field the results of the
laboratory and of scientific research. That very real problem
was being tackled in many -ways.
The Minister said that the G)unty Agricultural Educational
Service, to the cost of which the Ministry contributes 6o per
cent., is doing great work in that way, but in some parts of
the country the farmers are not, perhaps, even yet fully alive
to the wealth of scientific assistance that lies at their doors.
Let them consider the effect in future years, and indeed in the
present, that this Young Farmers’ Club Movement would Jiave
with regard to that particular problem. “lam glad to know,”
continued the Minister, “ from my study of your
activities, that a great deal of credit must be given to Agricul-
tural Organizers in the counties for the help they have given
the Young Farmers’ Clubs. Indeed, I have been profoundly
impressed by the way in which these officers, hard- worked as
they frequently are, have given what is needful to the Young
Farmers’ Clubs by doing, what is necessary in any real service,
something more than their duty. It is precisely in the centres
where the Agricultural Organizers have exceeded what anyone
could demand of them and have taken a real interest in the
working of the Clubs that you see the most forward progress
being made.
“ I am glad to think that the Young Farmers’ Clubs are
taking an interest in grass land — I know of your association
with the Welsh Plant Breeding Station and so on — ^but I earn-
estly hope that, as part of this national educational effort which
we are making towards the improvement of grass land, some
of the bright brains which exist in the Movement will think
of some way in which you can help that campaign of ours.
“ There are two bodies which have helped us, and I grate-
fully acknowledge their assistance, the Carnegie United
Kingdom Trust and the King George Jubilee Trust. The
Carnegie Trust have in the past matched even the generosity
of the Ministry of Agriculture by giving pound for pound with
regard to our direct grants which are now, as you know, ;^i ,200
a year. The Ministry’s direct grant is now to be supplemented
by the indirect grant, which we are making in the shape of
repa3mient5 to the County Councils of 6o pjer cent, of their
grants to the Federation. The Carnegie Trust has recently
716
Notes for the Month
promised for the years 1038 and 1939 to match the whole of the
Ministry’s direct and indirect grants up to a total of £1,800
a year.
“ As a result, I am glad to be able to announce that I have
the authority of the Treasury to continue the Ministry's grants
to the National Federation of Young Farmers’ Clubs in the
next two years on a basis that will ensure that, provided there
is no falling off in County Council contributions, the direct and
indirect grants, taken together, will amount to £1,800 a year,
I have, however, to make clear that the direct grant is not
intended to be continued after 1939, but no such limitation in
time is imposed upon the indirect grant. That puts us in a
position to look at the future with a little more confidence.
“ I would like to acknowledge, with gratitude, the assistance
which has been given to your Movement by the National
Farmers’ Union. We arc very grateful indeed for their help.
Perhaps I may say I hope that they will consider also entering
into the competition between the Ministry and the Carnegie
Trustees. There is nothing like a little competition in these
matters.
“ I particularly hope that the County Councils will take
this matter into consideration, in view of the value of the Clubs
in the county agricultural educational system, and of the dis-
continuance, after 1939, of the direct grant from the Ministry
of Agriculture. I have to make that statement now, and I hope
the County Councils will take it to heart and realize what a
field for service in the educational world there lies in the Clubs.
My predecessor, Mr. Walter Elliot, as Minister of Agriculture
last year, earnestly commended the Movement to the County
Councils. The response of the County Councils has been, so
far, favourable. Their contributions in the present financial
year will amount to £1,000. That I hope is only a beginning.
We look forward to County Councils in future years giving
higher contributions to the National Federation of Young
Farmers' Clubs, so as to enable the Federation not only to
continue, but greatly to extend its activities.”
Linton Village College
Linton Village College in Cambridgeshire was opened on
October 14 by the Right Hon. the Earl of Feversham, Parlia-
mentary S^retaiy to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
About 600 people were pre.sent and before the opening
717
Notes for the Month
ceremony the building was dedicated by the Right Rev. the
Lord Bishop of Ely. The Chairman of the Cambridgeshire
County Council (Councillor H. Franklin) presided.
This Village College is designed to serve as a community
centre of education, recreation and social life for a group of
eleven villages with a total population of about 5,000. During
the day the building houses the Senior School, the aim of
which is to give country children of ii to 15 years old a training
that will fit them for life and work in the countryside. In
addition to the usual subjects, substantial attention is given
to woodwork, elementary engineering, household crafts,
gardening and physical training. An important feature of
the school is the midday meal, which is provided at a charge of
2 \d. each to most of the pupils, a number of whom take milk
under the scheme for the supply of milk to schools.
lire buildings have been designed so that they may be
adequate for adult use, for agricultural demonstration and
instruction, for further education, and for social activities.
In declaring the building open Lord Feversham said that
Cambridgeshire might properly congratulate itself on being
in the van of progress in making provision for these colleges,
Linton being the third example, which began with the opening
of the Sawston Village College seven years ago, followed by the
College at Bottisham, opened in May last. Some people might
think it strange that a representative of the Ministry of Agri-
culture should be associated with the opening of such an
important educational institution as the Linton Village College.
Cambridgeshire, however, had realized, with very great
wisdom, that the welfare of the agricultural industry was largely
dependent upon the educational needs of the countryside
being met. Those who are closely and practically connected
with the land knew that the prosperity of agriculture
would in the long run depend upon the provision of improved
educational facilities in villages as much as upon any other
single factor.
The encouragement of a more vigorous community life in
the villages would help very greatly to check the drift of young
men and women from the countty to the town. The policy
of providing village colleges was the right one to pursue.
The educational plan to be followed at Linton College would
give young minds a zest and an enthusia^n to acquire greater
scientific knowledge. It was important that ^ scientific
education provided should have as its fundamental background
718
Notes for the Mohth
an ordinary everyday knowledge of agriculture. It was not
always possible for a farmer to send his son to one of the
centres of agricultural education. Rather it was necessary for
agricultural education to be taken to the farmer and his son.
That education the Village College would provide through the
Warden, working in close co-operation with the County
Agricultural Organizer.
The East Sussex School of Agriculture
About 1,000 guests attended the opening, by the Rt. Hon.
W. S. Morrison, M.P., Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries,
of extensions to the East Sussex School of Agriculture, at
Plumpton, on September 29, 1937.
In his introductory remarks, the Chairman (Capt. G. V.
Baxendale, Chairman of the County Agricultural Committee)
referred to the work performed by the veterinary statf in the
county, and said that the Committee were concerned as to the
future of that work in view of the Ministry's Scheme for
centralizing the veterinary services.
Mr. Morrison said that the whole problem of animal diseases
was one for national attack, and it was for that reason alone
that a change in policy was being undertaken. He realized,
however, the benefit of the local knowledge and contacts built
up by veterinary officers in counties as advanced as East
Sussex, and he gave the assurance that the change over to a
Government service would be effected with the utmost desire
to disturb these contacts as little as possible, and to merge in
the new Scheme all the advantages, which were consistent with
efficiency, of the old.
The Minister, continuing, said that, for the farmers of East
Sussex and beyond its borders, Plumpton stood for one of the
best farm schools in the country. Briefly outlining the history
of the school, which was established as a Farm Institute, with
accommodation for 18 students, in 1926, he said that the need
for enlargement soon became evident and the present extensions
were decided upon last year, at a cost of £22,000. As a result
of these extensions, hostel acconunodation was more tha^
doubled; laboratories, lecture rooms and a residence for the
Vice-Principal had been added; and the School was now able
to house 40 students and to provide courses for women students.
The fact that a fair proportion of the students were sons of
profesfflonal men showed that the School was conducting some-
thing in the nature of a “back to the land “ movement; at the
719
Notes for the Month
same lime, farmers were as anxious as professional people that
their sons should attend the School. Great importance was
attached to the fact that go per cent, of the 262 students who
had passed through the School were now engaged in fanning,
or otherwise occupied in agriculture. Dealing with the question
of institutional instruction, the Minister pointed out that those
who benefited from the facilities were not confined to the
administrative area of the County — the facilities were equally
available to residents in the County Boroughs of Brighton,
Eastbourne and Hastings. In regard to rural bias in the
teaching in senior elementary schools, the Minister said that he
hoped that much would result from the co-operation that would
now be possible between the County Agricultural Edudation
Sub-Committee and the County Education Committee, as the
result of the appointment of a Joint Committee representative
of the two bodies.
At the end of his speech, Mr. Morrison was presented by Mr.
Burdett-Coutts, on behalf of the County Agricultural
Committee, with mementoes of his visit. After prizes had been
distributed to students by Mrs. Baxendale, the guests were
entertained to tea, and invited to inspect the building.
Exportation of Horses — Effect of New Act
The Ministry of Agriculture desires to draw the attention
of all persons concerned in the exportation of horses to the pro-
visions of the Exportation of Horses Act, 1937, which came
into operation on October i, 1937.
The existing regulations contained in the Diseases of Animals
Act, 1910, as amended by the Exportation of Horses Act, 1914,
prohibit the export of any horse, ass or mule from any port in
Great Britain to any port in Europe outside Great Britain,
Northern Ireland, the Irish Free State, the Channel Islands,
or the Isle of Man, unless immediately before shipment the
animal has been examined by a veterinary inspector of the
Ministry and certified by him in writing to be capable of being
conveyed by sea and disembarked without cruelty, and also to
be capable of being worked without suffering. The new Act of
1937 adds to the requisite qualification of fitness to travel and to
work without suffering the further qualification that in certain
instances specified below, the animal is, in the opinion of the
Inspector, not more than eight years of age and also of not less
value than certain specified amounts. The instances above
720
Notes for the Month
referred to are where the Inspector is satisfied that the animal
is: —
(а) a heavy draught horse ;
(б) a vanner, mule or jennet ; or
(c) an ass,
and the amounts referred to in relation to (a), (6) and (c)
respectively are £2$, £20 and £3.
The Act of 1937 provides, however, that the above provi-
sions relating to age and value shall not apply to any animal
as to which the inspector is satisfied either —
(a) that it is intended to use the horse as a performing animal, or
(h) that the horse is registered in the stud book of a society for
the encouragement of horse breeding recognized by the Ministry and
is intended to be used for breeding or exhibition, or
(r) that the horse is a foal at foot accompanying such a horse as
is referred to in the preceding paragraph (h).
The Act of 1937 further provides that if any horse (including
ass, mule or jennet) presented to the inspector for examination
before shipment is found by him to be in such a physical condi-
tion that it is cruel to keep it alive, or to be permanently in-
capable of being worked without suffering, the inspector must
slaughter the animal or cause it to be slaughtered with a
mechanically operated instrument, and no compensation is
payable to the owner of the animal.
In all other respects the existing regulations continue in
operation unchanged, and any shipping company or railway
company intending to ship horses, asses or mules to any port
or place on the Continent of Europe outside Great Britain,
Northern Ireland, the Irish Free State, the Channel Islands,
or the Isle of Man, must give notice of the intended exportation
to the veterinary inspector of the Ministry at the authorized
ports of shipment in accordance with the Exportation amd
Transit of Horses, Asses and Mules Order of 1921. The
authorized ports of shipment are London (including Tilbuiy),
Southampton, Folkestone, Harwich, Goolc, Hull and Leith.
Prevention of the Introduction of Foreign Pests
and Diseases
Regulations governing the entry into this country of plants
and plant products from abroad have been in force for many
years. The policy of the Ministry in this matter may be sum-
marized in the statement that “ although a certain measiure
of risk must always attend the entry into the country of trees,
721
Notes for the Month
plants or living plant material from overseas, that risk is
minimized by the issue of health certificates by duly authorized
officers of the Phytopathological Service of the coimtiy of
origin, and is outweighed by the advantages obtained by the
introduction of new varieties and new strains of old varieties.”
Experience gained in the administration of the Orders, how-
ever, showed that there are some pests, the presence of which
cannot readily be detected during an examination of the
produce immediately before export, e.g., the Chrysanthemum
Midge, while the destructive nature of others, e.g. , the Colorado
Beetle, renders it unsafe to permit the importation of their
host plant or its produce.
The present regulations are embodied in the Importation of
Plants Order of 1933 and the various Amending Orders of
1934 to 1937, which require that all living plants and potatoes
imported from overseas shall be accompanied by official certi-
ficates of health, and which prescribe certain prohibitions and
restrictions in respect of produce grown in the United States
of America, Canada, France, Belgiiun, Germany, and Luxem-
burg on account of the presence of the Colorado Beetle in
those countries.
As an additional safeguard against the introduction of the
Chysanthemum Midge and of virus diseases of sugar beet and
mangold, the landing of living plants of Chrysanthemum and
Beta vulgaris is prohibited except under Kcencc from the
Ministry.
A summary of the main provisions of these Orders may be
obtained free of charge on application to the Ministry.
Interesting Birds : (9) The Spotted Flycatcher
The Spotted Flycatcher, which has a number of local names,
such as” Beam-bird,” “ Post-bird,” and *' Cobweb,” is fairly
common in this country. It is a migrant, arriving here in May
and leaving in autumn for Africa, where it winters. The
term ” spotted ” is much more applicable to the young birds
than to the adults, as the former are much more distinctly
marked with brownish streaks and spots, especially on the
underparts, than are their parents.
The Spotted Flycatcher frequents orchards, gardens, planta-
tions and woods, and has an especial liking for large old
gardens. It feeds entirely on insects, and al&ough it is some-
times accused of taking fruit there is no evidence diat it really
does so. Such local names as ” Cherry-eater ” are, therefore,
722
X
;s:*
'■ .r s
Photoi^rnph Coli\7if'lu hy Erie /. Hoskm«.
1'lir Spotted Myratrhri
1 it i(Ui p(ii;< y2*
Notes for the Month
quite unjustifiaUe. The Spotted Flycatcher may often be
seen in late spring and summer, taking characteristic short
flights in pursuit of insects and returning to its coign of vantage
on a post or rail, or the branch of a tree. This habit is of
great assistance in identifying the bird.
The nest of the Spotted Flycatcher is a neat structure of moss,
grass, wool, hair and lichen, warmly lined with feathers. Moss
is nearly always used in quantity. The nest is placed in a hole
in a wall, tiie fork of a tree, on a beam in a porch or outhouse,
a ledge of rock, or on a tree stump. Occasionally the bird uses
an old nest of some other bird, renovating and adapting it and
putting in a new lining, or even building an entirely new nest
inside the old one. The eggs usually number 5, occasionally
6, and vary in colour from pale green to bluish white, prettily
mottled with rust colour and purplish red.
The Spotted Flycatcher's insectivorous habits and general
harmlessness should commend it to the farmer, the gardener,
and the fruit grower. It destroys many pests, and should be
encouraged in every |X)ssible way. It will often use artificial
nest boxes of the half-open type.
Rothamsted Winter Lectures
Sir John Russell, Director of the Rothamsted Experi-
mental Station, has again arranged that Mr. H. V. Gamer,
Guide-Demonstrator of this institution, and other members
of the staff, shall be available during the winter to deliver
lectures on the experimental work of the station to members
of chambers of agriculture and horticulture, farmers' clubs,
farm workers' associations, agricultural societies and similar
organizations. No fee will be charged for the lecturers'
services, but participating societies will be expected to defray
travelling and hotel expenses, and to make the necessary
arrangements with the lecture-staff. Requests for lectures
should give as long notice as possible. A syllabus of lectures
and lecturers may be obtained on application to the Secretary,
Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
Seed Potato Frauds
A few weeks ago proceedings were taken by the City of
Birmingham against a local potato merchant on charges of
obtaining money by false pretences in connexion with sales
of seed potatoes.
723
Notes for the Month
This merchant had supplied a local farmer, in the spring
of 1936, with a considerable quantity of seed potatoes, all
being sold as Irish certified seed. When the seed was grown
on, by far the larger part of the crop was found to be of inferior
quality and affected by disease, and when the case was investi-
gated it became clear that, as regards the consignments com-
plained of, the merchant had not delivered the Irish seed
which he had contracted to supply. The crop raised from
these consignments was practically worthless and the farmer
suffered a heavy financial loss. The case was brought to the
notice of the City authorities by the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, which, in consultation with the Irish Free State
authorities, had been considering the desirability of prosecuting
the merchant for offences against the Seeds Act, 1920, and
the Wart Disease of Potatoes Order, 1923. Prosecution under
die Larceny Act, 1916, for obtaining money by false pretences
was, however, decided on as being the most appropriate charge
having regard to the magnitude of the offence. The defendant,
who pleaded guilty, was fined £25 on each of two charges, with
£5 5s. costs.
For their own protection, buyers of seed potatoes should
see that the particulars that have to be declared by the vendor
under the Seeds Act and the Wart Disease of Potatoes Order
are delivered to them in writing. A copy of a pamphlet (Form
C. & S. 66A), explaining in a convenient form the statutory
requirements in regard to the sale of seed potatoes, can be
obtained free of charge from The Secretary, Ministry of Agri-
culture and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i.
724
AGRICULTURE ACT, 1937
PART IV (DISEASES OF ANIMALS)
The announcement made by the Minister of Agriculture in
the House of Commons on May 27, 1937, on the Government's
proposals for increasing productivity included the following
statement: —
The Government also propose to initiate a large-scale campaign for
the eradication of animal diseases in Great Britain. Our object is to
improve the health of our live stock and increase agricultural productivity
by seeking to eliminate what is perhaps the worst of all forms of wastage
and economic loss in agriculture. In the first instance, efforts will
mainly be directed to the eradication of disease among our cattle. The
scheme will involve an additional charge on the Exchequer of about
£t>oOtOOo per annum for the first four years, it will, however, involve
centralization of public veterinary services and as against this increase
the ex]>enditurc by local authorities will be reduced by about 170,000.
J Parliamentary authcjnty will be required for these proposals ; the
Government are anxious, however, to lose no time* in developing the
existing scheme of control of disease and accordingly 1 am arranging
at once to amend the Attested Herds Scheme by providing additional
assistance in England and Wales as has already been done in Scotland
to owners of dairy stock who are desirous of eradicating tuberculosis
from their herds. This revised scheme will become operative on
June I next.
The necessary legislation will be introduced to give effect to the
aforementioned measures at the earliest possible moment and Parliament
will be invited to pass it into law before the Summer Recess.
The proposals were explained more fully in the Memorandum
on the Financial Resolution dated June, 1937,* and the neces-
sary powers to give effect to them were conferred by Part IV
of the Agriculture Act, 1937, which received the Royal Assent
on July 30. The Act provides that Part IV shall come into
operation on a date to be fixed by order of the Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries. The date provisionally fixed is
January i, 1938, but in view of the large amount of prelimi-
nary work necessary it is not yet possible for a definite
announcement to be made on the subject.
The campaign envisaged by Part IV of the Act, which, as
indicated in the Minister’s announcement on May 27, fonns a
part of the Government’s policy for increasing productivity,
marks a new stage in the fight against animal diseases. In
the main. State action in relation to diseases of animals has
hitherto been directed against those diseases that, if unchecked,
would spread rapidly in epidemic fashion throughout the
• Cmd. 5493.
725
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
herds and flocks of the country. A considerable measure of
success has attended such action. Unfortunately, the position
as regards certain other cattle diseases that spread in a
more insidious manner, notably tuberculosis, has steadily
deteriorated.
The Report of the Gowland Hopkins Committee on Cattle
Diseases* (1934), contained certain very important but dis-
turbing facts indicating the heavy losses due to diseases amongst
live stock. That Committee estimated : —
(a) that 58 per cent, of dairy cattle leaving herds were disposed of
on account of disease ;
(b) that the average productive life of dairy cattle under the existing
conditions was in the neighbourhood of 4 J years, or only half that ^hich
might be expected if the herds were free from the ravages of disease ;
(c) that about 40 per cent, of the cows are infected to a varying
extent with bovine tuberculosis and about the same proportion with
contagious abortion ; and
(d) that on account of tuberculosis the annual loss due to the necessity
of maintaining herds at full strength and to meat condemned was about
;i3,ooo,ooo per annum, without taking account of the loss in
productivity during life.
On the available data tentative estimates of the total losses
from diseases in livestock of all kinds indicate that it is of the
order of magnitude of £14,000,000 per annum, or 10 per cent,
of the output of the meat, poultry and dairying industries of
this coimtry. The eradication of disease is thus one of the
most important steps that can be taken to improve the perman-
ent assets and resources of the industry.
The cattle population of Great Britain approaches 8 million,
including 3^ million cows and heifers in milk or in calf. On
agricultural grounds alone there is an urgent need for a forward
drive against disease, while considerations of defence and the
necessity for increasing productivity demand a reduction of the
serious toll of wastage revealed by the Gowland Hopkins
Report, wastage that farmers can never hope to eliminate by
their own unaided efforts.
In the first instance attention will be mainly directed to
bovine tuberculosis, supplemented by action designed to facili-
tate the voluntary elimination of contagious abortion in
tubercle-free herds. The following is an outline of the measures
that it is proposed to adopt when Part IV of the Act comes into
operation.
* Economic Advisory Council : Report of Committee on Cattle Diseases
(Cmd. 4591).
726
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
RontiDe Clinical Inspection of Heards. The routine veterin-
ary inspection of dairy herds under the Milk and Dairies Acts
and Orders, at present die responsibility of local authorities,
will in future be carried out by the State Veterinary Service
(see below). Owing to financial and other considerations,
practice in regard to frequency of inspection in England and
Wales, apart from the periodical inspection of " Accredited ”
and " Tuberculin Tested ” herds, varies considerably as be-
tween one county and another. The objective will be to
secure a greater measure of uniformity in this respect, but not
by lowering the high standard attained in some areas. It is
anticipated that in the course of routine inspection, given the
co-operation of stockowners, much valuable information will
be gained in regard to the incidence of such diseases as con-
tagious abortion, Johne's disease and mastitis, and other
causes of serious loss amongst live stock.
Tuberculin Test Survey of Self-contained Herds. The
herds that will reveal the lowest incidence of tuberculosis are
self-contained. A necessary step in the eradication campaign
will be to ascertain the herds (whether milk producing herds
or not) that are free from disease, or nearly so, since precise
information on the incidence of disease, and the disclosure of
the areas or localities in which eradication efforts are likely
to produce the most fruitful results, must form an essential
basis of action. With this object it is proposed : —
(i) to locate the self-contained herds, and
(ii) to carry out a systematic tuberculin test survey of them
as quickly as practicable.
The information necessary to arrange the survey will be
obtained in two ways; first by means of the questionnaire sent
in September to all occupiers of agricultural holdings on which
cattle are kept, the replies to which are now being examined
and tabulated; and secondly, by Veterinary Inspectors in the
course of their routine inspections of cattle in dairies.
Vohintary Attestation Scheme. Section 20 of the Act,
which will replace Section 9 of the Milk Act, 1934, under which
payments are made to owners of milk-producing herds attested
under the Attested Herds Schemes, provides for the continuance
of assistance until Januaiy 31, 194i~an extension of two years
of the four-year period contemplated under the Act of 1934 —
727
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
and at the same time broadens the basis on which the payments
to stockowners may be made. Under these new powers it is pro-
posed to extend the present Attested Herds Schemes so as to
enable pa3mients corresponding to the milk bonus paid to
owners of attested dairy herds to be made in respect of herds
maintained primarily for beef production. A further an-
nouncement on this subject will be made in due course.
Meanwhile, the revised voluntary attestation scheme for
England and Wales, which came into operation on June i,
1937, and embodied new features, including provision for
assisted tests of herds having not more than about 10 per cent,
reactors, is making satisfactory progress. In the four months
June-September the number of herds attested in England and
Wales increased by 220 (from 280 to 500) or by nearly 80
per cent. ; while at the end of that period some 500 applications
for assisted tests and attestation were before the Ministry.
The Tuberculin Test Survey will disclose many herds con-
taining few or no reactors, and it is confidently expected that
when the owners learn the true state of their herds, many of
them will desire to proceed with attestation after further testing
under the revised scheme and the elimination of reactors (if
any). A substantial increase in the number of attested herds
in particular localities will open the way to more comprehensive
methods of dealing with tuberculosis in cattle by means of
control areas.
Establishment of Attested Areas. Although there is no
short cut to the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, much may
be done to reduce its prevalence by the introduction of new
control measures in defined areas where there is a compara-
tively low incidence, and by the gradual extension of these
areas on the lines pursued with success in the United States,
Canada and elsewhere.
It is accordingly proposed to inaugurate a four-year plan
for Ae cleaning up of areas that are known or found as a result
of tiie Tuberculin Test Survey to have a low incidence of tuber-
culosis. In the areas selected, the plan would, at first, proceed
on a voluntary basis, owners being encouraged to apply for
attestation in suitable instances. When a substantial majority
of the cattle is free from disease, the area would be declared
an eradication area subject to movement control, and non-
attested herds would be officially tested and the reactors
destroyed with payment of compensation. The area would then
728
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
be declared an attested area, the movement of cattte being con-
trolled so as to prevent infection being brought in from outside.
By this means it is expected to establish a substantial reservoir
of tubercle-free cattle, a reservoir that should be progressively
enlarged in subsequent years by the extension of the clean areas
and the selection of other areas for similar treatment.
Contagious Abortion. In carrying out these proposals,
information will be accumulated on other diseases of animals,
and the way thus prepared for measures to eradicate them. The
most serious of these diseases is contagious abortion. The
control of this disease has for some years been demonstrated
to be practicable, but the measures necessary have not been
used to any appreciable extent in this country. It is, therefore,
proposed to frame a scheme whereby the owners of all herds
that have been officially tested and found to be free from
tuberculosis will be assisted, by providing free veterinary
advice and free blood testing, to protect such herds as are
already free from abortus infection and to eliminate disease
from the abortus-infected herds. The scheme will include pro-
vision for official certification as to freedom from contagious
abortion when the disease has been eradicated from the herd.
Poultry Diseases. Under the powers conferred by the
Diseases of Animals Act, 1935, with respect to poultry diseases.
Orders have been made for three main purposes, vizr-r-
(1) scheduling the most serious of the exotic diseases that, if
introduced and allowed to spread, might have disastrous con-
sequences to the industry, namely the diseases fowl plague and
Newcastle Disease, which are included in the term fowl pest;
(2) safeguarding poultry flocks from the risk of the introduction
of disease from abroad; and (3) checking the spread of the
more common diseases by requiring the disinfection of poultry
market pens and of receptacles, and prohibiting the exposure
in markets of birds in an obvious state of ill-health.
The whole problem of the heavy mortality among poultry
is under examination by an expert committee, and considera-
tion of any more comprehensive scheme for dealing with
poultry diseases must be deferred pending the receipt of their
recommendations.
For this reason the measures that it is proposed to introduce
in due course, under the powers conferred by Section 24 of the
729
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
Agriculture Act, 1937, will be limited to the promotion of the
breeding and distribution of stocks of poultry that are free
from disease, by providing free veterinary services for owners
of approved poultry breeding stations in regard to the inspec-
tion, testing and examination of poultry, whether alive or dead.
Centralized Veterinary Service. An eradication campaign
of the magnitude contemplated necessitated a review of the
existing organization of the public veterinary services. There
is at the present time under the control of the Minister of Agri-
culture and Fisheries a State service that deals centrally with
certain phases of the work under the Diseases of Animals Acts
throughout Great Britain, viz : the measures against foot-and-
mouth disease, swine fever and rabies. The other duties of
the State service include the examination of all imported
animals from Ireland, Canada, Channel Islands, Isle of Man,
etc., which number nearly if million annually; the supervision
of the administration by local authorities of Orders of the
Minister relating to other diseases such as anthrax, sheep scab,
tuberculosis, parasitic mange of horses, etc. ; and duties \mder
the general Orders for the prevention of the spread of disease
and the prevention of avoidable cruelty in the transit of live-
stock.
Certain veterinary services are also provided by local
authorities. They are undertaken by veterinary inspectors
appointed to inquire into reported cases of anthrax, sheep
scab, tuberculosis and parasitic mange, and to carry out the
examination of cattle for the purposes of the Milk and Dairies
Acts and Orders, including the Milk (Special Designations)
Orders, which require the routine clinical examination of herds
whose owners hold licences xmder the Orders authorizing them
to use the designations “ Tuberculin Tested ” and " Accre-
dited” (in England and Wales) and" Certified,” " Tuberculin
Tested ” and " Standard ” (in Scotland).
The Government came to the conclusion that in order to
secure the efficient conduct and uniform administration through-
out Great Britain of a national campaign of the character in
view, the public veterinary services relating to animal diseases
should be centralized under the control of the Minister of Agri-
culture and Fisheries. Contagious disease knows no frontiers
and it is considered that uniform action under a single authority
pursuing one policy and having one standard is essential for
success in combating it.
730
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
Section 19 (i) of the Agriculture Act, 1937, accordingly pro-
vides that —
As from the commencement of this Part of this Act, the functions of
veterinary inspectors in Great Britain under the Diseases of Animals
Acts, 1894 to 1935, any enactments relating to milk or to dairies,
and the functions of veterinary inspectors in England and veterinary
officers in Scotland under any arrangements made by virtue of section
nine of the Milk Act, 1934, shall, in accordance with directions given
by the Minister, be discharged by veterinary inspectors appointed for
the purpose by him under section five of the Board of Agriculture Act,
1889, and the provisions of any enactment relating to such functions
shall have effect accordingly.
Local authorities will retain all their functions in relation to
meat inspection, and those under the Milk and Dairies Acts
and Orders and under any other enactments relating to milk
except only in relation to the veterinary inspection of animals.
They will also retain their important powers and duties of a
non- veterinary character under the Diseases of Animals Acts,
including the local enforcement of all general Orders of the
Minister.
The transfer of the veterinary functions of local authorities
to the Ministry involves the transfer to the veterinary staff of
the Ministry of whole-time veterinary inspectors of local authori-
ties engaged upon the duties to be transferred. It is intended
to invite such veterinary inspectors to accept appointment under
the Ministry subject to the conditions which normally attach
to the State veterinary service. There will be no formal trans-
fer to the Ministry of the part-time veterinary inspectors
employed by local authorities, but it is contemplated that the
services of the majority of these officers will be utilized on a
part-time basis for some of the duties that will have to be dis-
charged by veterinary inspectors in connexion with the working
of the new proposals.
The constitution of a State veterinary service on comprehen-
sive lines and the coming into operation of Part IV of the
Agriculture Act, 1937, will mark the inauguration of a new
phase in the attack on animal diseases in this country. The
rapid progress that is now being made with the Attested Herds
Scheme is a happy augury for the future, and with the contin-
ued co-operation and goodwill of local authorities, the veterin-
ary profession and the agricultural community, there is every
prospect that striking results will be achieved during the next
few years.
731
THE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL’S
FIELD STATION
The Agricultural Research Council, acting under the direc-
tion of the Committee of the Privy Council for the Organisation
and Development of Agricultural Research, and after consulta-
tion with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the
Department of Agriculture for Scotland, have purchased from
Mr. Alfred Barclay the Compton Manor Estate of about 11500
acres, on the Berkshire Downs, about 16 miles to the west of
Reading.
The objects of the Council in establishing a Field Station
of their own are twofold, and have been adopted after a careful
survey of existing facilities for agricultural research.
(1) It is hoped to supply from Compton to Agricultural
Research Institutes for experimental purposes animals of
known history and free from disease; for these there is a
demand which it is becoming increasingly difficult to meet.
The Council are, therefore, also buying from Mr. Barclay his
well known herd of pedigree Ayrshire cattle and his
smaller herds of pedigree Friesian and Guernsey cattle,
which have for some years been under expert supervision by
two Veterinary members of one of the Council's own Commit-
tees. All the cattle are free from tuberculosis, and two of the
three herds are free from contagious abortion and mastitis.
The herd of some 300 Large White pigs, which is being pur-
chased by the Council, is also free from tuberculosis.
(2) The Council desire to fill a gap in the existing facilities
for research by providing opportunities for experiments on
a field scale under strictly controlled conditions. Such experi-
ments will be related, in particular, to those problems of animal
health and disease which fundamental and smaller scale investi-
gations conducted at Research Institutes, or initiated by the
Council, may indicate are at a stage requiring the use of animals
in larger numbers than can be accommodated at an Institute
without detriment to its general programme. A section of the
Estate will be isolated, and cattle units will be built as soon as
jrassible for the first series of exp)eriments on contagious abor-
tion in cattle. In the course of their management of the
732
Research Field Station
Estate, tile Council will also undertake any experiments with
pastures and crops which can usefully be done there.
With the consent of the Medical Research Council, the Agri-
cultural Research Council have appointed Mr. G. W. Dunkin,
M.R.C.V.S., D.V.H., at present Superintendent of the Farm
Laboratories of the Medical Research Council at Mill Hill, to
be Director of the Field Station at Compton. Mr. Dunkin will
be assisted by a small scientific staff. A laboratory and houses
for the breeding and maintenance of stocks of small laboratory
animals will be built on the Estate.
The need for a Field Station of the type now to be established
arose in the first place from the requirements of the Council's
Committee on Brucella abortus Infection in Animals (Contagi-
ous Abortion) and Man. Of this Committee, Sir Joseph
Arkwright is the Chairman, and among its members are Ae
principal workers on contagious abortion in Great Britain.
The Council's Committee were asked to consider, in the light
of the recommendations made by the Committee on Cattle
Diseases imder the Chairmanship of Sir Frederick Gowland
Hopkins, how research on contagious abortion could best be
advanced. The Committee on Brucella abortus Infection were
of opinion that it was desirable to conduct experiments with
preventive vaccines and in regard to sources of natural infec-
tion on a herd of some 200 cattle, divided into a number of
strictly isolated units, under the Committee's own control.
It appeared to the Council and to their Animal Diseases
Committee that it would be an unwise and an uneconomical
step to provide at any one Research Institute, or at two
Institutes, accommodation for experiments on a single disease
on so large a scale, or to divert the energies of an
Institute's staff to so extensive a series of large-scale
experiments. The general survey of all agricultural research
in progress in Great Britain made by the Agricultural Research
Council had brought to light other instances in which facilities
for research on a field scale, but under conditions of control
which could not be maintained in ordinary farming practice,
were required.
Further, in the course of the examination of the scheme
of contagious abortion expieriments, the desirability of increasing
the supply of animals which could with confidence be accepted
as being free from certain sp)ecified diseases, and whose history
had been accurately recorded, had emerged. Agreement was
therefore reached Aat the right course was to establish under
7 . 3 .^
Research Field Station
tile Council's control a Field Station which would fulfil these
requirements, and, after a most careful search, the Compton
Manor Estate was selected. As the examination of the policy
to be adopted in using the Estate proceeded, it became evident
tiiat opportunities would arise for useful experimentation on
crops as well as on animals.
It is the desire of the Agricultural Research Council that
their Station should be of value to those who are engaged in
agricultural research, and it is hoped that from time to time
Institutes will second members of tiieir staff to work at Compton
with the small resident staff upon problems for which the
Station's resources are most suitable. If, however, the Station
is to be put to the best use, the number of major experiments
in progress dt the same time must be strictly limited. Probably
only one series of large scale experiments upon cattle, pigs or
poultry respectively should be undertaken at one time.
With cattle the first group of experiments will be concerned
with contagious abortion. They cannot be begun until the
necessary isolation units have been built, and they may last for
five or even for ten years; but the fact that animals known to
be free from abortion are available at Compton will shorten
the period of experiment by three or four years.
With pigs it is under consideration, as a result of consultation
with the leading workers in pig research, to limit attention in
the first instance to the possibility of reducing the rate of early
mortality in small pigs — an urgent problem for pig breeders —
in a healthy herd run under good commercial conditions.
With poultry, observations will be made to test the hypothesis
that susceptibility to fowl paralysis is inherited in certain strains
of birds. For this purpose birds of known pedigree, which
have been under examination by Professor T. Dalling at the
Wellcome Laboratories at Beckenham, will be used.
It is not the intention of the Council to develop at Compton
a self-contained Research Institute. The resident scientific
staff will be small and the laboratory will only be large enough
to meet the needs of that staff and of visiting workers from the
Research Institutes. Small animals must be bred on a con-
siderable scale for use in connexion with experiments on animal
diseases at the Station. The Council can perform a further
useful function by breeding a small surplus of healthy small
animals for supply to Institutes.
Although the Station is to be used for field scale experiments,
the fact that a primary object will be to supply large as wdl
m
Research Field Station
as small animals to Research Institutes is a guarantee that ^e
need for developing work with laige animals at the Institutes
is appreciated by the Agricultural Research Council, who are
responsible for giving scientific guidance regarding all agri-
cultural research aided by the Government. The division of
functions between the Council’s Station and the Institutes has
been clearly, though not too rigidly, delimited. It is for the
Field Station to provide opportunities for experiments which
are at a stage between Research Institute investigations with
small groups of animals and ordinary fanning practice. In
research this stage is a crucial one.
735
UNTREATED AND INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS AS
A SOURCE OF UME
A. W. Oldershaw, B.Sc.,
Agricultural Organizer for East Suffolk
Large areas of land in this country are seriously lacking in
lime, and the productivity of this land is in consequence gravely
reduced. To a considerable extent, the reason for this lack
is geological — certain geological formations contain an abund-
ance of lime, and others very little. Leaching has been active
for a very long period, and instances are known where the
carbonate of lime, in what was originally a calcareous sand,
has been dissolved out until a sand containing hardly any
carbonate of lime has been left.
In some industrial districts the process has been accelerated
by acid smoke, which, mingled with the rain-water, has
rendered the surface soil extremely sour. The habitual leach-
ing of soil by rain-water has been accelerated to some extent
by the use of certain chemical manures, but it is possible to
over-estimate this influence. Thus, sulphate of ammonia —
the chemical manure that has the most serious effect in this
direction — causes a loss only about equal to its own weight of
carbonate of lime. Even the most intensively manured soils
seldom receive more than an average annual dressing of, say,
2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia. An annual loss of 2 cwt. of
carbonate of lime is only serious in soils extremely poor in
that substance, and it can be replaced at an expenditure of
about ys. per acre per annum. Certain manures, such as
calcium cyanamide and basic slag, reduce the total loss of
carbonate of lime from the soil, but here again, owing to the
usual smallness of the dressings the effect is comparatively
small. One cwt. of basic slag has, however, about the same
lime value as i cwt. of calcium carbonate, so that where a
dressing of, say, lo cwt. per acre of slag is applied, the lime
effect is definitely worthy of consideration.
In East Suffolk, a field-to-field survey of 12 parishes was
made in 1935. A district poor in lime was selected. In 12
parishes containing 25,000 acres the soil of 7,091 acres was
deficient in lime to an extent likely to injure seriously such
sensitive crops as barley, sugar-beet and clover. A similar
survey conducted in 17 parishes in another part of the county
in 1936 gave comparable results.
Several bulky materials that contain lime are mentioned in
736
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
the Ministry’s Bulletin No. 35.* The effects of two of these —
lump untreated chalk, and lime press cake from beet sugar
factories (sugar-beet lime sludge) have been studied over a
period of years at Tunstall Experimental Station in East Suf-
folk, and elsewhere.
Modern transport enables lump chalk in its untreated state
to be carted by rail or lorry a ^stance of 30 to 40 miles at
economic rates. A considerable proportion of England is
within this distance from a chalk pit.
Relative Costs of Certain Materials Containing lime.
A simple comparison of the cost of transport is possible if
Hopton, near Great Y armouth, is considered as a centre. This
station is about in the centre of the seventeen East Suffolk
parishes surveyed for lime in 1936. The nearest sources of
the first three materials are within a radius of three miles of
Ipswich, and all have to be taken about 48 miles by rail or
road to Hopton. The Cantley Beet Sugar Factory is the
nearest source of sugar-beet lime sludge, and is about 16 miles
by road from Hopton.
The following amounts of various “ liming ” materials
supply roughly equal amounts of quicklime or calcium oxide
(the valuable constituent in all forms of lime) : “
5 tons chalk; 7^-10 tons sugar-beet lime sludge and chalk
ground carbonate of lime ; aj tons ground burnt lime) :
5 tons of chalk formed the basis of the calculation because it
was the quantity per acre used in the Tunstall experiments.
The cost of these materials, including carriage, delivered at
Hopton Railway Station in East Suffolk, 48 miles from the
chalk pits, in October, 1936, was as follows (to the nearest
shilling) : —
5 tons Lump Chalk at <)5. 2</. . . . . . . = 465.
tons Ground Burnt Lime at 44s. (x/. . . . . -- loo.s*.
32 tons Ground Carbonate of Lime at 28*'. (xL . . 107s.
(Cartage to field from railway station must lx* adiled
in each instance).
8 tons Sugar Beet Lime Sludge (ex Cantley I 3 eet
Sugar I'actory) at field at 65. 6rf. per ton
(carted by road alx)ut 16 miles) . . . . - 525.
On tfie above figures, supar-beet lime sludge and chalk
were, at the selected place, which is quite a considerable dis-
tance from chalk pits and beet sugar factory, much the cheapest
♦ The Use of Lime in Agrietdiure. — A new edition of this Bulletin
(No. 35) is in preparation. Readers wishing to be notified of the date
of publication should fill in and return the form on p. vii.
737
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
sources of lime, even when cartage from the railway station
and cost of spreading are added.
Where the chalk pit or beet sugar factory is much nearer
to the farm than diis, the advantage of chalk or sugar-beet
lime sludge, from an economic point of view, over ground or
lump lime or ground carbonate of lime, becomes much more
marked, in fact, it becomes overwhelming except where only
a small quantity of lime per acre is needed to correct the soil
acidity.
The idea that the cost of chalking is very heavy, thus proves
a fallacy. A dressing of chalk that is likely to last for a long
period can be given, when the material is available within a
distance of 20 or 30 miles or less, at no greater cost thaft a
comparatively small dressing of lime, the effects of which may
only last a few years.
VlTien finely ground materials are used better distribution
can be effected, but it is perhaps possible to pay too highly
for this advantage, because equally good and more lasting
results can be obtained by using larger quantities of the cheap
and untreated materials.
At Tunstall Experimental Station, 20 miles from the chalk
pits, 5 tons of chalk per acre costing (including spreading)
50S. per acre, have given extremely good results over a period
of ten years, and the effects as yet show no sign of diminution.
At this distance from the chalk pits an equivalent dressing of
ground burnt or groimd carbonate of lime would have cost
at least double. In other parts of the county the effects of
chalk applied 40 years ago are still visible, but in these places
much heavier dressings of chalk were applied.
Chalk: Method of Application. In East Suffolk the chalk
is obtained from one of the numerous chalk pits in the Gipping
Valley. In one there are several geological strata overl)nng the
chalk, and these must be removed before the chalk can be
quarried. Most of them are, however, of economic importance
for brickmaking and building purposes. Here the underlying
chalk is used for lime burning, whitening m^ufacture and
g^ding for agricultural purposes, as well as in bulk. The
small lump chalk, unsuitable for lime bumi^, is excellent for
ditect application to the land, and some of it coMists of com-
paratively fine particles. In another quarry, which has been
opened within the last twenty years, there is only about a
foot of overl3nng material. Here tiie lorries proce^ into the
738
To face page 738
crop of Sugar- beot grown in i<^35 The small bare squares were unchalked
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
pit and are loaded directly from the chalk face. Where motor
transport is adopted the chalk is either heaped in the field
near where it is required, or if the condition of the land permits
(owing to frost or dry weather) the lorries travel over the field
and the chalk is spread or heaped directly from them.
East Suffolk chalk is very soft and friable, much more so
than certain samples examined from Kent, Lines, and Oxon.
Where the chalk is put in a large heap in a comer of a field
and left for the winter, considerable weathering of the lumps
on the surface of the heap occurs, and many of them are
reduced to tiny particles. Rubber t5nred carts are very useful
for carting the chalk on to the land. Under fairly dry conditions
they have been used for carting and spreading chalk directly
on to growing wheat during the winter and early spring without
doing damage. Lorries also have been taken on to a field of
small growing cabbages where the wheels were the right width
to go down the rows, and the chalk has been spread direct from
the lorries, again without injuring the crop.
Importance of Weathering. When lump chalk is used it is
very important to leave it on the surface of the ground, if pos-
sible, for a whole winter. There is almost always enough frost
to shatter the lumps of a soft chalk, and harrowing in spring
effects excellent distribution. Where large lumps of chalk are
ploughed under soon after spreading many of them do not
break up for a long time, and the beneficial effect of the chalk
comes into action only very gradually. On the other hand,
if lump chalk is spread after the last ploughing, say, in Decem-
ber, and left on the surface all the winter, it usually gives
definite results on such crops as barley and sugar-beet the
following spring. The spring tillage will mix it with the soil
to a considerable extent, but it will hardly have time to pene-
trate deeply.
In the first season after applying the chalk, sugar-beet grown
under such conditions germinated well, but later in the
season their tap roots curved into an elbow shape, owing to
inability to penetrate the acid soil below. If, in these circum-
stances, the land had been ploughed in spring, the chalk would
have been turned below, and in ^ probability the seedling beets
would have perished from soil acidity before reaching it.
Lump chalk spread on growing wheat in Januaiy benefited
the wheat that season, and made the difference between a
crop and no crop on the clover sown in the wheat. Here the
harrowing given to the wheat distributed the chalk, which was
739
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
then in contact with the germinating clover seedlings, and
provided them with the soil conditions they appreciate.
Quantity to Use. The quantity to apply naturally depends
upon the acidity of the soil and the purity of the chalk. The
chalk occurring in East Suffolk, in its dry state, contains about
q8 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The percentage of moisture
varies, but an average figure of 70 to 80 per cent, of carbonate
of lime may be assumed for this chalk, the remainder being
moisture and earthy matter.
Although local tradition said that 10 or even 20 tons of chalk
per acre were necessary, it has been found that under
the conditions prevalent at Tunstall, 5 tons of lump chalk per
acre, well distributed and weathered before ploughing in, is
a sufficient dressing and will last at least ten years.
An additional 5 tons of chalk applied in 1932 to a small
area has not apparently resulted in increased crop®. On
aiiother plot a dressing of 2J tons per acre in 1932 gave good
results, but was not sufficient for the degree of soil acidity
present.
Financial Return from Chalking. The figures given below
show the crops grown on Heath Walk, Tunstall, in the
years mentioned, together with the total value of crops, on
chalked and unchalked land, per acre. They include certain
crops (rye, potatoes, oats and lupins) that are not very sensitive
to lack of lime. The value of the straw is not included ;* all the
figures are per acre.
Tunstall, Soil-Light, Lime Requirement, 27 cwt. ok Carbonate
OF Lime. pH — 5 '8.
Chalked 5 tons per acre. Unchalked.
Winter 1925-^.
Bush.
£
5.
d.
Bush.
£
5.
d.
1927 Rye , .
46*6
T C
at 35. a bush.
0
18
6
4^*3
0
7
0
1928 S. I^et
13*6
at £1 a ton.
26
12
0
Nil.
Bush.
Bush.
1929 Barley
49*7
at 3s. a bush.
7
9
0
6*5
0
19
6
Bush.
Bush.
1930 Peas . .
31 'O
at 3.9. a bush.
4
13
0
8*3
I
5
0
Bush.
Bush.
1931 Rye . .
46-7
at 35. a bush.
7
0
0
41*8
6
5
6
T.C.
T.C.
1932 Potatoes
12*0
at £^ a ton.
3 ^>
0
0
TO* 12
31
16
0
Bush.
Bush.
1033 Oats . .
<> 7 * 3
at IS. a bush.
6
14
6
74*4
7
9
0
Bush.
Bush.
1934 Rwpins
38-2
at 45. a bush.
7
T 2
6
38- 2
7
12
6
Carried forward
. .
.
102
19
6
61
6
740
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
Chalked 5 tons per acre.
Winter 1925-6,
Unchalked,
Bush.
i
5 .
d.
Bush.
£
5 .
d.
Brought forward
102
19
6
6 i
H
6
1935 Wheat . . 39*3 at 55. a bush.
9
iG
6
31 -^
7
16
0
T.C.
1936 S. Beet. (Av.
of 2 plots) . . 13*8 Iz di ton.
20
16
0
I *12
3
4
0
Total value of crops in 10 yr., per acre . .
139
12
0
72
14
0
Cost of original chalking
2
10
0
137
2
0
Value of unchalkcd crops . .
7 ^
M
0
Increased value per acre of croi>s in jo yr.
due to chalking, less cost of chalk and
excluding value of straw . .
b-1
7
0
Returns obtained by the use of chalk have repaid the original
cost more than twenty-five times over in the first ten years.
Sugar-Beet lime Sludge (lime Press Cake from Beet
Sugar Factories). This waste is produced at beet sugar fac-
tories, and some factories allow it to be removed free of charge,
or load it up on rail at is. per ton. Where the soil is poor in lime
it becomes obvious that if this material could be applied to the
soil it might prove very valuable. The difficulty is the large,
and variable proportion of water it contains, making carriage
very heavy. If it is carted after a long period of dry weather
the proportion of water is reduced, and of carbonate of lime
increased.
As regards the analysis, Mr. F. Hanley, M.A., writes as
follows: — “ If we assume that the sugar-beet lime sludge
has a moisture content of approximately 50 per cent, it might
contain about 40 per cent, of carbonate of lime, about 0.8 per
cent, of phosphoric acid, about 0.3 per cent, of total nitrogen,
and just under o.i per cent, of f)otash. In addition to the
above, there is a small quantity of magnesium present, usually
amounting to about f per cent, oxide of magnesium.
There are, of course, traces of iron, aluminium, silica, sul-
phates, etc., present.”
In view of the large weights per acre used, the phosphates,
nitrogen and potash are worthy of consideration. If these
ingredients are worth half as much per unit as in the common
artificial manures, a dressing of 10 tons of sludge per acre would
be worth somewhere about 30s. from the point of view of its
phosphate, nitrogen and potash content alone.
741
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
Results Obtained in the Field. The sludge has, for some
years, been used at certain centres where the soil was acid and
for that reason likely to respond to any material containing
lime.
(1) In the spring of 1929 an application was given at the
rate of 12 tons per acre to portions of a field on the farm
of Scots Hall, Westleton, Saxmundham. This field had given
veiy poor crops previously, although generously manured.
Roots were grown in 1929, but owing, no doubt, to the late
application of the sludge, showed no effect from its use. In
1930 a mixture of oats and barley was drilled on the field. This
showed a much larger proportion of barley in the treated area,
the crop on the untreated part consisting almost entirely of
oats.
This most interesting difference in the crop was undoubtedly
because barley is a lime-loving plant, whereas oats can thrive
under comparatively acid soil conditions.
Clover and rye-grass were drilled in the corn crop, and owing
to a faulty plant this mixture was filled up with trifolium in
the autumn. In 1931 the herbage on the untreated part of
the field consisted mainly of sorrel, but on the portion treated
with sludge there was a very heavy crop of clover.
In 1932 the field was drilled with oats, which were a heavy
crop, actually laid, where the sludge had been applied, whereas
on the part of the field receiving no sludge, the crop consisted
mainly of sorrel and other weeds. As previously noted, oats
are not a very sensitive crop to soil acidity, and the superiority
of the oats on the treated area must be attributed, in part at
any rate, to the heavy crop of clover in the previous year,
this having undoubtedly left much valuable root residue and
nitrogen, whereas the weedy and unsatisfactory material on
the untreated portion was of no value to the succeeding oat crop.
(2) In July, 1930, a dressing of 10 tons of sludge per acre
was applied to a 35-acre field at Pannington Hall, Wherstead,
Ipswich. Three small areas of approximately J-acre each
were left untreated, in different parts of tiie field. This field
was one that had not given a satisfactory crop of com for
years, and in one season portions of the crop had been cut
and burned, owing to its complete failure and the presence of
so many weeds.
The sludge was applied on a seeds mixture consisting mainly
of ryegrass — the clover had failed in most parts owing to soil
acidity. A first cutting of the seeds was taken. After this,
742
iNExpj^sivE Sources of Lime
in July, the weather was diy, and the motor lorries bringing
the slu^e took it all over &e field and placed it in small
hea^ ready for spreading, thus avoiding the labour of refill-
ing into carts. The farm is situated about 5 miles from the
factory, the charge for haulage being 3s. a ton, so that file
total cost was under £2 per acre, including the cost of spread-
ing. The second crop of ryegrass was grazed by sheep, animals
that undoubtedly helped to distribute the material all over
the ground.
UsuaJly the sludge is of a sticky consistency, and somewhat
diflicult to distribute. If, however, it is left on the surface
of the ground and allowed to dry it becomes very friable.
Harrowing then distributes it very effectively.
By 1932 there had been ample time for the material to
become incorporated with the soil and the crop was barley,
which is very sensitive to soil acidify.
The barley on the major part of the field proved very satis-
factory. It became evident in early June that there would be
practically no crop on the parts that received no sludge. In
spite of two horse-hoeings these patches became covered with
weeds — chiefly wild radish, spurrey and a little sorrel. With
exactly the same treatment there were comparatively few weeds
on the treated parts of the field. At harvest time the untreated
parts were a dense mass of weeds witli only an occasional ear
of barley. If any large area of the field had been in this condi-
tion the crop would, of necessity, have been cut and burned
before harvest. The lime requirement of soil taken from an
untreated area by Mr. F. Hanley, M.A., in 1932, was 39 cwt.
of carbonate of lime per acre. Since 1932 every time a crop
sensitive to lack of lime has been grown the untreated patches
have been conspicuously worse than the rest of the field, and
that was so with the 1937 crop (tares and oats).
(3) A third instance was at Tunstall E.xperimental Station.
Here an acre of very acid land was taken in the same field as
that in which the previously recorded chalking experiments
were conducted, the lime requirement at this end of the field
being 33 cwt. of carbonate of lime per acre. In the autumn
of 1930, 7i tons of sugar-beet lime sludge per acre were applied
to two-thirds of this, but a strip was left across the middle
without treatment.
In 1931 oats were drilk^. These were quite a good crop,
but distinctly superior where the sludge went. This superiority
may have been due to the small quantity of nitrogen present in
743
Inexpensive Sources op Lime
tiie sludge. ; Tliey were not harvested separately. A firstl
crop relativdy insensitive to sml acidity was selected, as it
was recc^^nized diat the sludge had not had time to get incorpor-
ated with the soil and a comi^te crop failure was feared.
In 1934 peas were drilled. Peas are very sensitive to soil
acidity. S^n after coming above ground the peas on the
untreated strip began to assume a sickly appearance. By
harvest time they had completely failed, and in spite of hand-
hoeing, the land had become covered with spurrey and sorrel.
On the area treated with sludge, the peas presented a healthy
appearance throughout the season.
The peas and subsequent crops were harvested separately.
After 1931 all crops chosen for these plots were purpo^ly
selected as relatively sensitive to acidity.
The crops grown in the years mentioned, together with their
total value (excluding straw) on sludged and untreated land,
are given below; all figures are per acre: —
Sugar-Beet Lime Sludge :
7j Tons per acre. Autumn lyjo. No Sludge.
1931 Oats . .
. A good crop.
A very fair crop.
Bush.
£
$.
d.
1932 Peas . ,
. 22 J at 35. a bush.
3
7
G No crop. Nothing
but Sorrel and
Spurrey.
Bush.
£
s.
d. Bush. £ s. d.
1933 Wheat
. 43 • I at 5s. a bush.
10
15
0 9'3 266
Tons. Cwt,
Tons. Cwt.*
1934 Sugar Beet
(Washed).
With F.Y.M. .
. 14 12
I 15
Without F.Y.M.
14 9
No crop.
Average . .
. 14 loj at £2 a ton
29
I
0 17I I 15 0
Bush. Bush.
1935 Barley •• 42*9 at 3s. a bush. 6 8 0 6-i o 18 o
Cwt. of Hay.
1930 Trifolium . . 32 at zs, (id. a cwt, 400 No crop. Nothing
but Sorrel.
Tons.
Followed by White
Turnips
Wt. of tops and roots
(folded by sheep) 16 at 25. 6d. a ton. 200 No crop.
Ibb 12 6 £4 ^9 ^
The financial return^ obtained Irom five years crops with
sludge caimot properly be compared wife feose obtained froin
the chalk in the same field, ^ce specially sensitive crops were
744
Inexpensive Sources of Lime
planted on the sludge plots, whereas in certain years lye, oats,
potatoes and lupins were grown on the chalk plots, these crops
not being very sensitive to soil acidity. It seems possible
that the limfe sludge had not time to get to work properly in
the soil for the pea crop of 1932. The importance of appl5dng
any form of lime a long time before a sensitive crop is sown
cannot be over-estimated.
The three instances mentioned above show that sugar beet
lime sludge is a thoroughly satisfactory source of lime, which
may be relied upon to give good results if care be taken to
ensure uniform distribution. Whether it is the cheapest
source of lime depends upon the distance of the farm from the
factory, and also from other sources of lime. The proportion
of water present in it is too large for it to be carted profitably
to any great distance, but within a radius of, say, 20 to miles
from a factory, it is quite worth while to compare its relative
cost with that of other sources of lime, taking into consideration
the cost of carriage. Assuming a dressing of 2 tons of quicklime
or 4 tons of carbonate of lime per acre is required, then 8 to 10
tons of the sludge would be needed.
Condhisions. (i) That in considering the question as to
which of the various forms of lime are likely to prove most
economical, and, over a period of years, the most satisfactory,
in any particular district, careful attention should be paid to
any cheap and untreated materials (containing lime) that may
be available at a reasonable distance, either from natural
sources or as waste products. Quite frequently such materials
may prove much the cheapest form of lime, when all aspects of
the question are considered.
(2) In the experiments above described, both soft lump chalk
and sugar-beet lime sludge proved thoroughly satisfactoiy as
a source of lime on an acid soil, and as regards the chalk the
original cost was repaid more than twenty-five times over in
the first ten years. Equally good results were obtained over
a jjeriod of five years with sugar-beet lime sludge.
(3) That in order to get the best results from these materials
careful attention must be paid to the necessity of leaving
them exposed to the weather in order to reduce them to the
smallest possible particles. It is ajgp very important to take
appropriate means, by harrowing car otherwise, after spread-
ing, to ensure that the whole surface of the ground receives a
uniform coat.
B
745
AUTUMN LEAVES IN THE GARDEN
E. Hannaford Richards, B.Sc., F.I.C.,
Rothamsfed ExpmmeHial Station
Fallen leaves can probably be best used to make leaf mould,
&at invaluable aid to the preparation of potting ^ils. While
all leaves will rot tSo a friable condition in time, some
leaves are known to make better leaf mould than others.
Oak and beech leaves, for instance, are to be preferred to holly,
laurel or privet. Such leaves of evergreens may coritain toxic
substances injurious to plant life and are better burnt. Leaves
collected from road-side heaps may sometimes be contaminated
witii road tar and should be regarded with suspicion.
When the heap is being made a light sprinkling of lime should
be added to each barrow-load of leaves, unless the leaf mould
is to be used for the cultivation of rhododendrons or other plants
intolerant of lime. The heaps should not be too large or so
tightly packed that air is entirely excluded. The best resulte
are usually obtained by slow aerobic decomposition, for which,
of course, air in the heap is essential. The most suitable mater-
ial for potting is obtained from heaps two or three years old.
In heavy soils leaves can also be used with advantage to
improve the drainage when trenching is being carried out. TTie
unrotted leaves should be placed at the bottom of the trench,
at a depth that can be varied according to the crop to be
grown on the land under cultivation, but not so deep as to
exclude air. For this purpose some of the leaves less suitable
for compost on account of their resistance to decomposition,
may be used safely. If leaves are left on the soil surface, earfo-
worms will gradually work them down to augment tiie supply
of humus.
Another way in which old leaves can be helpful is to supply
cellulose required to balance the excess of nitrogen in fiesh
green refuse that is to be used for making compost as substitute
for stable manure. As explained in the article on ' ‘ G>mposts' ’
in the July issue of this Journal (p. 330); refuse rich in nitrogfen,
i.e. , lawn mowings and ffosh we^, ret^uixes to be balanced
sufficient carbohydrate to combine witii tire nHrog^ and so
avoid the loss of tiiis element tiiat will otherwise occur. Further,
the addition of old leaves to soft green material has two o&er
746
Autumn Leaves in the Garden
advantages. The final product has more body and is
usually more effective as an organic manure than
the rather sticky residue left by rotted grass-cuttings alone.
Also, the latter become too closely packed to allow any air to
penetrate the mass, even in quite small heaps or pits, so that
an aerobic fermentation develops with the usual unpleasant
smells associated with this type of bacterial action on material
rich in protein. The addition of old leaves in bulk not greater
than that of the fresh green refuse will help to keep the mass
open and avoid any nuisance from smell. Besides leaves, any
ripe cellulose materials, e.g., herbaceous stalks, can be cut
up and used for the same purpose.
When leaves are burnt the ash contains a variable amount
of potash and a little phosphate. One hundred pounds of dry
oak leaves yield about 5 lb. of ash. This contains 10 oz, of
potash (K O) and approximately the same weight of phosphate
of lime. If leaves have to be burnt, the ash should be collected
and distributed on the soil at once or stored in a dry place
until required, as the potash is very soluble in water and easily
washed away.
The following table gives the analyses of some of the more
useful elements in the ash of various leaves : —
Ash in Certain Leaves (Wolff)
Per cent,
in Dry Leaves Per cent, of Ash
Phosphoric
ulsh
Lime
Potash
Acid
J lolly
*
4 M
35*7
19*9
5*1
.. 10*7
380
14*9
5*7
Ivy
.. 7*9
26-5
31*6
14-2
Chestnut . .
. . 4’5
49-5
10-5
«*4
Acacia
.. 11*7
72-0
3*3
IMJ
When leaves are dug in or composted the organic matter and
nitrogen, both of which would be lost in the bonfire, can bt^
made to help maintain the supply of humus in the soil. The
decomposition of plant residues has been studied extensively
in recent years, and it is now possible to predict how material
of known analysis is likely to behave when allowed to rot in
the soil or compost heap. Tire three most important consti-
tuents controlling, the rate of deca^ arc:~
(1) Easily fermentable carbohy 4 rates (Cellulose and hemi-
cellulose).
(2) Available nitrogen — if any.
(3) Lignin.
B 2
747
Autumn Leaves in the Garden
(Waksman)
Oak Leaves Pine Needles Itye Straw
Cellulose . .
.. 17*2
16-4
33-9
Hetni-cellulose
.. iy(>
19*0
24-8
Lignin
.. ^9’ 7
22-7
12-4
Nitrogen . .
0-6
0-4
0*5
Ash
.. 6*4
-2-5
4*-2
In the above table an analysis of rye straw is given for
comparison with oak leaves and pine needles. In all three
materials the nitrogen present is mainly of a resistant t3TJe not
easily available to micro-organisms. It will be noticed that
in straw the ratio of the easily decomposed cellulose, to the
very resistant lignin is much higher than in oak leaves and pine
needles. Consequently straw rots comparatively quickly when
sufficient available nitrogen is added, but the other materials
will only decompose slowly even with an extra supply of nitro-
gen. Leaves will combine with and hold only a fraction of
the nitrogen that can economically be added to straw, so that
it may not, in practice, be worth while to use more than the
sprinkling of lime mentioned above.
748
THE AMERICAN FARMER COMES TO COLLEGE
J. A. Freeman, B.Sc., and
I. W. Selman, Ph.D.
(Ministry of Agriculture Research Scholars)
In the month of February, when close attention to the farm
is not so necessary as at other times in the year, farmers and
their families come from all over New York State to Cornell
University, at Ithaca, for the Annual Farm and Home
Week of the State Colleges of Agriculture and Home Econo-
mics. At this time the Colleges are thrown open and the
workers there show what is being done to aid the farmer to
grow his crops more efficiently and his wife to improve the
comfort and beauty of her home.
The Thirtieth Farm and Home Week was held this year
from Februaiy 15-20, and attracted a record attendance of
11,142 persons, some 3,000 above the last record of 8,000 in
1935 - This is an indication of the close co-operation between
the scientist and the practical agriculturist, which is so marked
a feature of present-day American agriculture. These visitors
took away with them about 42,000 bulletins, of which 15,000
were on homemaking and the remainder on various aspects of
farm operations. Farm and Home Week is, however, only one
phase of the continuous effort being made to assist the farm
family in its struggle with Nature. Contact with the scientist is
maintained throughout the year by the County Agricultural
Agent of the Farm Bureau Organization for the farmer and by
ffie 4-H (Health, Heart, Home, Happiness) Clubs for the
younger members of his family.
An account of the activities on the Agricultural Campus
during Farm and Home Week should be introduced by stating
briefly that the area of New York State is slightly less than
that of England, and that fruit, dairy produce and vegetables
are the most important agricultural products of the State. The
chief problems tackled by the agricultural research workers
will thus be primarily concerned ^h these products.
One of the main problems affecting the American farmer at
the present time is Ibat of soil erosion. The mechanical wash-
ing away of the tc^ soil of large areas of arable land during
heavy rains, by flood waters, is the rriost urgent problem in New
740
American Farmer Comes to Cchxege
York State. Surface denudation, owing to cloud-bursts and
violent rainstorms, is the most serious type. An English
example of this was seen in Hertfordshire in April, 1936, when
torrential rains washed large quantities of top soil from some
of the arable fields of the Rothamsted Experimental Station.
Gull3dng and wind erosion are also of importance. It is of
interest to note here that wind erosion is rapidly reducing parts
of the Middle West to a great dust desert. The destruction
of the natural protective covering of vegetation and the con-
version of unsuitable land to arable farms have contributed in
large measure to the present seriousness of the situation. It
has been stated that the annual soil losses from America, alone,
if loaded in freight cars, would make a train long enough to
encircle the equator thirty-seven times ! The problem of soil
conservation is being attacked by the Federal and' State Con-
servation Services, which give advice to farmers on how to
plan their farm layout, how to conserve water, and how to
prevent erosion, while they also provide a subsidy towards the
maintenance of soil fertility. Much of the actual work of
draining, reafforestation and general land improvement is
carried out by the Civilian Conservation Corps, a Federal
Government Organization. The Corps is recruited volun-
tarily from unemployed youths taken mainly from the large
cities.
At the Farm and Home Week gathering, the Agronomy
Department had exhibits showing the results of erosion on the
|:^3^ical and chemical properties of the soil, pictures of soil
erosion, and a model of farm layouts showing farms in their
original condition and as they are now after reorganization. Soil
losses by erosion can be prevented by enhancing soil building
by good crop and rotation management, which must be deter-
mined in part by the needs of the farmer, the limitations of the
soil type and o&er factors. Lectures and demonstrations were
g^ven at various times during the week by soil scientists and
officials of the Soil Conservation Service.
In certain parts of New York State, agriculture is on the
decline, a result of the depression, which has made the farm^
of poor or submarginal land an unprofitable occupation. The
Rural Resettlement Administration, a , department of ilhe
-Federal Government, is buying ffirms in poor areas and resett-
ling thdr occupante in ffirms on better si^. Scienhfic sta4ies
fofm the basis of this operation. The Agncs^ral E9onomist^;ln
his studies of prices and eamomic conditiims genrarally,
7|o
I () jiu (’ 750
Photograph Copyright by I. W. Seliruin.
American Farmer Comes to College
shown when and why certain types of fanning are unlikely to
pay. In co-operation with the forester he has shown that the re-
afforestation of the submarginal land is die best possible use
diat can be made of it. The Agricultural Economics Depart-
ment has made a study of New York State, county by county,
and has outlined electrification and hard road programines
based on a land classification. Thus the planning of rural
electrification projecte and road building schemes can be
directed into the fertile “ muck lands” and useless expenditure
prevented in areas which must soon become agriculturally
derelict. There is also anodier Federal Service, the Rural
Electrification Administration, which makes loans to farmers
to aid them in electrifying their farms on a co-operative basis,
thus bringing electrical power widiin the reach of the majority
of New York farmers. All these matters are dealt with at the
Farm and Home Week.
The protection of crops from natural enemies, animal and
plant, is the concern of the Departments of Entomology and
Plant Pathology. The Entomology Department exhibited the
results of research on the control of noxious insects. Potato
pests have been the subject of much research, special attention
being directed to leaf hoppers, flea beetles, tarnished plant
bugs, aphides, cutworms, wireworms and the Colorado beetle.
Other exhibits showed the results of work on the Onion Thiips,
which may be best controlled by tfie use of resistant varieties of
onions, and on the Alfalfa (lucerne) Snout Beetle, which, intro-
duced from Europe, has recently b^n doing considerable dam-
age in a limited area near Oswego. Of the fruit pests, the Codling
Moth and the Apple Maggot are the most important. Methods
similar to those used in Europe are employed against these
pests, but investigators are trying to find less expensive meflrods
of control. The Dutch Elm disease, believed to have been intro-
duced from Europe, is prevalent in an area of about fifty miles
radius from New York City and is slowly spreading. There is at
present no remedy other than the destruction of infested trees.
The study of the problem is a co-operative project of the
Departments of Entomology and Plant Pathology and of the
Federal Govenunent Laboratory situated in New Jersey. This
combined effort is necessary, since fhe disease is caus^ by a
fui^^ which is carried from tree to tree by a bark beetle.
The Plant Paffiology Department also diowed the farmer tiie
organisms causii^r .^i^le &::ab. Potato Blight and grain smuts,
by means of laboratory lessons of about an> hour’s duration,
751
American Farmer Comes to College
during which the visitor might gain some knowledge of life
histories and control measures. A “ Spray-Service-Trouble
Hour,” conducted by experts of the Entomology and Plant
Pathology Departments, enabled individual fanners to obtain
expert advice on their own immediate problems.
An extensive show of bees, beekeeping equipment and honey
was displayed in the Apiculture Section. The honey is largely
of two types, clover and buckwheat, and new treatments have
been evolved making it possible to produce a very fine-grained,
crystalline honey. The use of beeswax in the production of
high-grade candles was another recent development.
Of the fifty varieties of apples exhibited by the Pomology
Department, the most popular were ” Macintosh ” — a fine red
dessert apple — and ‘‘Northern Spy” — for dessert and cooking.
The importance of light for the production of red pigments was
demonstrated, and the predominance of glossy, red fruit was
an index of the way in which the growers aim to produce a
fruit that appeals to the eye of the buyer. The Pomology
Department, amongst other projects, was attempting the intro-
duction of Cox's Orange Pippin.
In the Poultry Department, living chick embryos of different
ages were exhibited by means of a glass-topped incubator con-
taining the eggs, the tops of which had been chipped away to
expose the embryos. Vitamin and mineral . deficiency
symptoms were demonstrated in living chickens.
Exhibits in the College of Home Economics covered all the
household activities, and for choosing bedding, mending
clothes, selecting library books, planning economical meals,
concocting new dishes, appreciating modern methods of illumi-
nation and keeping fit, the New York State farmer's wife
should be a very paragon of domestic virtues.
In addition to many lectures on specific subjects, there were
demonstrations of general interest in Bailey Hall, a Uni-
versity theatre seating 2,000 people. Eveiy day from
noon to one o'clock, students of Ae Home Economics College
acted as mannequins in a fashion show, presenting bright
clothes and ideas on dressmaking directly to the farm family.
Following this was a film show lasting about an hour. The
most interesting picture ^own was the Federal Government’s
Film, " The Plough that .Broke the Plains.” This describes
the destruction of a vast, natural grazing region by the growing
of grain, a process which was accelerated by the demand for
wheat during the Great War. The destruction of natural
752
American Farmer Comes to College
cover, together with a succession of dry years, has led to un-
precedented wind erosion in the Great Plains Area.
Two of the great attractions of Farm and Home Week were
the visits of Mrs. Roosevelt and Governor Lehman. Mrs.
Roosevelt spoke to a packed house of about 2,000 on " A Day
in the White House,” which gave one some idea of the strenu-
ous activities of the wife of the President of the United States.
The address of Governor Lehman was mainly concerned with
the current problems affecting me milk supply of the State.
At present the price of milk is controlled by a Milk Control
Board, run on lines similar to our own Milk Marketing Board.
The main difficulty here, as elsewhere, would appear to be
that the dairymen cannot agree amongst themselves as to the
best policy to pursue on questions of general co-operation, price
fixing, transport and other problems. In his speech Governor
Lehman emphasized the value placed on research by the
authorities and gave an assurance of his continued support.
Three events, more reminiscent of an English agricultural
show, proved extremely popular. These were a Cornell
students’ livestock show, a contest between horse-teams to find
the best drawbar pull as measured by a special dynamometer
car, and a State woodchopping contest in which the winner
severed an eight-inch beech log in twenty-eight seconds.
Apart from the sub-marginal lands referred to above.
New York State is one of the most fertile and extensively
farmed states in the Union and much of its agricultural prosper-
ity is surely due to its readiness to maintain its research and
extension service at a high level of operation. The attitude of the
agriculture research scientist at Cornell and Geneva (N.Y.) is
simply stated in a popular bulletin distributed by the Agronomy
Department and may well apply to all departments: ” The
Agronomy Department is a collection of good-natured persons
who are supposed to have some knowledge of the sciences
relating to soils and field crops, and even to know something
about soil management and crop production. These good-
natured persons are at your service — use them during Farm
and Home Week.” The genuine interest and enthusiasm oi
the fanners, so manifest during this Farm and Home Week,
would ^ggest that closer co-operation than hitherto, between
farmer iind scientist, in "England, might be of value to all.
753
LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT:
REPORT FOR THE YEAR ENDED MARCH 31, 1937
This Report deals with the Ministry’s activities, statutory
and administrative, in regard to the improvement of live stock.
The former include the exercise of powers contained in the
Horse Breeding Act, 1918, as regards the licensing of stallions,
and in the Improvement of Live Stock (Licensing of Bulls)
Act, 1931.
Apart from these statutory functions, the Ministry admini-
sters a Scheme for the Improvement of Live Stock, the main
object of which is to direct the attention of farmers, especially
the smaller farmers, to the value of using pedigree sires for
grading up their farm stock, and of keeping records of the
milk yield of their cows with the object of getting rid of poor
milkers, obtaining information for economic rationing, and
generally improving, by judicious selection, the productive-
ness of feeir herds. Under the Scheme, grants are awarded by
the Ministry to enable farmers to obtain, at reasonable service
fees, the use of pedigree bulls and boars that have been ap-
proved by the Ministy's Live Stock Officers; a few grants for
the improvement of Welsh Mountain sheep are also provided.
As regards heavy horses, grants or premiums — direct and by
way of assisted nominations — are made to Societies in connex-
ion with the hiring of stallions. In addition, grants are made
to Societies whose members record the milk yield of their cows.
General Remarks. There was no outstanding change in
the conditions ruling in the livestock industry during the
year under review. The subsidy paid under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provisions) Acts improved the returns from the
marketing of fat cattle, and this to some extent checked the
tendency to favour milk production at the expense of stock-
rearing, to which reference was made last year. It is antici-
pated ffiat a further check will be provided by the quality
subsidy for cattle that will be paid under the Livestock Industry
Act, 1937. The location of premium b^ under the live Stock
Improvement Scheme, however, continued to be difficult for
die reasons given later in this report,
So far as the pig industry was concerned, die chief feature
754
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
of the year was the breakdown of the marketing arrangements
for bacon pigs. The resulting uncertainty, combined
with the high prices of feeding stuffs, caused many farmers
to make reductions in the numbers of pigs kept both for
breeding and feeding purposes. This was reflected in a de-
creased demand for the location of premium boars in some
districts during the year.
Grants made to Heavy Horse Societies continued to be
much appreciated by farmers and the use of stallions hired
by these Societies increased during the year.
The number of farmers who are members of Milk Recording
Societies also showed a further slight rise, but in this connexion
there is room for considerable expansion.
The arrangements for the licensing of bulls continued to
operate smoothly. Very many farmers are brought into direct
contact with officials of the Department, as a result of the
visits of the Live Stock Officers to inspect their bulls, and
the absence of any serious criticism of the manner in which
the Minister’s powers are exercised may be taken as an indica-
tion that the compulsory licensing of bulls is now accepted by
the farming comraimity as a measure of general benefit to the
live stock branch of the agricultural industry.
Lkensing of Bulb. T able 1 gives particulars of the number
of applications for bull licences dealt with during the twelve
months ended March 31, 1937, and the comparative figures for
the previous twelve months.
TABLE I. — ^Licensing of Bulls
Twelve
months ended
March 31, 1936
T welve
months ended
March 31, 1937
Applications for Licences received
38,426
43 » 7^2
Licences issued
31.969
37 » 84 «
Rejections notified . .
4.690
6,663
Permits issued
53
72
Licences suspended
32 {«)
31 («)
Licences transferred
21,408
33.673
Appeals to referees received
285
567 *
Appeals to referees dealt with
269 (b)
540 {«)
(a) licebces suspended pending recovery of the bulls from temporary
forms of (fowase (audnly ringwcmn).
(h) Of tlfose 158 were decided in favour of the appellant, while in 131
cases the Ministry’s decision was confirmed.
(e) Of these 299 were decided in favour of the appellant, while in 241
casM the Ministiy's decMon Was confirmed.
755
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
An examination of the table shows that in 1936-37 tiiere was
a further substantial increase in the number of applications for
licences as compared with the previous year, and that there
was an increase of nearly 2,000 in the number of bulls rejected
as unsuitable for licensing, the proportion amounting to 14.9
per cent., of the number examined, as compared with 12.8
per cent, in 1935-36. When considering the greater numbers
of rejected bulls it must be borne in mind that the Ministry’s
standard is now higher than it was during the earlier period
of licensing. The policy of gradually raising the standard
that bulls must attain to be licensed, is one that the Ministry
has reason to believe meets with the approval of the farming
community, and in fact the opinion has been expressed in
some quarters that an even higher standard is desirable than
that now in force. In this connexion it is of interest to note
that according to the Agricultural Returns the number of bulls
used for service in England and Wales in 1937 was 86,423 as
compared with 83,781 in 1936 and 85,850 in 1935. These
figures should tend to allay any fears that licensing has resulted
in a shortage of bulls in the country.
There is undoubtedly an improvement in the class of bull
submitted for licence, not only as regards conformation but also
in condition and general appearance. The improvement,
however, is not so pronounced in dairy herds where there is
a tendency for farmers to keep bulls solely on account of the
milking capacity of their dams without regard to type, con-
formation or breeding.
The Ministry is satisfied that instances of deliberate evasion
of the requirements of the Act are comparatively few, and that
farmers, generally, are appreciating the benefits that accrue
from bull licensing. Many owners, however, still do not realize
that an application for a licence should be made 28 days before
the bull attains the age of 10 months.
The number of permits issued was 72, practically all of which
were granted to owners of monorchids who desired to keep
the animals for a limited period until they were in a suitable
condition for slaughter.
The most noticeable increase during the year w|is in the
number of licences transferred on change of ownsrsh^; during
the 12 months ended March 31 last, .the number of transfers
was only 4,000 less than the numb^ of new licence issued.
Despite the extent to which bulls are bought and sold many.
756
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
fanners do not realize that a licence issued to a former owner
becomes void if it is not forwarded to the Ministry for transfer
within one month of its receipt by the new owner of the bull.
Figures showing the number of bulls licensed and rejected
in each county in England and Wales arc given in Table II.
As explained in previous years, these figures must not
be used to draw deductions as to the parts of the country
in which the best class of stock is to be found. There is,
however, some evidence that in the counties showing the
greatest percentage of rejected bulls, the animals of low
standard are largely found in semi-urban environment where
the primary consideration is the production of milk and not the
breeding of cattle.
I'ABLE JI. — Pakticulars of Bills Licensed and Rejected in Each
County in England and Wales for the Twelve Months Ended
March 31, 1937.
County
ICNCfLAND -
liedfordhliirc
lierkshirt'
Buckinghamshire
Cambridgeshire . .
Cheshire . .
Corn\sall
Cumberland
J 'Derbyshire
Devonshire
1 >orsct
Durham ..
l^ssex
IJlouccslershire . .
Hampsliire
Herefordshire . .
Hertfordshire
Huntingdonshire
Isle of Wight
Kent
Lancashire
Leicestershire . .
Lincolnshire
Middlesex
Norfolk . .
Northamptonshire
Northumbeiland •
Nottinghamrfhire •
Oxfordshire . . ,
RuHand . . . . ,
Shropshire . . |
Somerset
Staffordshire
Licensed { Rejeiied
192
35
:)45
5 «
55 ^ '
(»o
242
40
I ,2<»2
349
753
51
2,910
317
1,138
iSf)
103
159
<141
«9
()<)2
135
720 1
134
<K )0
I |0
8 <»
3^5
^7
70 ;
7
-L 5
f ‘)3
4 -
1 .940
553
(>f >4 1
084
i »3
iS
12
bo \ ,
187
391
47
<M 3 :
5«5
22q
70
4(>2 1
59
•48 1
7
>.054 j
37-5
>.586 1
34 -J
>-<53 !
337
I
County
!
! Licensed
Rejected
Sufiolk . .
i 490
^45
Surrey
: 393
29
Sussex
1 951
73
Waruickshne
537
><5
Westmorland
1,031
7«
W iltshire . .
1,293
T52
Worcestershire . .
3f>9
«3
Yorkshire
; 4.047
O70
Total - England
I 33.555
5.(*9i
Wales and Mon-
MOUTH -
Anglesey
54
20
Brecon . .
249
44
Caernarvon
207
48
Cardigan
403
O4
C-armarllien
1 MOT
252
J>enbigh . .
570
T59
Elint
: 407
77
(ilamorgaii
J98
91
Merionet h
191
27
Monmouth
-J33
39
Montgomery
20!
80
l^emlnokc . . i
248
59
Radnor . . . .
80
21
Total — W'ales and ^
Monmouth . . |
4>293
972
Total England |
AND Whales
37.848
6,663
757
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
Table 111 shows the number of bulls licensed and rejected
for each breed, with comparative figures for die previous
twelve months. These figures indicate diat the percentage of
rejections was greater for almost all the breeds. The rejections
of cross-bred bulls amounted to 87 per cent, of the number
examined.
In connexion with the figures shown in this table it should
be explained that the bulls included under any particular breed
are not necessarily pedigree or pure bred, but include all bulls
in which the characteristics of that particular breed arc
predominant
TABLE III. — Particulars bv Brelds of Bulls Licensed and
Rejected.
Twelve months ended
March 31, 1936
Twelve months ended
March 31, 1937
Licensed
Rejected
.
Licensed
Rejected
Aberdeen Angus
851
57
760
61
Ayrshire
296
30
445
67
Blue Albion
44
6
48
10
British Friesian
2,010
187
-2,502
3x4
Devon . .
X.037
77
1,031
X34
Dexter . .
Dun and Belted
Gal-
35
1
loway
3
1
TO
Galloway
2()
289
34
Gloucestershire
6
I
7
3
Guernsey
60
j,882
III
Hereford
1,878
284
2,194
404
Highland
• • 1
4
—
4
—
Jersey . .
•• i
478
2-7 ,
bi3
27
Kerry . .
1
21
—
19 1
1
1 Lincoln Red Shorthorn ]
X.43S
X39
1 ,604
204
Longhorn
. . i
3
—
—
Park
1
16
I
10 1
2 ‘
Red Poll
' • 1
575
108
623
117
Shortliorn
•20,231
2,621 I
24,600 1
3.990
South Devon , .
« • i
424
21 ;
4-23
33
Sussex . .
* • 1
179
“ 1
189
H
Welsh Black . .
386
22
393
68
Cross-bred
:
273
1,011
159 .
1,068
Total
.. i
1
3».969 i
4,690 {
I
37.848 j
6,663
During the year under review, proceedings were -instituted
against bull-owners in 113 instances for keeping bulls wittiout
licences after they had reached fire age of ten montiiSi It was
also necessary to prosecute in 9 cases for fiulure to cota^y
■ mtb the order requiring castration or slahg^ter.of rejj^K^.,
75 «
Live Stock Impkovememt 1936-37
bulls, or for the movement of rejected bulls o&erwise than
to a slaughterhouse for the purpose of slaughter. Fines rang-
ing from 2s. 6d. to £5 were imposed in 100 instances, while 19
were dismissed on payment of costs.
Licensing of Stallions.* The number of stallions licensed
under the Horse Breeding Act, 1918, in England and Wales
for the 1937 service season was 2,108. This represents an in-
crease of 58 or 2.8 per cent, on the previous year and is the
highest number recorded since 1924. During the past six
years a steady increase has been maintained, and the number
of stallions licensed in 1937 shows an increase of 47.2 per cent,
on the figure for the 1931 season.
TABLE l\^ — L icensing of Stallions
No , of
No . of
Year (ending
A pplications
Licences
No . of
October 31)
for Licences
issued
Refusals
1920
4.153
3.749
404
1921
4,060
3.810
244
1922
3.644
3.479
165
19-83
2,897
2,761
13 ^>
1924
-’.285
2,210
75
i 9-’5
1,908
1,849
59
1920
1,604
1,608
5 t>
1927
1.574
1.537
37
1928
1.454
1.414
40
1929
1.472
i. 43 h
36
1930
1.472
1.430
42
1931
i. 47 «
1.432
38
1932
1.522
1.477
45
1933
i. 55 <>
i, 5 i<»
40
1934
1.732
1,687
45
1933
1.945
1.893
52
I 93 h
2.124
2,050
74
1937
. .
2,172
2,108
64
Heavy stallions were wholly responsible for the increase,
1,856 being licensed during the year under review as against
1,775 licensed in the previous year, an increase of 4.5 per cent.
Numerically, Shires again showed the greatest increase, rising
from 1,188 in 1936 to 1,233 in I937» increase of 45 (3.8 per
cent.). The other heavy breeds, however, showed relatively
larger '^nci<eases, Percjierons rising by 12 (12.1 per cent.),
• Thiilivection of the Report covers the travelling season for 1937. No
applications for •licences are considered after July 31 in any year and
licences expire on October 3 1 . For particulars of the 193^ season reference
ehotlld be made to^he article on this subject in the Journal lor December*
2936,
759
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
Suffolksby 18 (8 percent) and Clydesdales by 13 (6.8 per cent),
as compared with the figures for 1936. The numter of licences
granted in respect of light stallions showed an appreciable de-
crease, 178 stallions being licensed in 1937 as against 198 in
1936, a decrease of lo.i per cent. This was mainly attributable
to the decrease of 14 (8.5 p)er cent.) in the number of Thorough-
breds licensed. Ponies and Cobs remained practically un-
changed, 74- licences being granted in 1937 in respect of these
stallions as compared with 77 in the previous year.
TABLE V. — Numbers of Licences Granted under the Horse
Breeding Act, 1918, in England and Wale^ 1936 and 1937 '
Breed or Type
t^edigree
(i.e., Stallions
entered or
accepted for
entry in the
recognized
Stud Book of
their Breed),
Non-Pedigree
(i,c.. Stallions
not entered or
accepted for
entry in a
recognized
Stud Book)
Totals of each
Breed and
Type (Pedi-
gree and
Non-Pedigree)
1 1936
1937
1936
1 1937
1936
1937
Heavy
!
!
i
1
1
Shire
! 1,018
i L075
170
1 158
1,188
1 I . -233
Clydesdale
165
174
26
! 30
191
204
Suffolk
i 221
1 240
5
i 4
226
! 244
Pcrcheron
94
' 105
5
1 6
99
i III
Others
—
i “
71
1 64
71
64
Total Heavy Horses
CO
t
i L 594
277
1 262
L 775
Light
j
1
Hackney . .
i
6
5
5
14
Thoroughbred . .
j 160
147 ,
4
3
164
Arab
1 8
lO j
2
I
10
Others
' 4
3 1
6
3
10
■b
Total Light Horses
i8i
166 1
*7
12
198
178
Ponies and Cobs
i
Welsh . .
8
4 :
X
3
9
7
Fell
5
" 1
1
I
ty
7
Dales
9
7
2
Ib
10
Polo and Riding , ,
7
0 i
I
3
8
12
Welsh Cob
15
18 {
15
18
30
36
Others
8
2 1
—
8
2
Total Ponies and
Cobs
52
47
25
27
77 r
74
Totals
L 731
«. 8 o 7
319
30*
3,050
2,io8
760
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
'ir
The number of cases in which licences were refused showed
a decrease of ten, 64 stallions being refused in 1937 as com-
pared with 74 refusals in 1936. The decrease is mainly due
to the reduction in the number refused because of defective
physique and conformation. Only 5 were refused for this
defect in 1937. compared with 13 the previous year, and
this is an indication that stallion owners are now submitting
a better class of horse for licensing. In ii instances appeals
against refusals were lodged, and 4 of these were successful,
as against 13 appeals, of which 8 were successful, recorded in
1936. The breeds of the rejected stallions and the reasons
for rejection are set out in Table VI.
TABLE VI. — Number of Applications for Licences Not Granted and
Grounds for REFusA“t. 1937
Breed
Number refused
Percentage refused
Whistling
Roaring j
Sidebone
Cataract
Diseases
, !
I
j ' .£
bc 1 0 ! rt
c 1 c ; a
1
1 i\&
Defective
Genital Organs
Poor Physique '
and ,
Conformation i
Stringhalt | j
Pedigree :
Thoroughbred . .
6 3 9
I
1 :
I
2
_
Shetland Pony . .
1 50 0
' - ! I .
—
—
—
Welsh Cob
I 5*3
—
—
—
—
—
, —
I
Clydesdale . . !
4 ,
—
3 j — 1
—
—
I
—
—
Percheron . . t
1 0‘9
—
—
1 1 — '
—
—
—
—
Shire , . . . !
33 30
1 1
7
9 |-i
I
I
—
2
2
Suffolk . . . . 1
6 2*4
I
2 ! I i
I
—
—
—
I
—
Non - Pedigree : ,
Cob ..
;
^ 5*3
_
I
Heavy . . . . 1
II j 4-0
1
2
1
*
2 1 I ^
I
I
—
1
I
—
Totals
64 i 2
' " '' i
^5 1
10
»7 4 j
3
i
>
- 1
!
2 i
3
5
3
[a) Also aHecicd with roaring.
The number of infringements of the Act reported to the
Ministry during the season was 59, an increase of 12 on the
number reported in the previous season. In two instances
proceedings were taken by the police in respect of the travelling
of unlicen^ st^dlions; in one of these a conviction was
recorded and the other wm dismissed. Most of the other In-
fringements reported were in respect of the travelling of exhibi-
761
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
ting for service of licensed stallions unaccompanied by their
licences, and the owners and leaders of die stallions were
warned by die Ministry or police as to the requirements of
die Act in diis respect.
Premium Bulb. Reports from the Ministry's Live Stock
Officers indicate that the turnover to milk production has been
arrested, to some extent, by the better prices obtained for
catde, combined with the fact that milk has been less remunera-
tive owing to die higher prices of feeding stuffs. The higher
rates of subsidy offered for home-bred than for imported catj^e
under the Livestock Industry Act, 1937, together with the short-
age of good class stores, should help to improve returns further
and put stock rearing on a more satisfactory basis. The provi-
sion in die Act for the payment of a higher rate of subsidy in
respect of the best quality fat cattie should prove an incentive to
the improvement of quality. The farmer who rears stores for the
market will doubdess realize that, if he is to reap the full benefit
from the revised subsidy arrangements, he must produce the
type of catde likely to obtain the " quality " subsidy. Breeders
who have been using good pedigree sires of carefully selected
type should benefit by obtaining increased prices for their store
and fat cattle.
Owing to the increased value of stores, the practice of selling
all the milk and not rearing any calves has been modified
slightiy, and some dairy farmers are now rearing their best
calves, although large numbers are still sold in the markets
for immediate slaughter. Many good class heifers that would
ordinarily have found their way into the dairy herds have
been slaughtered in order to obtain the subsidy, but diis is un-
likely to continue owing to the high prices that the dairy famttr
now has to pay for dairy cows to replenish his herd, and the
strong market for down-calving heifers. Despite the tendency in
some rearing districts to revert to tire breeding and
rearing of stores, there are still many farms now producing
milk ffiat were formerly used for stock raising and tiiat arc
not always very suitable for milk production owing to lack of
adequate buildings.
Farmers, on turning to milk production, usually cease to
|>ay much attention to the breeding of good dass cattie, and
ifipcliscrmunate crossing, to rdrich attention has been called
in re^nt mports, is stated to be practised in all parts of iiie
country with unfortunate results in so far as the stodc is ccNa-
762
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
cemed. In one district in South Wales it is reported that it
is very difficult to find a herd of cows of only one breed.
The higher rate of subsidy payable for best quality fat cattle
should encourage the use of ffie dual-purpose type of bull.
Difficulty, however, is often experienced in obtaining bulls of
the required type. Reference was made in the report for
1935*36 to die keen demand that exists for bulls that have
completed their period of service under the Scheme, and in
some districts in Wales practically all the premium bulls
that have not become too heavy for use have been bought for
private herds; some of the best are now used as stock bulls
in pedigree herds. This movement is encouraged as it is felt
that these sires, which have proved their value, should be
retained for breeding purposes as long as possible.
TABLE VI L — Number of Bulls Subsidized each Year sinxe the
Commencement of the Scheme
Year
No. of
Year
No. oj
(April i--March 31)
Bulls
(A pril 1-March 3 1 )
Bulls
19 I 4 ~J 5
497
1926-27
1.287
1915-16
633
1927-28
L 372
1916-17
659
1928-29
1.40S
1917-18
710
1929-30
1918-19
1930-31
1.537
1919-20
675
1931-32
1.494
1920-21
668
1932-33
1.452
1921-22
«47
1933-34
1.469
1922-23
947
1934-3.3
i. 47 <>
1923-24
978
i 935 - 3 ^>
1.469
1924-25
i,o6<i
I 93<^37
1.447
1925-26
L175
Factors adversely affecting the distribution of premium bulls
under the Scheme were set out in last year’s report, and may
be summarized as follows: —
(1) Change over to milk production.
(2) A tendency on the part of farmers to think that any
licensed bull is good enough, whereas generally the standard
of a bull that has been selected for a premium under the Scheme
is much higher than that which, at the present time, is neces-
sary to enable a licence to be obtained.
(3) Initial outlay involved in the purchase of a premium
bull.
(4) Fanners keeping their own bulls owing to (a) incr^^
in size of dsiiy herds, (6) difficulty of driving cows for service
owulg to road traffic.
7<>3
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
To (4) must now be added a definite labour shortage in
districts near big centres of population, which makes it in-
creasingly diflScult to spare men to drive the cows for service.
In all the circumstances it is not surprising that on March 31,
1937, the number of premium bulls had somewhat decreased to
1,447, compared with i'469 on March 31, 1936. The total
number of cows served during the year 1936-37, however,
increased to 98,156 cows, belonging to 22,768 owners, as com-
pared with 96,827 cows belonging to 22,634 owners in 1935-36.
The average number of services per bull was 68, as compared
witii 67 in the previous year.
The schemes for the marking of the progeny of premium
bulls have been continued during the year. The number of
animals marked by the Bletchley & District Livestock Im-
provement Society during the year was 103. The Staffordshire
schemes have not made the progress anticipated, but it is
hoped that in view of the greater interest now taken in rearing,
more premium bull societies will take up the scheme in
future.
The marking scheme started by tlie Shropshire Livestock
Improvement Association, which has been in operation for
a little over a year, is not at present receiving the support
that it deserves.
The aims and objects of the Welsh Dragon Mark Associa-
tion were set out in the report for 1935-36. The progeny of
premiiun bulls and other approved pedigree sires in Brecon,
Radnor and Monmouth are tattooed with the Association’s
mark and sales are arranged from time to time at which only
marked store cattle are entered. As a result of extensive
propaganda undertaken by the Welsh Agricultural Organiza-
tion Society (who have managed the Association since 1934)
large numbers of feeders from the fattening districts in the
Midlands have attended these sales of marked cattle and en-
hanced prices have been realized by the breeders.
The South Wales Cattle Breeders’ Association was formed
at a representative meeting of Shorthorn Breeders from the
counties of Cardigan, Carmarthen and Pembroke held at
Carmarthen in the autumn of 1935. The object of the Associa-
tion was the organization of sales of pedigree stock (chiefly
bulls) under its own auspices at Carmar^en, to attract Englidii
billyt^ and extend the Association’s sphere of influence.
Four sales have been held at two-montirly intervals «ich
winter since the formation of the Association and there is no
764
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
doubt that tliere has been a keener demand for bulls and that
the standard has been more uniform. Improved prices have
been realized and an interesting feature has been the success
of the progeny of premium bulls at the sales. At the November,
1936, sale, the two top-priced bulls were the progeny of
premium bulls. Fourteen bulls were bought at this sale for use
under the Scheme.
The standard of prenuum bulls has been well maintained
and premium bulls and their progeny continue to do well at
the sales and shows.
A premium Lincoln Red Shorthorn was first in open classes
at Leicester, Lincoln and Peterborough, and of 3 yearling
bulls, the progeny of another premium Lincoln Red Shorthorn
in the same district, one won a first and special prize for the
best Lincoln Red Shorthorn in the sale at Leicester and realized
42 guineas, the second sold at Lincoln for 43 guineas, and
the third at Leicester for 36 guineas. In an adjoining district
a non-pedigree Lincoln Red Shorthorn bull, sired by a premium
bull, sold at II months for 42 guineas. The dam and grand-
dam of the bull were also sired by premium bulls. Four
Devon bulls, the progeny of premium bulls, fetched 83, 65, 54
and 50 guineas respectively at Exeter: and a premium bull
of the same breed won a first prize and the Challenge Cup in
the Devon County Show. The progeny of premium bulls
won 4 first and 3 second prizes at the Royal Cornwall Show.
The championship for Shorthorn bulls at the Royal Welsh
Show was won by the same premium bull as was successful in
the previous year, while a premium Hereford bull also won a
first prize and the championship of its breed at this show and
a first at the Bath and West Show. The bull was sold for
300 guineas for export to the Argentine. A yearling Hereford
bull of which the sire and the dam's sire were premium bulls
was sold for £700 for export to the Argentine.
The champion South Devon bull at the Royal Show had
served for the full period under the Scheme as a premium bull,
and several prizes were won in the Welsh Black classes at
the Royal Welsh Show by premium bulls and by animals
sired by a premium bull.
firCAds Prices. The average price paid for subsidtzed
bidls rose from 6s. rid. in 1935-36 to £42 is. yd. This
fe the highest price recorded since r 932 - 33 ‘
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
TABLE VlII. — ^Number and Average Prices of Premium Bulls
Breed
1934-35
1935-36
1936-37'
1
No.
Average
price
No.
Average
price
No.
Average
price
Aberdeen Angus . .
7
£ «•
36 9
d.
10
5
£
39
s, d.
5 5
4
00
d,
0
British Friesian . .
5
49 3
2
6
49
6 0
8
51 4
6
Devon
200
46 17
4
202
46
7 3
205
48 7
5
Gallo\vay . .
3
27 6
0
3
27
6 0
3
24 I6
4
Guernsey . .
31
39 4
7
29
39
2 10
25
42 13
2
Hereford . . . .
213
39 7
3
218
39
15 5
229
42 10
3
Lincoln Red Short-
horn
157
39 I
5
157
39
4 7
153
41 0
3
Red Poll , .
I
36 15
0
I
31
10 0
1
52 10
0
Shorthorn . .
759
.41 4
9
750
40
12 2
718
42 I
0
South Devon
15
42 15
3
14
40
4 5
16
42 8
6
Sussex
9
34 8
5
7
31
14 5
6
31 19
0
Welsh Black
76
27 19
4 !
77
27
2 II .
79
27 I
5
All Breeds . .
1.476 ;
1
40 14
5
1,469
40
6 II
1
1
1.447
42 I
7
Approximately half of the bulls subsidized are Shorthorn,
but the number of Dairy Shorthorns has decreased from 536
in 1935-36 to 511 in the year under review. In the same period
the number of purely dairy bulls has decreased from 571 to 544 ,
whilst the number of beef and dual-purpose bulls has increased
bys-
Service Fees. The service fees charged for the use of
premium bulls during the past three years are as follows : —
Service Fees — ^Bulls
Year
2/6
3/-
3/6
3/9
4 h
4/6
5 h
5/6
6/-
1934-35 • •
95
48
61
I
173
20
833
9
108
1935-36 . .
93
57
60
l
179
21
8
99
1936-37 • •
94
60
68
—
193
15
796
9
lOI
Year
6/6
7 h
7/6
8/-
10/-
10/6
1934-35 . •
II
5
103
4
5
—
1935-36
II
4
100
2
2
I
1936-37 ■ •
10
4
93
2
I
I
The tendency towards lower fees referred to in recent
years continues: 5s. is still the<popular fee, but the number of
fees below 5s. increased from 411 in 1935-36 to 430.
Ermium Boars. Pig keepers are taking much more
intiraest in the class of pigs tirey breed, and repQite
by tte Minis^ show that the standard of boars used Is muiclt,
higher than it was a few years ago. . .
'766
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
This improvement is largely due to the Pigs Marketing
Scheme, which made it worth while for producers to adopt
better methods of selection, breeding and rationing, and
encouraged pedigree-pig breeding to come more in line with
conunercial requirements.
The high price of feeding stuife, and tiie uncertainty as to
the future marketing arrangements, however, resulted in
the sale for slaughter of many gilts and sows that would
normally have been kept for breeding purposes. The price
of feeding stuffs made pig keeping less profitable for the
small man, and the tendency noted in the report on the Scheme
for 1935-36, for the cottager and labourer to give up pig keep-
ing, continues.
Under present conditions, there is not so much demand for
the use of premium boars, and the number subsidized under
the Scheme had fallen on March 31, 1937, to 1,013, as com-
pared with 1,029 a year previously.
TABLE IX. — Number of Boars Subsidized each Year since the
Commencement of the Scheme
Year
No, of
Year
No, of
1-March 31)
Boars
(April i-March 31)
Boars
1914-15
115
1926-27
844
1915-16
1927-28
907
1916-17
216
1928-29
933
1917-18
264
1929-30
97-2
1918-H)
350
1930-31
1.047
1919-20
399
1931-32
1,024
1920-21
441
193^-33
973
1921-22
550
1933-34
1,007
1922-23
5 ^
1934-35
1,032
1923-24
638
1935-3^
1,029
1924-25
655
1936-37
2,013
1925-26
710
The total number of services decreased from 65,699 in
1935-36 to 60,013 in 1936-37, and the number of persons send-
ing sows to the boars also declined from 25,178 to -22,295.
The average number of services per boar in 1936-37 was 60
compared with 65 in the previous year.
Breeds and Prices. The number and average prices of
boars of each of the breeds subsidized for the past three-
years are shown in the following table.
Average prices diow on the whole practically no change on
the year. Large White boars retain their popularity and nOw
total 95 per cent, of die boars subsidized imder toe S<toeme.. Of
toe premium boars in Wales, 194 are Lar^ Whifos,
37 Welsh and 5 Long White Lop-eared. During toe year
767
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
TABLE X. — ^Number and Average Prices of Boars of Each Breed.
Breed
1934-35
I 93 .‘ 5-36
1936-37
No.
Average
price
No.
Average
price
No.
Average
price
Berkshire . .
2
£ s.
1.1 13
d.
0
I
£
1,5 15
d.
0
I
£ s- d.
15 15 0
Cumberland
2
8 14
0
2
7 7
3
I
II 00
Essex
I
10 10
0
I
8 0
1
800
l.^rge Black
5
ir 9
2
3 ;
10 6
8 !
3
10 6 8
Large White
g(x)
10 19
0
970 ,
10 18
0 i
964 1
10 18 0
Long White Lop-
eared
II 13
II
10 *
10 13
i
7 !
i
1
B 1
II 12
Middle White
IJ
9 4
6
8 :
10 7
8 !
1
9 14 4
Wessex Saddle-
back
2
11 II
1
^ 1
1
I ;
13 13
0 j
1
2 j
8 18 6
Welsh .. .. j
j.
24
II 13
^ 1
33 1
II 8
10 j
1
27 j
II 18 5
All Breeds . . . . !
i
1
1,032
j
10 19
3!
1
1,029 j
10 18
2
1,013 j
10 18 4
under review, 102 new grants were approved in England and
Wales, and 96 of these related to Large White boars.
Service Fees. The following table shows the service fees
charged during the past three years; —
Service Fees — Boars
Year
2/6
3/-
3 /b
4/-
4/6
5/-
5/6
J 934-35 •
2
II
21
99
7
7^3
2
1935-36 •
4
13
23
97
6
772
2
1936-37 •
7
14
28
100
1 1
751
—
Year
6/~
6/6
7/-
7/6
8/-
10/-
1934-35 •
• 71
2
I
50
I
2
1935-36 .
61
1
2
46
i
I
1936-37 •
. 5 B
1
2
39
I
1
Service fees continued to show a tendency to decline, and 90
per cent, of the fees charged are now 5s. or under.
Premittm Rams. Thirty grants for Welsh Mountain Rams
were again available for die 1936 season, and all were utilized.
The hiring fees ranged from £6 to £12, and service fees from
IS. to 3s. 27 of the rams were hired at £10 or over. During
the 1936 season 1,808 ewes were sent for service under the
scheme, an average of 60 ewes per ram.
HorseBreeding: Heavy HorseGrants. The impmvement
in die trade for horses noted in the report on die Sdieine for
1935-36 has been well maintained and is reflected in the in-
7^
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
creased activities of the Societies subsidized under the Ministry's
Heavy Horse Breeding Scheme. These good results have
been obtained in the face of keen competition from privately-
owned stallions. Some of these stallions travel at very low
fees, and in a few instances on a pa5mient by results basis — ‘that
is " no foal, no fee.”
In the report for 1935-36, attention was directed to the show
record of the progeny of one of the stallions subsidized under
the Scheme. Further prizes won by the progeny of this stallion
at the 1937 Shire Horse Show were: Junior and Supreme
Champion, Senior Champion, and Reserve Supreme Cham-
pion, 1st in Group Class, ist (and Reserve Junior Champion) in
yearling colts, 4th in two-year-old colts, 2nd and 7^1 in
yearling fillies. In addition, numerous prizes were won at
County and other shows, and the principal prize winner at
the Shire Horse Show was also the Champion Stallion at the
Royal Show.
The progeny of premium stallions from a Welsh District won
1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th prizes in the class for geldings at the
Royal Show, and both championships at the West of England
Show at Hereford. A four-year-old gelding sired by a
premium stallion in Lancashire was ist in its class at the Shire
Horse Show.
Good prices have also been obtained at sales for the
progeny of premium stallions, a three-year old gelding fetching
80 guineas at Crewe, a yearling gelding £80 at Lanark, a two-
year-old gelding 74 (guineas and a filly foal 70 guineas at
Wigton. Good prices were also realized at the Suffolk Horse
Society’s sales.
Grants were paid in respect of 8 more stallions than in the
previous year. The average hiring fee per stallion showed a
reduction of £2, but the average service fee was practically
unchanged.
The Regulations permit of the award of one Assisted Nomina-
tion to a mare owner and 5,288 small farmers (or 370 more than
in the previous year) were enabled by the Scheme to have a
mare served by a good-class stallion. The total number of
mares served, 18,988, shows an increase of about 1,200 over
the previous season, whilst the average number of mares per
stallion increased by 2.
There were 150 Shire, 22 Clydesdale and 21 Suffolk stidUons
travelled under the Scheme in 1936, compared with 144 Shire,
22 Clydesdale and 19 Suffolk stallions in i 935 -
769
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
TABLE XL— Heavy-Horse Scheme
Service
No. of
Total
No. of
Mares
Average
No. of
Mares
No. of
Assisted
Nomina-
Average
Hiring
Fee ot
Average
Service
Season
Stallions
served
served
tions
Stallions
Fee
1914
72
6,365
68
1,503
£
231
£ s.d.
286
1915
97
9,122
94
2,430
241
20^
19x6
108
9,995
92
2,181
244
2 11 c
X917
no
10,556
96
2,151
258
2 16 3
1918
122
I 2 « 28 i
100
2,165
285
2 15 8
1919
118
10,920
96
1,996
317
363
X 920
105
9,133
87
1,839
345
3 13 I
1921
lOI
7,888
78
1,943
333
3 13 7
1924
87
6,098
70
*
178
270
1925
96
7 , 4 U
77
1,723
194
2 8 *4
1926
98
8,165
83
2.171
208
286
1927
105
8,950
85
2,599
211
289
1928
H 4
9.792
86
2,805
217
294
1929
120
10,196
85
3,052
221
299
1930
140
12,248
87
3.604
239
2 II I
1931
159
14,226
89
4,266
235
2 10 2
1932
162
14.624
90
3,945
226
299
1933
165
15.655
95
4,280
220
2 10 8
1934
170
16,071
95
4,353
221
2 10 6
1935 •
X85
17.548
95
4,710
231
2 10 8
1936
193
18,778
97
5.078
229
2 10 10
* No grant was inside by the Ministry for assisted nominations (except
to the Cumberland and Westmorland Society) for the service season 1924.
The number of foals resulting from the services of subsidized
stallions in 1935 was 9,734, an increase of 475 over the previous
year. The percentage of foals to the total number of services
was 57.4, as compared with 58.5 in 1934. The average foaling
percentages of stallions of die three breeds were Shire 59.1,
Clydesdale 53.0, and Suffolks 67.2.
The figures in Table XI do not include those relating to the
Cumberland and Westmorland Heavy Horse Breeding
Society, which issues assisted nominations to selected
stallions travelled by dieir owners in Cumberland and Westmor-
land. The figures for tiiis Society are: —
Service
No. of Assisted
Service
No. of Assisted
Season
Nominations
Season
Nominations
1915
385
1927
247
1916
394
1928
.. 281
1917
* . 328
1929
283
1918
321
1930
‘269
1919
. . 264
1931
290
1920
254
1932
. . 198
1921
255
1933
. , 217
1924
. . 121
1934
• * 209
1925
197
1935
. . 208
1926
220
1936
• • 110
770
Live Stock Improvement 1936-37
Note. — Further information regardin^g the improvement of Live Stock
is given in the following memoranda, copies of which may be obtained
(single copies free of charge) on application to the Secretary, Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, lo Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i : —
Form No. A763/T.L. — Scheme for the Improvement of Live Stock.
Form No. 609/T.L. — Bull Grant Regulations.
Form No. 466/T.L. — Boar Grant Regulations.
Form No. 89/T.L. — Heavy Horse Regulations.
I'orm No. 392/T.L. — Milk Recording Regulations.
Butter-fat Testing Regulations.
Regulations relating to the Progeny Reconl
ing of Dairy Bulls, which are printed as
separate pamphlets).
Form No. A899/T.L. — Guide to the Licensing of Bulls in England and
Wales.
{To be concluded.)
771
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. Pool prices and rates of producer-
retailers' contributions for September, 1937, are given below,
with comparative figures for August, 1937, and September,
1936. The wholesale liquid milk price in September, 1937,
was IS. 3<f. per gal., 2d. per gal. more than in August, 1937,
but the same as in September, 1936.
Region Pool Prices Producer-Retailers*
Contribntions
Sept.
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.
Aug.
Sept.
1937
1937
I 93 h
1937
1937
1036
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
.. Ill
loj
Hi
2 &
3 Af
North-Western . .
.. 12J
to]
Hi
H
2 A
3A
Eastern
. . I 2 |
loi
12
ill
III
East Midland
.. 12 .i
10}
III
H
West Midland
• • 12
loi
H|
2 i
2 llr
3 l
North W^ales
. . 12
lol
Hi
2 i
2 *
3 Ar
South Wales
. . I2J
loj
Hj
2 l
Southern . .
.. 12 i
loj
12
ill
lH
2 li
Mid-Western
. . 12
lol
II]
2 l
2 iV
3 i
Far- Western
. . 12
TO
lU
H
• 3 i
South-Eastern
• « 13
II
12]
IJ
2 i
Unweighted Average
.. 12*30
10*41
1 1 * 64
2- 21
2-10
2 * 06
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited pro-
ducers’ premium of id. per gal.
The accredited premium was paid on 27,668,068 gal., and the
sum required for the payment of the premium was equivalent
to a levy of .355^. per gal. on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at id. per
gal., compared with ifd. per gal. in September, 1936.
Sales on wholesale contracts were as follows :
Liquid
l^anufacturing
i%rcantage liquid sales
Percentage manufacturing sales
772
Sept. 1037
Sepi. 1936
(estimated)
Gallons
Gallons
49,261.035 ^
46.799.737
18,161.408
26,853,818
67.422,443
73.653.555
73 *06
63-54
26*04
36-46
Marketing Notes
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
September was 6.425^. per gal. compared with 5.66^. per gal.
for September, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured
into cheese on farms was 2,302,175 gal. compared with
2,739,526 gal. in the previous month and 2,148,191 gal. in
September, 1936.
Bacon Development Sdieme : Renewal of Existing Licences.
The Bacon Development Board have made the following
announcement : —
“ The Bacon Development Scheme conferred upon curers
a right to a licence for two years from the establishment of the
Scheme in respect of any premises in which bacon was pro-
duced at any time during the six months from November 17,
1934, to May 16, 1935. The Bacon Development Board wishes
to remind curers that this two-year period expired on September
7. 1937* The Board, therefore, has now the power on certain
grounds to refuse to renew the existing licences, which expire
on December 31 next.
“ The subject of reorganization of the pigs and bacon in-
dustry, however, is at present under discussion by the Ministry
of Agriculture and Fisheries with the Bacon and Pigs Market-
ing Boards, following the Minister’s announcement of July 29,
1937, on Government policy with regard to pigs and bacon.
The Development Board, therefore, considers that the present
would be an inopportune moment to employ its powers to
terminate existing licences, and has decided not to refuse
licences for 1938 in respect of any existing licensed premises
except in cases where a previous licence has been revoked.
“ Apart from any such exceptional cases, therefore, existing
licence holders will in due course receive a further licence
without application, to take effect from January i, 1938.
“ This decision must not, of course, be held to prejudice the
right of the Board in any future year to exercise its full powers
to refuse to renew licences if this should be considered neces-
sary, or to revoke existing licences at any time if conditions arc
contravened.”
Potato Marketing Sdieme: Board’s Report for 1936-37.
The fourth an nua l report of the Board contains an interesting
ajccount of the operation of the scheme during the year ended
August 31, 1937.
The number of producers registered under the Scheme in
773
Mahketing Nores
England and Wales was 50480 and in Scotland X3,345, a total
of 63,825. As last year, Ae Holland Division of Lincolnshire
with 4,303, had the greatest number of producers and Radnor
with 5, the lowest. The average potato acreage planted by
producers in Great Britain was 8.1 acres.
Price Recommending Committees, whose mission, the
Report states, is “ to educate all concerned as to fair prices of
potatoes which should and can be obtained,” have curated
in 19 areas during the past maincrop season. The Board
expect this policy to expand, and, if wisely applied, to create
an atmosphere of stabilization.
The Board have continued and extended their publicity
campaign. Demonstration theatres were erected at a number
of exhibitions and a series of posters was displayed over a
period of months on the London Underground Railway system.
Direct mail advertising was undertaken with women’s organiza-
tions and all retailers known to the Board were circularized witli
a suggestion that they should apply for advertising material to
display in their shops. For the purpose of stimulating the
demand for home-grown "earlies” some 24,000 window
pelmets and 40,000 posters for display by retailers and fish
friers were distributed, and posters were exhibited on the
railway systems.
Riddle Regulation. A new riddle regulation fixing a i|-inch
minimum riddle for Golden Wonder was made by the Board
on October 7, 1937, to operate from that date until further
notice.
MiBc Acts 1934 to 1937 : Milk-in-Schools Scheme. The fol-
lowing figures show the gallonage of nailk consumed in the
first ten months of the third year of the scheme compared with
the corresponding period in the first and second years, llic
figures for the third period will be slightly increased when
further returns are received.
Exchequer
GdUons Contribution
October, 1954, to Julj', 1935 • • 20,419,858 £i 77 , 92 ^
October, 1935, to July, 1936 . . 19.315,291 il 7 i> 95 ^
j^ctober, 1936, to July, 1937 •• 19.656.082 ;£38o,96i
Cheese and Butter MUk Prices. For the purpose of pay-
in^& under the Milk Acts (whether by Hut l&ccbequer to
Marketing Boards or by Boards to the Exchequer) m respect
Of ihik used for manufacture, the Minister and die Secretary
774
Marketing NoieR
of State for Scotland, wtdi the. approval of the Treastny, have
certi^d die cheese-milk pike and die batter-milk price to be
6.06 pence and 4.31 pence per gal. respectively tor die mcmdi of
August, 1937.
Experimental Cheap Milk Schemes in ^he Special Areas.
With the co-operation of die Commissioner for die Special
Areas, die Whitehaven Borough Council, the local distributors,
the Whitehaven Coimcil of Social Service and the Cumberland
Friends’ Unemplo}nnent Committee, the Milk Marketing Board
on October 1, inaugurated a scheme for the supply of milk
to expectant and nursing mothers and to children under school
age in the Borough of Whitehaven, Cumberland, at the price
of 2d. per pint. This scheme is on similar lines to schemes
previously started and still in operation in other parts of the
Special Areas, namely, the Rhondda Valley, Jarrow, and
Walker-on-T3me. In all these schemes each consumer within
the eligible categories is allowed a minimum of i pint per day
delivered to the consumer's house. The distributors accept a
reduced margin of 8d. per gal. and the Milk Marketing Board
and the Commissioner tor the Special Areas each contribute
half the amount necessary to enable the milk to be sold at the
reduced price. The Whitehaven Council of Social Service and
the Cumberland Friends’ Unemployment Committee are
making a grant towards the expense incurred by the
Whitehaven Council in administering the scheme, and in
addition are making a special grant to enable milk to be
supplied at i^d. a pint to certain necessitous applicants.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-Grown Wheat — Cereal
Year. 1937-38. Certificates Ic^ed with the Wheat Commis-
sion by registered growers during the period August i to
Octobers, 1937, cover sales of 3,748 , 960 J cwt. of millable wheat
as compared with 2,979,142 cwt. in the corresponding period
(to October 9) in the last cereal year.
I^gar Industiy (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Annual
Report of the Sugar Commission. The firet annual report of
the Sugar Commission on the dischaige of tlieir functions under
the Act during the year ended March 31, 1937. has now been
pubti^ied by H.M. Stationery Office, price 6d. itet.
White Sugar Programme for 1937-38 of the British, Sugar
Corporation. The Sugar (^mmisaon made an Order on
August SI, uider Sectkm 6 (i) of the Act, approving the
775
Marketing Notes
arrangeiueiRts of the British Sugar Corporation for the produc-
tion and marketing of White Sugar during the year ending
March 31, 1938.
livestock Industry Act , 1937. Livestock Commission. Mr.
R. N. Jones and Dr. J. M. Newnham have been appointed by
the appropriate Ministers to be members of the Livestock Com-
mission. Mr. Jones was formeriy the Ministry's Superintending
Livestock Officer for Wales, and Dr. Newnham has just retired
from the office of Town Clerk of Croydon. These appointments
bring the number of members of the Commission up to the
maximum of nine for which the Act provides. The names of
die other members of the Commission were given on p. 431 of
the August, 1937, issue of this Journal.
Cattle Fund. The foMewing table gives particulars of pay-
ments made out of the fund set up under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provisions) Acts 1934 to 1936 and the Livestock
Industry Act, 1937 : —
Period Payments Animals
£
April to September, 1935 . . 1,848,830 782,320
April to September, 1936 . . 1,918,488 826,055
April to September, 1937* • • i >^83,902 795,004
From commencement of subsidy
payments to September 30,
1937 11,7^3.404 4 . 9 t> 2»^>09
Average Payment
per Animal
£ ‘t-
273
265
275
-2 7 4
* The payments of August and September, 1937, comprised >^90,802
^cr 39,206 animals certifi^ under the Emergency Provisions Acts, and
270,227 for 84,714 animals of quality standard and £z^s^9^3 1-28,655
of ordinary standard certified under the 1937
Fat Stock— Carcass Sale by Grade and Dead*Wdght.
During ffie three monffis ended September 30, 1937, 898 con-
signments comprising 2,738 cattle, 8,757 lambs and sheep and
1,227 pigs were dealt with under the Grade and Dead-weight
Scheme.
Bulk consignments of stock forwarded during this period
through local organizations in Northern Ireland, or through
group agents operating in Mid and South Wales totalled 4.177
kmbs and sheep and 87 cattle.
Na^kmal Marie Beef. During the three months ended
S^pbHbher, X937, a total of 81,427 sides of beef (58,849 home-
kdled and 22,578 Scotch-kili^) were graded arid marked
under the National Mark. The home-killed sutes dealt with
776
Marketing Notes
graded 28 per cent. "Select," 66 per cent. " Prime,” and 6
per cent. " Good." Scottish National Mark sides graded 86
per cent. " Select ” and 14 per cent. " Prime.”
National Mark Canned Fruit and Vegetables. The can-
ning of most kinds of fresh fruit and vegetables has now ceased
for this year. Certain kinds of vegetables (e.g. , carrots, celery)
are still being canned and the apple pack is likely to be short
owing to failure of the crop.
The total National Mark pack of fresh fruits and vegetables
is unlikely to exceed that of last year.
Resulting from exceptionally favourable fruit-growing and
haivesting periods. National Mark packs of strawberries were
larger and of better quality than for any year since 1932.
The National Mark pack of gooseberries was smaller than
usual owing to a partial crop failure.
The total pack of National Mark raspberries exceeded that
of last year and was generally of very good quality.
Owing to an unexpected revival of the demand for canned
loganberries and for other reasons many canners were unable
to procure their total requirements of this fruit, although yield
and quality were well up to average.
Very few black currants were packed under the National
Mark, but there was a slight increase in the pack of cultivated
blackberries.
A very large crop of Pershore Egg (Golden) Plums at low
prices resulted in the production of packs at least equal to
those of last year. The Victoria plum and damson packs,
however, were substantially lower, although it is possible that
the damson pack would have been larger if prices for this
fruit had not opened so high. The final damson price was in
many instances less than half of that at which forward
deliveries were quoted. All stone fruits were generally better
in quality than the average year’s crop.
A fur&er increase in the contracted acreage of fresh peas
was offset by lower yields, and the total pack is probably not
larger than that of last year. Here again the general quality
level was higher than for several years.
Although improvements in mechanization are tending to
reduce production costs, there is still no marked increase
in die pack of other kinds of vegetables permitted for canning
under the National Mark.
The competition from English canned fruits packed to a
c 777
Marketing Notes
lower standard continues to have marked effect on the demand
for National Mark Canned Fruit, and packers under the
National Mark are experiencing diflficulty in obtaining the
higher price justified by the greater production cost and the
greater reliability of the National Mark Product.
National Mark Wheat Flour Scheme: Bakers’ and Con-
fectioners’ Exhibition, 1937. fhe British Wheat Flour
Competition held at this Exhibition eleven entries were received
from authorized millers in the National Mark Wheat Flour
Scheme in the class for all-English (Yeoman) Wheat Flour
milled to National Mark' standards. The gold, silver and
bronze medals and diplomas offered by the Ministry to the*win-
ning entrants were awarded by the judges as under : —
Gold Medal and Diploma . . James Nutter, Station Mill, Fulbourn,
Cambridge.
Silver Medal and Diploma . . T. Burgess & Sons, Thornton Dalei
Pickering, Yorks.
Bronze Medal and Diploma . . S. Edwards & Son, Beech Flour Mills,
Bishop\s Stortford, Herts.
Tlie gold medal offered by the Ministry to the farmer supply-
ing the largest proportion of wheat used in the winning flour
was gained by Messrs. Chivers & Sons, Ltd., Histon,
Cambridge.
The National Farmers’ Union offered prizes in Class 60 for
the best All-English milk loaf made from National Mark flour.
Entries by 19 firms were submitted, and the prizes were
awarded as follows: —
First Prize . . H. Hampson, Charles Street, Wrexham.
Second Prize . . W. Duxbury, Worksop Co-operative Society, Ltd.,
Eastgate, Worksop.
Third Prize . . J. W. Skinner, Old Cross, Hertford, Herts.
National Mark Publicity. An apple packing demonstra-
tion will be arranged at the East Kent Commercial Fi'uit Show,
Canterbury, on November 16-18. At the South Wales Grocers'
Exhibition, Swansea, an egg grading demonstration will be
staged; a comprehensive range of National Mark products will
be displayed and samples will be on sale during the period
November 17-27. A ^splay of National Mark turkeys will be
staged at the Norfolk Fatstock Show, Norwich, November
18-20. A full range of the Ministry's publications will be on
sale at each Show,
778
Marketing Notes
In connexion with the special Empire feature to be incorpor-
ated in the Lord Mayor's Show, the home county will be
represented by a tableau depicting National Mark produce
arranged by the Ministry, and by agricultural tableaux
arranged by the National Farmers' Union and other bodies.
Similar exhibits covering Dominion and Colonial produce are
to be arranged by the respective Governments.
Supplies and Prices of Maincrop Potatoes in the 1936-37
Season: Supplies. Generally speaking, supplies of maincrop
potatoes on the market in Great Britain during the
1936-37 season showed little change from those in the
previous season. Although the acreage under potatoes in
Great Britain in 1936 showed a slight decline, estimated yield
per acre increased, and the total production of potatoes of all
kinds was slightly above that in the previous season, when it
was unusually low. Total production was, however, Still below
the ten-year average for the period 1926-35, although the
average yield per acre was about the same.
Despite the slight increase in total production, it appears that
total available supplies of maincrop potatoes were rather less
than those of the previous season, principally owing to the fact
that a larger quantity of the total production figure represented
first earlies. The following tabic shows, for each of the past
seven seasons, the estimated total production of potatoes in
Great Britain, and the maincrop supplies available for human
consumption after deducting first earlies, exports and seed,
and adding shipments to Great Britain from Northern Ireland
and imports into the United Kingdom : —
Total
Approximate
Net Maincrop
Production
Supplies *
(000 tons )
(000 tons )
1930-31
3.603
3> i 8 o
1931-32
3.154
3>270
1932-33
4.450
3.740
1933-34
4.555
3.750
1934-35
4.464
3.740
i 935 - 3 <i
3.765
3.305
193^37
3.804
3.205
• Including wastage and livestock feed.
In the light of the situation outlined above, the Potato
Marketing Board considered it desirable to provide for some
c a 779
Marketing Notes
relaxation of the riddle regulations, and from November 20
the basic minimum riddle of i^-in. was in operation for the
rest of the season. Provision was also made for the sale of
“seconds,” i.e., potatoes below the ordinary minimum
standard size, for human consumption.
Regulation of Imports. Imports of potatoes into the United
Kingdom were controlled as hitherto under the Potato (Import
Regulation) Order, 1934, but supplies available for export
were again short on the Continent, and even with prices at
home higher than in the two previous seasons imports fell
considerably below the maximum quantities permitted under
the Order.
Over the whole season from September, 1936, to June, 1937,
inclusive, imports totalled rather more than 126,000 tons.
The following table shows, month by month, the imports
of maincrop potatoes into the United Kingdom during the
1936-37 season, and comparable figures for the two preceding
seasons: —
1934-35
1935-36
1936-37
tons
tons
tons
September
♦
100
100
October
1,800
800
1,500
November
700
1,000
8,900
December
500
5 » 7 oo
23,700
January
1*500
21,500
14,100
February
500
17,300
9,200
March
1,100
18,900
12,800
April . .
. . 400
24,000
28,400
May . .
500
26,400
17,400
June . .
. . 1,400
7 > 3 oo
10,200
8,400
123,000
126,300
♦ Under 50 tons.
Shipments to Great Britain from Northern Ireland during
the 12 months September, 1936, to August, 1937, amounted to
192,000 tons as against 234,000 tons in 1935-36 and 122,000
tons in 1934-35-
Prices. Except for September, growers' prices and whole-
sale prices throughout the 1936-37 season were appreciably
higher than those of the preceding season, and were far
above the low prices realized in the 1934-35 season. Rising
steeply during the first few weeks of the season, prices remained
fairly stable from the end of October, being well above the
1935-36 prices to the end of December, and then continuing
steadily at a figure slightly above the previous year's levels
780
Marketing Notes
to the middle of March. In late March and early April, as
supplies became more scarce, a further sharp rise took place,
after which prices remained considerably above the last year's
levels until June, when the usual seasonal fall in growers’
prices occurred.
1934-35
Month
Per ton
s. d.
Index
September
.. T17
0
158
October . .
. . 109
0
151
November
• * 103
6
146
December
• • 95
0
133
January . .
. . 92
6
121
February . .
. . 89
6
116
March
.. 85
0
108
April
. . 86
0
95
May
. . TOI
6
113
June
. . 129
0
137
Mean
. . lOI
0
128
1935-36 1936-37
Per ton
Index
Per ton
Index
s.
d.
s.
d.
108
0
147
no
6
149
109
(>
152
145
6
202
113
6
160
148
6
209
T32
6
185
157
6
220
154
0
201
156
6
205
154
0
200
155
0
201
i5i
6
193
157
0
200
149
6
164
173
6
191
156
0
174
^75
6
196
150
6
160
T 77
6
189
138
0
174
156
0
196
The above table shows the average monthly wholesale
price of potatoes* in seven of the principal markets in England
and Wales during the past three seasons. The wholesale
price index, based on prices in the corresponding months of
1911-13, is also given for each month.
Retail prices throughout the season showed very little varia-
tion from those ruling in the 1935-36 season, which were, how-
ever, considerably above those of the preceding three seasons.
The averages of the monthly retail indices from September
to May in the four seasons 1933-34, 1934-35. 1935-36 and
1936-37 were 108, 124, 148, and 149 respectively.
Average of ist and 2nd qualities Majestic and King Edward.
781
NOVEMBER ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King's College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
At the time of writing (October 13) dry weatiier continues.
Harvest is practically completed; on some farms it is nearly two
months since the last sheaf was gathered in, but such is the
variety of conditions even in a small country that in some
parts of Yorkshire and Lancashire harvesting is still going on
in the middle of October. The dry spell has enabled many to
get on with autumn cultivation, but in some areas the land
is so hard that ploughing is impossible, and, apart from dung
carting that cannot be continued indefinitely, as the supply
comes to an end all too soon on most farms, cultural work is
held up.
Steam tackle and heavy tractor implements have been
able to carry on in many instances where horse-drawn imple-
ments have been beaten. It is not often work is held up at
this season of the year on account of dry weather. Whatever
the reason, it is always a source of concern to the arable
farmer when autumn cultivations lag behind.
Potatoes are being lifted under dry conditions and this is
likely to be an advantage where disease is present. From
most districts there are reports that disease is present in the
tubers. The removal of apparently diseased tubers and careful
clamping are desirable to reduce risk of serious loss during the
winter. Most potato growers will now be in a position to
review the growth of the 1937 crop, and to make deductions
that should be helpful for future years. Effects of cultural
conditions, manuring, variety and stock of seed are points
that can be noted.
Growers of earlies will already have considered the provision
of seed for 1938, but the question will still have to be faced
by many farmers.
Different stocks of the same variety may vary greatly in
cropping power, just as different lots of Shorthorn or Angus
fee^g bullocks may vary in the return they give for food
782
November on the Farm
consumed. Not all feeding cattle of a particular breed and
age have the same value, and the farmer, therefore, carefully
inspects and examines die animals before purchase.
There is often quite as much at stake in the purchase of a
wagon of seed potatoes, and the difference in results obtainable
is quite as great as with different lots of cattle. It is, therefore,
desirable that the purchaser should make sure as far zis is pos-
sible that he plants seed tubers that are saved from healthy,
vigorous stocks and therefore likely to produce a satisfactory
crop. Seed from good stocks is wortti much more than seed
from poor stocks, which may sometimes be valueless.
At Cockle Park in 1922, two stocks of Arran Banner from the
same district were planted side by side. One of them yielded
14I tons per acre, but the other yielded only 5J tons. Leaf
Roll was responsible for the lower yield.
King Edward still retains its popularity with the public in
the Midlands and South, but it seems to be losing favour with
growers. Unless another variety, with King Edward character-
istics, but which crops better and is more vigorous, comes
along, the public may have to pay more for their favourite.
Pinger-and-Toe Disease. On many farms this disease is
responsible for very considerable loss in swedes and allied
crops. The fungus responsible for the trouble flourishes in
sour or acid soils. Preventive measures, therefore, involve
correcting the soil acidity. Government assistance with
regard to the purchase of lime will no doubt act as an incentive
to many farmers to tackle the question. As has already been
pointed out in these notes, it is important to ascertain the
exact extent of the need for lime to correct the acidity, and
county agricultural staffs are prepared to give assistance when
called upon. Trials carried out for a number of years from
1904 to 1914 at Cockle Park, showed that lime reduced
losses from finger-and-toe disease, and on fields where serious
loss was experienced no signs of trouble have been seen for
twenty-five years . On infected land it is important that enough
lime should be applied to neutralize the acidity, and the need
for thorough mixing in the soil cannot be overstressed. To
enable the lime to get thoroughly mixed throughout the soil
it is often desirable to apply the lime as soon as possible after
the diseased crop has been removed and not to wait until
just before the next swede or other cruciferous crop is to be
sown.
783
November on the Farm
Manure from stock to which diseased roots have been fed
is Kkely to carry the fungus and may thus spread the disease
to fresh and clean ground. It is often best to use such manure
on permanent grass land.
The lengthening of the rotation so that crops subject to the
disease are taken at as long intervals as possible assists in reduc-
ing risk of disease. This is advantageous when cruciferous
weeds such as charlock, shepherd's purse, etc., are kept in
control, since they act as a host for the fungus, which can thus
be carried over until the next susceptible crop is sown.
Cattle in the North will now generally have taken up their
winter quarters. Outlying cattle, having to face more rigorous
climatic conditions, and pasturage that is deteriorating, will
require some hand feeding.
When cattle have grown their winter coats a falling off in
condition may not readily be noticed. It is advisable that
cattle should be kept going on, as loss in condition has to be
made up in future. In most instances on exposed farms or
where pasturage is short, an allowance of hay should be given.
It is usually better to prepare outlying cattle to withstand
adverse weather conditions than to rely on providing food
after the storm has started. A dry lie is important for outl5dng
cattle and contented animals thrive best. When food is being
given to animals out of doors it is desirable that it should be
given early, as animals stand looking for it and never settle
after daylight. As regards hay feeding to stock in the open,
“ early in the season and early in the day ” is a good rule.
After yard- or stall-fed cattle have been on their rations
for two or three weeks 'their progress can be esti-
mated, and, where necessary, changes made. Owing to the
seasonal variations in roughages that supply a large portion
of the protein and starch equivalent, it is often necessary to
make an altreation in the concentrates fed. There is little
point in fixing the ration of concentrates to an exact figure
from season to season, if the roughages vary greatly. It is
desirable that some measure of the feeding value of the rough-
age should be obtained, but this is not alwa)^ possible. Varia-
tions in the quality of the available food and the ability of
animals to utilize what they receive, still leaves ample room for
the skill of the feeder in judging the progress and requirements
of a particular lot of animals. There is much truth in the
saying “ It is the farmer’s eye that feeds the cattle,'' Feeding
784
November on the Farm
standards are a most useful guide, but it is important that they
should be applied to conditions to which they fit.
Most successful feeders actually give rations that very nearly
comply with recommended standards, although perhaps not
realizing it. There are still instances in which unsuitable
rations are fed, with resulting loss, and it is desirable that
feeders should seek help of the county staffs if in any doubt
as to feeding matters.
Wheat. The abnormally dry weather has not produced the
most favourable conditions for sowing wheat, which likes a
firm seed bed. The use of the roller when the soil is very dry
may help in this respect. It is not often that the roller can
be used with safety at this season of the year, but if conditions
are favourable it can be most useful.
Most farmers dress their seed grain before sowing. In
spite of this, numerous crops have shown the presence of bunt.
It is most important that the dressing should be effectively
carried out, otherwise some spores may be left that are capable
of infecting the young plant.
On many farms last season it was not possible to get wheat
sown in the autumn after sugar beet. A start has already
been made with beet lifting and much progress made. Sugar
beet tops and crowns are valuable feed, and if time permits
they should be collected and ensiled before ploug[hing for
wheat.
Sheep. The present month is one of comparative quiet on
most sheep farms. Sales are over, ewes have been lotted for
rams and in most instances will be already in lamb. On hill
farms the rams are still to be turned away.
On many grass farms keep is short and early supplementary
feeding may be necessary.
Attention to the general well-being of the sheep is the shep-
herd’s chief work during the present month and this includes
a sharp look-out for disease, as well as attention to food supply.
Especially amongst young sheep on pasture, troubles from
parasitic worms are likely to occur. Where young sheep are
not making the expected progress worm troubles may be sus-
pected, and an examination should be carried out. Veterinary
suiigeons are able to give much help in controlling these
troubles, which are capable of causing serious loss. It is grati-
fying to note that in connexion with sheep husbandry greater
785
November on the Farm
use is being made of the preventive and curative measures
available. Needless to say it is of vital importance to adopt
treatment in die early stages; infected sheep are probably only
suffering from a more advanced condition of disease that is
infecting the remainder of the flock.
Meetings. The winter season of agricultural discussion
societies and lectures to farmers has now commenced. For the
most part these are well organized and arousing increasing
interest.
Two valuable features more evident in recent times are the
introduction of lecturers, who have special knowledge, to deal
with particular subjects, and the increasing use made of
practical farmers who have been successful in various branches
of the industry.
It is good, on the one hand, that the scientific principles in-
volved in agriculture should be explained and understood, and,
on the other, that their working out should be illustrated and
discussed by successful practitioners.
786
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture. Cambridge
Soil Condition and Response to Fertilizers. Much farm-
ing practice is still largely based on tradition or actual experi-
ence. Knowledge and tradition are handed down in a variety
of ways, but a good deal is lost in the process and each succeed-
ing generation of farmers has to learn many things by experi-
ence. To the individual farmer a single season frequently
seems different from all its predecessors; a plan which succeeds
in one year may fail in the next. Nevertheless, each season
leaves behind some fresh experience to be included in the
general store of knowledge on which plans for future seasons
arc based. It is always interesting to review the events of a
past season to discover what can be learnt from them.
A wet winter and spring following the wet summer of 1936
produced, during 1937, soil conditions entirely different from
those prevailing in recent years. Indeed, many farmers con-
tend that soil conditions similar to those that prevailed in the
winter of 1936 and the spring of 1937 have not been experi-
enced for very many years. Some arable farmers found it
impossible to sow their projected acreage of winter com, and
winter ploughing was badly delayed. Spring weather brought
little relief from the surplus water problem and in many places
added to it.
Much winter-sown corn, especially on heavy clay soils, lay
waterlogged long after active spring growth should have com-
menced, and miniature lakes were sometimes seen even on
light soils, where these overlie a clay substratum. Much
spring corn was sown unusually late and frequently in a tilth
far from satisfactory, whilst seed beds for root crops were
generally below standard. These defects in the physical condi-
tion of the soil had a lasting effect on plant growth in many
fields. Crop failure due to excessive wetness; poor and irre-
gular plant establishment caused by poor tilth at seeding; late-
sowing of crops; weak or retarded growth due to soil poverty
consequent on the leaching out of available plant food; and,
in some heavy-land districts, fields left unsown because the
land could not be got ready in time — all these have borne
787
Notes on Manuring
witness throughout the spring and summer to the ditficulties
of the season now drawing to a close.
The first and most obvious lesson to be learnt from these
events is of course the need for improving the drainage of
the land in many parts of the country. Most farmers could
well have been spared this object lesson, however, for they
already realized the necessity for this work and it is largely
the matter of expense that has prevented them from making
the necessary improvement in the past, at any rate so far as
the actual field drains are concerned. Though the Govern-
ment's recent proposals granting financial assistance for land
drainage do not apply to the routine drainage of individual
fields they should at least help to render more fully effective any
field drainage undertaken by the farmer. In the past a
farmer's efforts at field drainage were not infrequently nullified
by the bad conditions of the water-course into which his drain-
age water must flow, and it is to be hoped that the responsible
authorities will take the fullest possible advantage of the assist-
ance which is now available for improvements in this direction.
Reference to land drainage may, to some readers, appear to
be outside the scope of notes on manuring, but it is safe to
say that a very large part of any money spent on the applica-
tion of fertilizers to land in need of drainage is inevitably
wasted. This statement has been made many times in the
past but its truth is even now not always appreciated. In
advisory work one still encounters farmers who have lost faith
in artificial fertilizers largely because they failed to produce
a good crop on land that really needed draining. As suggested
later in these notes, the effects of infrequent or exceptionally
bad spells of wet weather can sometimes be mitigated by the
intelligent use of fertilizers, but regular or prolonged water-
logging will usually reduce very considerably any benefits
that might otherwise accrue from manuring.
Other points of major importance from the standpoint of
manuring and soil management also arise from the events and
experience of the past season. Realizing that the wetness
which led to so much loss of physical condition would simul-
taneously cause a reduction in the available nutrient content
of the soil, many farmers increased their usual dressings of
artificial fertilizers in the spring of 1937, in an attempt to make
good the losses caused by the washing out of the soluble plant
foods during the wet winter months. Veiy few of these farmers
have had any cause to regret this action, whilst many crops
788
Notes on Manuring
that received only their usual dressings, or no fertilizers at
all, have provided convincing evidence of the serious defici-
ency of soluble plant nutrients that inevitably follows a pro-
longed spell of wet weather.
As might be expected, the effects of late spring applications
of quick-acting nitrogenous fertilizers have been particularly
noticeable throughout the summer and there is little doubt that
this year even a crop so sensitive to excess nitrogen as malting
barley, has, in many instances, benefited from an increased
dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer. On the evidence of the past
season it is obviously very desirable that careful reconsidera-
tion should always be given to the manuring programme, more
especially the supply of nitrogenous fertilizer, after a long
period of wet weather.
A standard manuring scheme for the rotation has been advo-
cated in previous notes on manuring, but with the proviso that
the quantity and time of application of the quick-acting nitro-
genous fertilizer should always be governed by circumstances.
Artificial fertilizers supplying plant food in a form readily
available to the growing crop have proved a valuable help in
all seasons, but they should be especially valuable in seasons
such as 1937, when their intelligent utilization can mitigate,
even if it cannot completely overcome, the harmful effects of a
prolonged spell of unfavourable weather conditions. Despite
all that has been done in the past to spread a sound knowledge
of the utilization of fertilizers, there is still scop>e for a great
extension in their use to combat what might be called emerg-
ency conditions. As farmers themselves sometimes point
out, the most valuable application of fertilizer is often that
which encourages a crop to grow when soil and climatic condi-
tions are unfavourable to plant growth.
This brings us to another point of immediate practical im-
portance arising from the conditions experienced in 1937- Even
where liberal manuring is practised crops do not always turn
out completely satisfactory. The harmful effects of water-
logging have already been mentioned. In other instances
met with during the past summer, there was no doubt that
the condition of the soil itself was the cause of unsatisfactory
crop growth. This was frequently due to the land drying so
slowly in the spring that there was not time to perform all
the cultivations necessary to produce a good tilth before seed-
ing. The physical condition of a soil affects root development
and the movement of soil moisture, both that which is surplus
789
Notes on Manuring
to requirements and that which is necessary for crop growth.
Hence it controls, directly or indirectly, the supply of moisture
and plant food to the crop and the removal of surplus water
from the land. It has recently been suggested that too much
emphasis is sometimes placed on the value of cultivations.
Though this statement may sometimes be true it is equally
true to say that no amount of fertilizer will completely com-
pensate for a bad tilth.
Autamn>Sown Cereals. A natural inquiry arising out of
the above discussion is whether or not any modifications should
be made this autunm in the usual manuring of autumn-sown
cereals. Though the taking of too frequent crops of cereals
is open to criticism on biological grounds, the increase in the
quantity of wheat that will rank for deficiency payments under
the Wheat Act next year will encourage farmers to plant their
full acreage of wheat this autumn and to try to get the best
possible 3deld.
Where wheat is following potatoes, roots, clover or "seeds ’’
an autumn application of artificial fertilizer should not be
necessary, but where it is following another cereal crop a
dressing of either farmyard manure or artificial fertilizers
should usually be applied before sowing the wheat. A suit-
able dressing of artificials is generally about 2 to 3 curt, per
acre of superphosphate, and, on very light or chalky soils,
i cwt. per acre of muriate of potash. To defer the application
of phosphate until the spring is not to be recommended. It
should always be worked into the seed bed before the com is
sown and it will then encourage the early establishment of a
strong and well-rooted plant. Where potash is necessary, this
also is best applied in the autunm; it will not be washed out
of die soil even in a wet winter. For wheat following
another cereal crop it is sometimes desirable to give a little
nitrogenous fertilizer in the autunm. This seed bed application
is well worth considering this autumn, especially where the
preceding crop showed signs of suffering from poverty. Where
circumstances seem to warrant it, a dressing equivalent to
about i cwt. per acre of sulphate of ammonia may be applied.
An application of nitrogenous fertilizer should not, of course,
be given in the autumn if farmyard manure has also been
applied. On the other hand, an autunm application of nitro-
genous fertilizer will not necessarily do away with tiie need for a
further dressing next spring. Unless the coming winter proves
'790
Notes on Manuring
exceptionally dry a spring top dressing of quick-acting nitro-
genous fertilizer will be required on many fields. If the crop
winters well the spring dressing should not be given until late
April or early May.
In view of the reduction in the cost of basic slag to the
farmer under the Government's Land Fertility Scheme many
farmers may be tempted to use slag instead of superphosphate,
and at the same time give enough to start building up a small
reserve of phosphate in their soil. So great, however, has been
the demand for slag under the Land Fertility Scheme that
supplies sufficient for both arable and grass are not likely to
be forthcoming this autumn. On soils where superphosphate
can be used at least equally well for arable crops, farmers are
therefore urged to reserve their purchases of slag for use on
grass land.
Winter oats and winter barley, when taken as a second
white straw crop, will usually benefit from applications of
phosphate and potash similar to those recommended for wheat.
With these two crops, even when they follow other white straw
crops, it is usual to defer application of quick-acting nitro-
genous fertilizer until the spring. This year, however, the
possibility of applying I cwt. per acre in the autumn, on land
known to be in poor condition, seems worthy of consideration.
Autumn application of nitrogenous fertilizer is not likely
to be necessary for any cereal crop when seeding can be done
in good time. The combination of early sowing and nitrogen-
ous fertilizer would be apt to make the crop “ winter proud "
unless the soil was unusually poor in available nitrogen.
791
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.) |
during week ended Oct. 6 1
Description
Bristol
Hull
L’pool
I^ondon
Costs
per
Unitf
Nitrate of Soda (N. i5i%)
£ 5.
8 oc
£ *•
8 oc
i *•
8 oc
s. d.
10 4
„ „ Granulated (N. 16%)
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
10 0
Nitro-ChaJk (N. 15^%)
7 loc
7 IOC
7 IOC
7 IOC
9 9
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20 • 6%) . .
7 6 c
7 6c
7 6c
7 6c
7 I
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20*6%)
7
7
7
7
7 *3
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . v
2 18
2 15
2 15
2 15
3 II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5 4
5 1
5 0
5 I
3 5
., (Pot. 20%)
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
3 15
3 12
3 12
3 12
3 7
8 10
8 8
« 5
8 8
3 4
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
Basic Slag (P.A. 15}%)
10 2
ro 0
9 17
10 0
4 2
2 126
2 5^
—
2 106
3 2
.. „ (P.A. 14%) . .
s
[ 2 86
2 06
2 06
2 66
3 3
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P. A. 26-
*7*%)
2 17a
2 isd
I 2 15a
2 12a
2 0
Superphosphate (S.P.A. 16%)
3 4
—
j 3 3«
3 0/
3 9
(S.P.A. i3i%)
Bone Meal (N. 3i%. P.A. 20*%)
3 I
2 17
1 2 19^
2 16/
4 I
7 5
7
7 2
—
Steamed Bone Flour (N. |%,
P.A. 27*-29}%) ..
5 5h \
5 10
1 5 og
4 15
—
Abbreviations : N. = Nitrogen ; P.A. = Phosphoric Acid ;
S,P,A. = Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. = Potash.
• Prices are for not less than 6- ton lots, at purchtiser's nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values arc calculated on carriage-paid prices.
§ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Mces for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is, per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 55. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. extra,
d Delivered in 5-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, and for lots of 4 cwt. and under i ton, 20s. extra.
e Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, is. 3<f. extra.
g Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
h Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
T[ These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100” units ” (equal paHs
0/22*4 lb.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such “ units ” in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer he divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a** unit ** of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, ‘‘ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,^* obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
792
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College
Winter Keep. The primary function of purchased feeding-
stuffs on most farms is to supplement any deficiencies of
quantity and quality in the supplies of home-grown produce
available for the live stock of the farm, more particularly
throughout the winter months. With the onset of winter feeding
the time is opportune, therefcfre, for a review of the general
character of Aese home-grown supplies, with a view to ensur-
ing that the outlay on supplementary foods shall be made with
that regard for economy which is always advisable, and, at
present price levels, is essential for profitable production.
Foremost among the winter supplies on most farms is grass-
land produce, which may be available in one or more of the
forms of winter grazing, dried grass, hay, or grass silage. From
the arable land, other green crops, such as rape and kale may
be available, as well as the root crops that have not been sold
off, and the straw from the grain crops.
Grassland Produce. Accurate assessment of the nutritive
value of grassland produce is beset by three basic difficulties
that are commonplaces of practical experience, namely (i) that
different areas of grass land may vary greatly in feeding^
value; (2) that the value of one and the same area may vary in
different seasons and (3) also at different periods of any one
season. The explanation of the first and second of these diffi-
culties lies mainly in the variable chemical and physical
characters of soils and in their response to fluctuating conditions
of rainfall and temperature.
The difficulty arising from the variable character of grass-
land produce at different times of the year finds its explanation
in the continually changing chemical composition of fee grow-
ing plants. If fee development of fee plant is unchecked,
as in a field laid up for hay, its chemical composition changes
steadily along fairly well defined lines up to fee stage of dead
ripeness and deafe of fee leaves and stems. If, on fee other
hand, fee produce of fee plant is frequently removed in the
793
Notes on Feeding
course of the growing season, as in grazing, the chemical
changes are not permitted to go as far, so that the variability
in composition of the produce in the course of the season is
less than in the first case. The composition, and therefore
the nutritive value, of the produce of grass land may thus
show the whole range of variation from that, at the one extreme,
of tender, watery young grass, relatively rich, jin proteins,
vitamins and soluble minerals, (containing certainly also a
good deal of fibre, but that of a soft, easily digestible type),
to that at the other extreme of late-cut over-ripe hay, especially
if badly weathered, which contains but little in the way of useful
proteins, vitamins and minerals, and is so heavily loaded* with
tough, indigestible fibre that it can count for little more than
ballast in the ration.
With the advent of artificial drying, material of the first
class, that must be described as “ dried grass ” rather than
" hay,” has now come into the catalogue of our winter food
suppUes from grass land. Clearly, however, the produce of
the grass drier may show the whole range of variation in
chemical composition and nutritive value from that of young
grass to that of hay, according to the stage of development of
die grass when cut and passed through the drier. Only with
perfect co-ordination between the management of the grass
land and the operation of the drying machine can this vari-
ability be avoided; and even then there will be variation from
year to year, and possibly at different times of the year. The
correct use of dried grass in any scheme of rationing thus
necessitates a knowledge of the precise composition, based upon
analysis, of the material to be used; this is all the more necessary
if the dried grass is to be regarded as a ” concentrate,”
responsible for part of the “ production ” effect of the ration.
What the range of variation in composition and nutritive
value may be between the two extremes of the best dried grass
and the worst hay is indicated by the following data based
upon the tables in Rations for Live Stock (the Ministry’s Bul-
letin No. 48). The data in all instances are given as percentages
of the dry matter ” of the grass or hay. (This basis should
always be taken for comparative purposes, since otherwise
significant differences between the materials compared may be
ma^ed by differences of moisture-content of the materials.
This precaution is naturally most necessary when the
differences of moisture content are large, as for example in
comparing fredi grass with hay.)
794
Notes on Feeding
Per Cent, of Dry Matter
Main- Pro-
Digestible tenance dttciion
Protein Starch Starch Total Ash
Equiva- Equiva- Equiva- Fibre
lent lent lent
Pasture Grass, close grazing —
Non-rotational . . .. .. 20-7 85-0 73-5 13 iO'5
Kotational, 3-week intervals. . 17-2 83-0 73'0 15 o-o
„ 4- „ „ 12-2 77-0 67-0 22 9-0
Pasture Grass, extensive grazing —
Spring Growth . . .. .. 10-5 67-0 56-0 20 lo-o
Winter Pasture (after close-
grazing to end of July) .. 8-7 65 'o 57-0 22 8'0
Meadow Hay —
Very Good .. .. .. 9-3 66'5 57’2 23 9*2
Good 5-4 57-0 43-2 30 7-3
Poor 3-4 46-3 25-7 39 5-8
Of the items included in the table the first three (Pasture
Grass, close grazing) may be taken as tj^ical of the various
grades of dried grass made from spring and summer growth
not more than 6-8 in. long; for longer material, cut before
it reaches the stage at which it would normally be cut for hay,
the data will approximate more closely to those for " very
good ” hay, and in view of the protection from “ weathering ”
losses afforded to such material by the quick drying, it may
reasonably be designated as " super-hay.”
If the protein data be first examined it will be seen that they
range from about 21 per cent, for the very young grass main-
tained by continuous close grazing down to 3J per cent, for
very poor hay. Moreover, the fall in this item is very rapid
with continued growth, becoming no more than about 9 per
cent, in the best early-cut hay. Clearly, therefore, unless a
careful note has been made as to the stage of growth of the
grass at the time of cutting, any guess at the protein content
of the dried produce, whether “dried grass” or “hay,” may be
very wide of the mark.
The same note of caution applies also to estimates of general
nutritive value (energy value) as expressed in the starch equiva-
lents, although here the range of probable variation is not as
great. For maintenance purposes the best dried grass is shown
as having about twice the value of the worst hay, and for pro-
duction purposes about three times the value of &e latter. In
actual practice the difference in production value will probably
be greater than this, as the poor hay will be impalatable and
more wastefully disposed of than the good article. It will be
795
Notes on Feeding
safer indeed, where the hay is of such poor quality, to regard it
as little more than a " filler,” no better at any rate than straw,
and to place little reliance upon it for covering any appreciable
part of the production needs of the stock. Further, the con-
centrated foods used to supplement it will need to be consider-
ably richer in protein to secure the “ balance ” of the ration
than where good hay is available.
Any distinction between “dried grass” and “hay” is
purely conventional, since there is no natural line of demarca-
tion in composition and feeding value between the two products.
The classification adopted by the Association of Dried Grass
Producers is based upon protein content, with a minimum
standard of 12 per cent. , above which the material is designated
“ grass,” and below this as “ hay.”
For feeding practice, however, so simple a standard is hardly
adequate, and fibre-content should also be taken into account
as a rough guide to the bulkiness and coarseness of the material.
From a broad survey of the data given above one might classify
as “ grass ” the material that contains (in its dry matter) not
less than about 10 per cent, digestible protein equivalent (or
13 per cent, total protein), and not more than about 25 per cent,
of total fibre, ^vith an estimated production starch equivalent of
not less than about 55 per cent. The greater the deficiency
of protein and starch equivalent, and the higher the. excess of
fibre from these “standards ” the more will the material show
the physical and nutritive characteristics associated with the
term “ hay ” — always valuable for maintenance, but steadily
losing in production value as it falls away from the “ standard.”
A large proportion of the 1937 hay crop will be adjudged
“ good ” or “ very good ” by farmers, but in this connexion
one may recall the data published by Watson and Ferguson
in an earlier issue of this Journal (Vol. XLIV, p. 247), which
seemed to indicate that practical estimates of hay quality tend
to be rather optimistic when judged in terms of protein content
and starch equivalent. That there should be some such dis-
crepancy is not surprising, since the fa'rmer bases his opinion
upon his knowledge of the nature of the herbage and the condi-
tions under which it was harvested, together with the
appearance, texture and aroma of the cured hay in tiie stack;
his judgment is thus based primarily upon physical qualities
and the ^own degree of weathering. What he undoubtedly
underestimates is the loss of nutritive value that grass may
undergo in the course of hay-making, even under feivourable
796
Notes on Feeding
conditions, and it is, of course, these losses that are revealed
by the chemical analysis. These losses even in a good season,
may amount to as much as 20 per cent, of the dry substance
of the grass; and moreover this 20 per cent, consists of some
of the most valuable nutritive matter of the grass, so that the
20 per cent, loss of dry matter becomes over 30 per cent, in
terms of starch equivalent, and involves a similar loss of
protein. It is certain, therefore, that hay of the composition
described as “ very good ” in the table given above is never
very abundant, even in the best of seasons, and that the bulk of
the hay commonly described as “ good ” by the farmer will
more often than not rank in composition intermediate between
the averages for “ good ” and “ poor ” in the table.
The nutritive value of grassland produce is by no means
completely depicted in terms of protein, fibre and starch
equivalent, since minerals and vitamin-content must also be
taken into account. In the table the dry matter of the best
young grass is shown as having about twice the mineral content
of that of the worst hay. The difference of value is really
much greater, since the minerals of young grass consist mainly
of soluble, useful minerals, whereas those of hay include a
considerable proportion of silica and other insoluble minerals.
From the beginning of ripening onwards some retransfer-
ence of soluble minerals back to the soil takes place, which
is accentuated by rain, especially after cutting, so that in badly
rain-washed hay the remaining minerals may amount to little
more than the insoluble matters of little value.
The proportions of the individual minerals present in the
grass are subject to considerable variation according to soil,
manuring, rainfall and conditions of growth generally, but,
broadly speaking, the ash of grass, and of good hay made
from it, are characterized by relative richness in lime and
potash, and a fair, but smaller proportion of phosphoric acid.
Chlorine (common salt) also is usually well represented as
compared with most other foods. Viewed as a whole the ash
of grass is basic in character, so that it forms an excellent com-
plement to the ash of concentrated foods, which usually contains
an excess of acid elements. This basicity is considerably
reduced in grass from acid soil, so that a higher and better
mineral content of the herbage is one of the valuable advantages
that follows the liming of such soils, even when there is no
apparent effect upon the bulk of the herbage. Where grass
or good hay from soil well supplied with lime forms a sub-
797
Notes on Feeding
stantial part of the ration tiiere should be no need of “ mineral
supplements,” except possibly for the very highest levels of
production.
As to vitamin-content, it is now familiar knowledge that the
colouring matters of grass include carotene, which is the pre-
cursor of vitamin A, and is partly responsible for the yellow
colour that grass tends to impart to animal fat, notably milk
fat. The carotene and vitamin A of growing grass are largely
conserved in the product obtained by rapid artificial dr3nng,
but are steadily lost in the process of haymaking, with its
prolonged exposure to sunlight and fermentative influences.
Whilst dried grass is thus a fairly good source of carotene and
vitamin A, the same cannot be said of hay, which at best is a
very micertain, and never a considerable source of these
ingredients.
The relative values of the two products are reversed, how-
ever, in relation to vitamin D (anti-rickets), since exposure to
sunlight tends for a time to increase the amount of this vitamin
in the cut grass. Prolonged exposure, accompanied by rain,
destroys this advantage, however, along with the general
deterioration of the hay.
The farmer who has conserved part of his grass as silage
will have a product, if well made, fully equal in nutritive value
to the best hay he could have made from the grass as cut,
young grass giving a silage relatively rich in protein, and older
grass a silage more comparable in the protein content of its
diy matter to ordinary hay. It will have the advantage over
hay of retaining all the valuable minerals of the grass, and of
having also suffered less loss of vitamin A and carotene. It
is naturally less concentrated, since it will contain an5dhing
from 70 to 8o per cent, of water, as compared with the 15 per
cent, or thereabouts of cured hay, but the " succulence ”
fliereby imparted to it is usually accounted to it for virtue.
Because of the relatively high protein-content of young grass
it is not easy to make good silage from it by the ordinary
method, arid Ihe fermentation losses are apt to be high. For
such material, therefore, one of the newer methods is usually
recommended, either the acid (A.I.V.) process, or the molasses
process. Recent tests suggest that the latter, though possibly
not quite as efficient as the former in minimiring loss of dry
matter, does not fall far short of it, and is better suited to flie
practical conditions of the farm.
Lastly, we may turn to consider the most natural of all
798
Notes on Feeding
methods of conserving grassland produce where practicable,
that of laying up pastures for winter keep. Data are given in
the table for the average value of the herbage available in
January on pasture that has been close grazed up to the end
of July. Judged by these figures the herbage would appear
to have the value of very good hay. This has been confirmed
by the results of examination of the changes in chemical compo-
sition of the herbage of grazed and ungrazed plots at Cockle
Park (Thomas & Boynes, Empire Journal Exper. Agric.,
Vol. IV, p. 368). Protein content and nutritive value fell in
autumn and early winter on grazed and ungrazed plots alike,
but rose in the late winter when the grass began to grow again.
Judged by chemical composition the nutritive value of the
winter grass was inferior to that of summer grass from the same
pasture and of the age at which it is normally grazed. The
mineral efficiency of the winter grass, however, was relatively
high, and “ compared favourably in this and other respects
with month-old summer grass from inferior Boulder Clay
pastures, and with hay from one of the best meadow plots at
Cockle Park.” The general conclusion may be drawn from
these observations, that the practice of laying up grass for
winter keep affords a useful means of conservation, which
might perhaps be more widely used in districts with moderate
conditions of climate.
799
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein.
equiv.
Wheat, British. .
5 .
3
0
5 .
9
s.
14
72
5.
2
5
d,
1*29
%
9-6
Barley, Canadian, No. 3
Western
8
17
0
8
8
9
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
„ Argentine
8
7 §
0
8
7
19
71
2
3
1*21
6*2
„ Iraqian
8
8t
0
8
8
0
7 ^
2
3
1*21
6*2
„ Persian
8
5 §
0
8
7
J 7
7 Jf
2
3
I *21
6*2
„ Russian
8
18
0
8
8
10
71
2
5
I ‘29
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
8
17
0
9
8
8
60
2
10
1*52
7*6
„ „ black and
grey
8
10
0
Q
8
I
60
2
8
1*43
7-6
„ Scotch, white . .
10
0
0
9
9
II
60
3
2
1*70
7*6
„ Canadian, No. 2
Western . .
10
13*
0
9
10
4
60
3
5
1-83
7*6
„ Canadian, No. 3
,, Western . .
9
i 5 t
0
9
9
6
60
3
I
1*65
7*6
„ Canadian mixed
feed . .
9
0
0
9
8
II
60
2
10
1*52
7*6
Maize, Argentine
7
2
0
7
6
15
78
I
9
0*94
7*6
„ South African,
„ No. 2 White Flat
7
Of
0
7
6
13
78
I
8
0*89
7*6
„ South African,
No. 4 Yellow
7
Of
0
7
6
13
78
I
8
0*89
Beans, English, Winter
7
3 §
0
17
6
6
66
I
11
1*03
19*7
Peas, English, Blue . ,
II
I2§
0
15
10
17
69
3
2
1*70
18*1
„ Japanese
22
5 t
0
15
21
10
69
6
3
3'35
i8* I
Milling Offals : —
Bran, British
7
7
0
16
6
II
43
3
I
1*65
9*9
„ broad . ,
7
12
0
16
6
16
43
3
At
1*70
10*0
Middlings, fine,
imported . .
8
5
0
13
7
12
69
2
2
I *16
12*1
WeatingsJ . .
8
7
0
14
7
13
56
2
9
1*47
10*7
„ SuperfineJ . .
8
15
0
13
1 ^
2
69
2
4
1*25
12*1
Pollsurds, imported . .
7
12
0
14
6
18
50
2
9
1*47
II-O
Meal, barley . .
9
15
0
8
9
7
71
2
8
1*43
6*2
„ „ grade II
9
0
0
8
8
12
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
„ maize
7
12
0
7
7
5
78
I
10
0*98
7-6
„ „ South
African . .
6
17
0
7
6
10
78
I
8
0*89
7*6
„ „ germ
7
10
0
II
6
19
84
I
8
0*89
10*3
„ locust bean
7
15
0
5
7
10
71
2
I
1*12
3*6
„ bean
9
5
0
17
8
8
66
2
10
1*52
19*7
„ fish (white)
15
0
2
4
12
16
59
4
4
2-32
53'0
„ Soya bean
(extracted) { . .
10
0
1
10
8
10
64
2
8
I '43
38*3
Maize, cooked, flaked. .
8
2
0
7
7
15
84
I
10
0*98
9*2
Linse^ cake —
English, 12% oil . .
10
7
I
I
9
6
74
2
6
1-34
24*6
», 9 % » ..
9
15
I
I
8
14
74
2
4
1*25
24*6
8% II
1 9
12
I
I
8
11
74
2
4
1-25
24*6
800
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS {continued)
I Manu- Cost of starch Price | Price
Price rial food equiv. I
Description per value value p^j. * unit i lb. tein.
ton per per starch starch equiv.
ton ton ' equiv. equiv.
£ S.\£ s. £ s. 71 . d. ^
Cottonseed cake, i
English, Egyptian i
seed, 4J% oil .. 600 i8 52 42 25 1*29 17-3
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian, 4j% oil . . 5151018 417 42 24 1-25 17-3
Cottonseed cake,
decorticated, 7%-8%
oil S 7 t 1 9 6 18 68 2 o 1*07 34*7
Cottonseed meal, i
decorticated, 7%-8%
oil 8 5 t 9 6 16 I 70 I II 1-03 36*8
Coconut cake, io% oil • 7 I7t o 18 6 19 , 77 i 10 0*98 16*4
Ground-nut cake,
decorticated, 6-7% oil 9 5* i 8 7 17 73 2 2 ^ i-i6 41*3
Ground-nut cake, im-
ported decorticated,
6-7% oil .. .. 8018 6 12 73 I 10 0-98 41*3
Palm-kernel meal,
1-2% oil .. .. 7 o o 12 681 71 I 10 0*98 16*5
Feeding treacle .. 5 o o 8 | 4 12 ^ 51 i 10 0*98 2*7
Brewers* grain, dried
ale 6 7 o II 1 5 16 ' 48 25 1*29 12*5
Brewers’ grains, dried j
porter .. .. 6ooiii5 9, 48 2 3 1*21 12 *5
Dried sugar-beet pulp . . From £5 os, od. to £5 75. td. per ton, ex-factory
(according to factory.)
♦ At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
J In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note. — ^T he prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex-mill or store. The prices were current
at the end of Sejitember, 1937, ^ire, as a rule, considerably lower than
the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to carriage
and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare the
relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by the
method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake is offered
locally at ;£i I per ton, then since its manurial value is £1 is.per ton as shown
above, the cost of food value per ton is £9 19s. Dividing this figure by 74,
the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table, the cost per unit
of starch equivalent is 2 s. Sd, Dividing this again by 22 • 4, the number of
pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent
is I • 43(f . Similar calculations will show the relative cost per lb. of starch
equivalent of other feeding stuffs on the same local market. From the
results of such calculations a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives
him the best value at the prices quoted on his own markets. The figures
given in the table under the heading manurial value per ton arc calculated
on the basis of the following unit prices :~N., 7s. 3^. ; Pj^O^, 2s. yd, ; Kfi,
3S. 6d,
801
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month’s calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
i 5 -
Barley (imported) . .
. . 71
6-2
8 II
Maize
.. 78
7-6
7 2
Decorticated ground-nut cake
73
41-3
8 12
„ cotton-seed cake
.. 68
34*7
8 7
(Add I os. per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*17 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent o • 70 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,”
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry’s
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
L s-
Wheat
72
9-6
8 3
Oats
60
7*6
6 16
Barley
71
6*2
7 18
Potatoes
18
0*8
2 0
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds
: 7
0*4
0 15
Beans . . i
1 66
10*7
7 17
Good meadow hay , . . .
37
4*6
4 4
Good oat straw . . . .
! 20
0-9
2 4
Good clover hay , . . .
38
7*0
4 7
Vetch and oat silage
13
i'6
I 9
Barley straw. . ..
23
0-7
2 10
Wheat straw
13
0‘I
I 8
Bean straw . .
! 23
1-7
2 11
* Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
W.C.2, price 6(f., post free
802
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for September is 137 (base September, 1911-13=100), or 4
points higher than a month ago and 10 points above that for
September, 1936. If allowance be made for payments under
the Wheat Act, 1932, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937,
the revised index for the month becomes 142. The increase
in the contract price of liquid milk in September was almost
entirely responsible for the rise in the general index. Prices
of barley, fat pigs, eggs, butter, cheese and potatoes also
showed an advance but those of wheat, oats, fat cattle and
sheep and wool were lower than in August.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce. (Corresponding
months of 1911-13 — 100.)
Month.
I 1932
1
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1
January
1
. . ! 122
T07
II4
117
119
! 130
February
. . 1 117
106
112
115
118
129
March
.. 1 II3
102
108
112
116
130
April
.. i 117
105
III
119
123
140
May . .
.. i II5
102
II 2
in
115
133
June
. . : III
100 j
no
in
116
131
July . .
. . ! 106
lOI 1
114
114 !
117
131
August
• • ! 105
105 I
119 1
113 1
119
133
September . .
... 104 j
107 j
119 !
120
127
137
October
. . i 100 j
107 j
114 j
113 1
125
—
November . .
. . t lOI J
109 1
114 ;
113 !
125
—
December , .
: ^^3 i
no j
113 1
114 '
126
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and for the Cattle Subsidy (b).
Month.
1932
1933
1934
.
1935
1936
1937
January
111
119
124
125
133
February
~
no
117
122
123
133
March
106
112
118
122
134
April
—
109
116
126
128
143
May . .
—
105
116
117
120
136
June
104
114
117
121
134
July
—
104
117
120
121
134
August
108
108
122
120
124
136
September . .
108
III
125
128
133
142
October
104
112
121
119
129
—
November . .
105
113
120
119
129
—
December . .
107
114
120
120
130
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (b) Commenced September, 1934.
803
Miscellaneous Notes
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of June
to September, 1937, September, 1936, and September, 1935;
base, the corresponding months of 1911-13=100.
Commodity.
1937
1936
1935
Sept.
Aug.
July
June
Sept.
Sept.
.
Wheat
114
118
120
123
98
64
Barley
147
147
127
129
124
121
Oats . .
125
125
121
120
98
90
Fat cattle . .
115
II9
II4
in
98
94
„ sheep . .
138
141
145
152
131
114
Bacon pigs . .
124
120
II7
114
III
93
Pork „
125
II9
II5
113
IOC)
98
Eggs
141
1.38
144
129
124
119
Poultry
130
132
130
132
1 113
117
Milk
202
175
^75
162
202
215
Butter
109
no
1 12
109
98
89
Cheese
124
126
128
122 i
106
78
Potatoes
147
127 j
142
189
149
147
Hay . .
95
97 1
95
98
105
95
Wool
146
147 !
143
138
j 100
89
Dairy cows . .
117
:
115
115
103
1 105
Store cattle
IT 3
119 ;
120
117
97 1
88
„ sheep . .
138
142 1
139
i 32 1
124
M pigs ..
153
141 1
133
127 i
138 !
122
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and to the
Cattle subsidy.
Wheat
132
124
123
125
132* 1
121
Fat cattle . .
130
134
128
1-25
"3 :
log
General Index
1
142
136
134 i
134 1
133 !
128
* Superseding figure previously published.
Grain. At an average of 8s. yd. per cwt. wheat was lod.
lower on the month, the index moving downwards by 4 points.
(If the “ deficiency payment ” under the Wheat Act, 1932, is
token into account the index is 132.) Barley at 12s “^d. per cwt.
showed a rise of is. id. but oats were reduced by ^d. to 8s. $d.
per cwt. Owing, however, to corresponding movements in
the prices of these commodities having occurred during the
base years, the indices remain unchanged. In September,
1936, wheat averaged ys. 4d. per cwt., barley 10s. 4 d. and oats
6s. yd.
Live Stock. Quotations for fat cattle again declined, the
average for second quality at 38s. 6 d. per live cwt. being is. gd.
804
Miscellaneous Notes
less than a month earlier, and the index falls by 4 points to 115.
The addition of the subsidy under the Livestock Industry Act,
1937, brings the index to 130. At an average of lod. per lb.
for second quality, fat sheep were lower by ^d. per lb. and the
index is reduced by 3 points. Baconers at 12s. td. and porkers
at 13s. 'jd. per score (20 lb.) advanced in price by ^d, and is.
respectively, the relative indices being higher by 4 points and
6 points.
Dairy cows and store pigs were dearer than in August, the
index for the former moving upwards from 114 to 117 and that
for the latter from 141 to 153. On the other hand prices of
store cattle and store sheep declined on the month and the
respective indices are lower by 6 points and 4 points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. During the period under
review the regional contract price of liquid milk was advanced
by 2 d. per gallon but, as the seasonal increase in the base period
did not take place until October, the current index shows a
rise of 27 points to 202. Butter at is. 2 %d. per lb. averaged
^d. per lb. more than in August; a corresponding but propor-
tionately greater rise was, however, recorded during the base
years and the index is i point lower. Price movements of
eggs continued upwards, second quality averaging i6s. lod.
per 120, as against 15s. 2d. in August, and the index shows an
advance of 3 points. Cheese at £4 9s. bd. per cwt. was 3s.
above last month’s figure but, with a somewhat larger increase
in the base price, the index is reduced by 2 points. Prices of
fowls were unchanged while ducks and geese realized less
money, and the combined index for poultry is lower by 2 points.
Other Commodities. The seasonal change from early varie-
ties to main crop, for the purpose of compiling the potato index,
resulted in a rise of 20 points in the index which, at 147, is
2 points below that for September, 1936. Quotations for both
clover and meadow hay were practically unchanged but, owing
to the rise which took place during the corresponding months
of 1911-13, the combined index declines by 2 points. Both
price and index of wool were slightly lower.
Annual Conferences of Poultry and Dairy Instructors
The annual Conferences of Poultry Instructors and Dairy
Instructors arranged by the Ministry took place on October 20
and 21, respectively, at the Middlesex Guildhall, Westminster,
London, S.W.i. Both Conferences were opened by Sir
805
Miscellaneous Notes
Donald Fergusson, K.C.B., Permanent Secretary of the
Ministiy.
At the Poultry Instructors’ Conference, under the chairman-
ship of Mr. P. A. Francis, O.B.E., the Ministry’s Poultry
Commissioner, the subjects discussed and the names of those
who read papers and opened the discussions were as follows : —
Value of Pedigree Breeding
for Egg Production.
The Chief Factors Govern-
ing the Financial Results
from Poultry Keeping
Enterprises under Present-
day Conditions.
Investigations in connexion
with Fowl Paralysis,
Internal Egg Faults in Re-
lation to Education and
Marketing.
Mr. S. S. Monro, B. Sc. (McGill), M.Sc.
(Wisconsin) (Poultry Geneticist for the
Canadian Dominion Experimental Farm
System).
The discussion was opened by Mr. H. H.
Duckett, N.D.P., N.D.A. (Chief County
Poultry Instructor, Somerset), followed
by Mr. G. M. Robertson (Adviser in
Poultry Keeping, Lancashire).
Mr. D. H. Dinsdale, M.A. (Adviser in Agri-
cultural Economics, King's College,
Newcastle) .
The discussion was opened by Mr. C. W.
Goode, N.D.A., N.D.D. (Lecturer in
Poultry Husbandry, Yorkshire), fol-
lowed by Captain H. M. Leighton
(Instructor in Poultry Keeping, Mont-
gomer>"shire).
Mr. F. Blackmore, M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M.»
(Advisory Veterinary Officer Institute
of Animal Pathology, Cambridge).
The discussion was opened by Mr. F. H.
Jones, N.D.P. (Instructor in Small Live
Stock, Nottinghamshire), followed by
Mr. O. R. Stevenson, N.D.P. (Adviser
in Poultry Keeping, East Sussex).
Mr. E. T. Hainan, M.A. (Poultry Nutrition
Section of the Animal Nutrition Re-
search Institute, Cambridge), and Mr.
C. A. Flatt (Senior Marketing Officer,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries).
The discussion was opened by Major
H. D. Day (County Poultry Instructor
East and West Suffolk), followed by
Mr. J. B. Morrison (County Poultry
Instructor, Bedford).
The Dairy Instructors’ Conference was under the chairman-
ship of Mr. J. Holmes, B.Sc. (Agric.), N.D.D. , the Ministry’s
Senior Inspector in Dairying, and was entirely devoted to
dairy education. The subject was introduced by Professor
H. D. Kay, O.B.E., Ph.D., D.Sc., Director of the National
Institute for Research in Dairying, and part-time consultant
806
Miscellaneous Notes
in Dairying to the Ministry. Some of the principal conclusions
reached by him were as follows : —
(1) There is need for a better training in general science, including
biology, in all elementary and secondary schools.
(2) There is need for specialized training of future dairy farmers and
dairymen at farm institutes, agricultural colleges and universities,
and urgent need to bridge the educational gap between 14 and 16
years of age.
(3) There is need for arrangements between dairy training centres and
commercial processing plants for instruction on large scale, modern
operations.
(4) There should be a diminution of the variety of courses, with a bias
towards longer courses of a more scientific character and properly
organized day and evening courses in milk processing, manufacture
and control.
(5) Refresher courses should be instituted for those engaged in the
industry and for dairy teachers. There should be interchange of
dairy teaching personnel in institutions and colleges.
(6) There should be greater uniformity of instructional and examination
standards.
The following also contributed to the discussion on particular
aspects of dairy education : —
Mr. Ben Hinds, Vice-Chairman, Milk Marketing Board.
Mr. E. Capstick, M.C., M.Sc., N.D.D.
Mr. Ben Davies, Director of Laboratories, United Dairies, Ltd.
Professor F. Hall, M.A., 13 . Com., Education Department, Co-operative
Union, Manchester.
Professor J. McGregor, B.Sc., N.D.D., The University, Leeds.
Principal H. G. Robinson, M.Sc., Midland Agricultural College.
Mr. W. B. Mercer, ^I.C., B.Sc,, Reaseheath Farm School, Cheshire.
Miss M. C. Taylor, N.D.D., Cannington Farm Institute, Somerset.
Mr. G. T. Morgan, N.D.D., Welsh Department, Ministry of Agriculture.
Post-Graduate Agricultural Scholarships
The Ministry and the Department of Agriculture for Scotland
have revived, in a modified form, the scheme (which was in
operation from 1924 to 1931) of post-graduate agricultural
scholarships for students who propose to follow the career of
agricultural organizer, or instructor, or lecturer in agriculture.
The selection of the candidates for this year's awards has been
made and scholarships, each of one year’s duration, have
been awarded to the following : —
James B. Cureton . . King’s College, University of Durham.
William Longrigg . . Do.
Parian J . Macfarlan . . University of Glasgow.
Kenneth N. Russell . . University of Reading.
The object of the scholarships is to broaden the agricultural
knowledge and experience of students, and so to qualify tiiem
Miscellaneous Notes
for the type of career above mentioned. The successful candi-
dates will be attached for the period of the awards to county
and other agricultural educational institutions and advisory
centres to enable them to maintain a close contact with the
practical side of teaching and advisory work, and to familiar-
ize them with county agricultural education work generally.
County Egg Laying Trials
The main object of the County Egg Laying Trials is to
demonstrate the value, from the point of view of egg yield,
egg size, seasonality of yield and constitutional vigour, of
selected birds as potential breeding stock for egg production.
The trials have considerable educational value, both locally
and generally. They are conducted under official county
auspices in accordance with uniform regulations approved by
the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
In the 1936-37 trials, carried out during the 48 weeks ended
September i last, 9,148 birds were kept under observation in
40 separate counties. The death rate was 17.7 per cent, as
compared with 7 per cent, of 6,450 birds in 1930-31, there
having been a steady increase in mortality in the trials in the
intervening period.
With regard to the breeds entered in 1936-37, Rhode Island
Reds were represented by 4,396 birds (48 per cent, of the total).
White Wyandottes by 1,578 birds (17 per cent.). White
Leghorns by 1,267 birds (14 per cent.). Light Sussex by 1,241
birds (14 per cent.) and all other breeds by 666 birds (7 per
cent.). The average production per bird entered (including
production by birds that died) and the mortality of the four
principal breeds were as follows : —
Average Egg
Y ield per Bird M ortality
Entered per cent,
Rhode Island Reds .. .. .. 169*46 15 ’97
White Wyandottes .. .. 163*17 23*83
Light Sussex I 57 * 32 15-15
White Leghorns .. .. .. 164*60 20*13
The Gold Challenge Cup presented by the Millers’ Mutual
Association for award to the county whose la)dng trials show
the lowest mortality among the counties entering the
competition, combined with an average egg production per
bird entered of not less than 170, has been won in 1936-37 by
Cornwall with a mortality of 11.90 per cent, of &e birds
808
Miscellaneous Notes
entered and an average production of 175.39 eggs per bird.
The runners-up were West Wales (mortality 12.75 per cent,
and average egg production 170.98) and Northamptonshire
(mortality 13.33 per cent, and average egg production 189.63).
In 1937-38 season 39 counties are conducting trials. Those
in Middlesex and Lancashire have been abandoned, but in
West Sussex, where trials were abandoned last season, they
will be resumed in the current season. An increasing number
of counties are including a flock testing section in their trials
to demonstrate the value of the competitors’ breeding stock.
Brood Diseases of Bees
As noted in previous issues of this Journal, investigations
into the cause and treatment of brood diseases of bees have
been conducted during the past three years by Dr. H. L. A.
Tarr at Rothamsted Experimental Station. These investiga-
tions have been carried on with funds provided equally by the
Government and through the British Beekeepers’ Associations.
The results of the first three years researches proved so
promising that it was unanimously decided by the Bee Research
Advisory Committee at Rothamsted to continue them, if pos-
sible, for a further three-year period. The estimated cost is
£550 per annum, of which the Agricultural Research Council
has promised £300, if £250 can be raised from other sources.
In response to an appeal recently issued to beekeepers and
beekeeping associations, a sum of £226 has been received for
the current year, leaving £24 still to be provided. For the
two following years, there is at present only a guaranteed fund
of £103 per annum.
The investigations have already thrown light on several im-
portant points. Dr. Tarr has shown that European and
American Foul Brood are distinct diseases caused by different
organisms. He has confirmed that American Foul Brood is
due to a bacterium Bacillus larvae, and that its incidence is
independent of the strength of the colony. European Foul
Brood, on the other hand, is a disease of weak stocks, probably
caused by Bacillus pluton, in association with other organisms.
It has also been demonstrated that a third condition known as
“Addled Brood ’’ is very prevalent in Britain, constituting
approximately a third of &e cases of “ Foul Brood ’’ sent in
for examination. Although apt to be mistaken for Foul Brood,
Addled Brood is really due to defective condition in the queen,
and when once recognized can readily be cured by requeening.
D * 809
Miscellaneous Notes
The investigations of the next three years will be concentrated
on tests of control measures for European and American Foul
Brood, and further research will be carried out on tiie organisms
causing European Foul Brood in order that the incidence of
this disease may be as well understood as that of other diseases.
It is hoped that support will be forthcoming to meet the small
amount still required for this years’ work, and to enable the
investigations to be continued during the three-year period
commencing April i last. Contributions will be gratefully
received by the Secretary, Rothamsted Experimental Station,
Harpenden Herts.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS : ENGLAND
Devon : Miss N. M. H. Sonley, N.D.H., N.D.D., has been appointed
Instructress in Rural Science vice Miss M. W. Earle, N.D.D., C.D.D.,
B.D.RD.
Essex: Mr. E. A. Gray, M.R.C.V.S., has been appointed Lecturer in
Veterinary Hygiene vice Mr. E. Macnab, M.R.C.V.S.
Lancashire : Mr. J. W. Walker, B.Sc. (Hort.) has been appointed Assistant
Instructor in Horticulture vice Mr. W. L. Steer.
Nottinghamshire : Mr. G. F. Kingston, M.A., has been appointed Assistant
Agricultural Organizer vice Mr. J. C. Blossom, B.Sc. (Agric.), N.D.A.,
N.D.D.
810
BIINIMUM RATES OF WAGES
Farm Workers* Minimum Rates of Wages. — meetiTig of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London,
S.W.i, on September 21, 1937.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Gloucestershire, — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages
for male workers and minimum rates for female workers, to come into
force on September 26, 1937 day following that on which the
existing rates expired) and to continue in operation until September
24, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years of age and
over are as follows : (a) head carters 385. 6d. (instead of 365. 6d.) per
week of 58 hours in summer except in the weeks in which Good Friday
and Whit Monday fall, when the hours are 51, and 405. (instead of 38s.)
per week of 60 hours in winter, except in the week in which Christmas
Day falls, when the hours are 52 } ; {b) head shepherds and head
stockmen, 405. (instead of 385.) per week of 60 hours, except in the
weeks in which Christmas Day, Go^ Friday and Whit Monday fall, when
the hours are 52^ ; (c) under carters, 36s. (instead of 34s. 6d.) per week
of 54 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Good Friday and
Whit Monday fall, when the hours are 48 ; 38s. (instead of 36^. 6d.) per
week of 57 hours in winter, except in the week in which Christmas Day
falls, when the hours are 50J ; (d) under shepherds and under stockmen,
385. (instead of 36s. 6d,) per week of 57 hours, except in the weeks in
which Christmas Day, G^d Friday and Whit Monday fall, when the
hours are 50^ ; and (e) other male workers, 33s. (instead of 32s.) per
week of 50 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Good Friday
and Whit Monday fall, when the hours are 41, and 48 hours in winter,
except in the week in which Christmas Day falls, when the hours are
39J. Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of
which the minimum rate is payable in the week preceding V^itsun
week to meet cases where a holiday is given in that week instead of in
the week in which Whit Monday f^ls. The overtime rates in the case
of all male workers are unchanged at gd. per hour on weekdays and
lid, per hour on Sundays, Christmas Day, Good Friday and Whit
Monday. For female workers of 18 years of age and over the rate is
6d, per hour (instead of 5^.) for all time worked.
Oxfordshire. — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on October 4, 1937 following that on
which the existing rates expired) and to continue in operation until
October 2, 1938. The minimum rates for male workers of 21 years
of age and over are 34s. (instead of 32s. 6d.) per week of 50 hours in
summer, except in the weeks in which Good Friday, Easter Monday,
Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday fall, when the hours are 41 ;
48 hours in winter, except in the weeks in which Christmas Day and
December 27, 1937, when the hours are 39^. The overtime rates
for male workers of 21 years of age and over are unchanged at lod.
per hour on weekdays and 15. per hour on Sundays, Good Friday, Easter
Monday, Whit Monday, August Bank Holiday, Christmas Day and
December 27, 1937. The minimum rates in the case of female workers
of 18 years of age and over are jd. per hour (instead of 6Jd. per hour),
with overtime unchanged at 8d. per hour on weekdays and qjd. per hour
on Sundays, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, August Bank
Holiday, Christmas Day and December 27, 1937.
Worcestershire. — ^An Order cancelling the existing minimum and over-
time rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution to come into
operation on S<^tember 26, 1937, continue in force until
D 2 81I
Minimum Rates of Wages
March 6, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers aged
2t years and over are 335. (instead of 315.) per week of 52 hours in
summer and 48 hours in winter, except in the week in which Christmas
Day falls, when the hours are 39J, and the overtime rate for male
workers aged 21 years and over is unchanged at per hour for all
such employment. The minimum rates in the case of female workers
of 18 years of age and over are unchanged at ^d. per hour, with overtime
on Sundays and in excess of 8 hours on any other day at 3id. per hour.
Pembroke and Cardigan , — An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates
of wages to come into force on October i, 1937 following
that on which the existing rates expired) and to continue in operation
until September 30, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male
workers of 21 years of age and over are 33s. (instead of 315.) per week
of 54 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Good Friday,
Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday fall, when the hours are 46
(instead of 54 hours in any week throughout summer), and 52 ‘‘hours
in winter. The overtime rates for male workers aged 21 years and
over are 8Jrf. per hour on weekdays, Sundays, Christmas Day, Good
Friday, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday (instead of %d, per hour
on weekdays, Sundays and Christmas Day). In the case of female
workers of 18 years of age and over the minimum rate is unchanged at
$d, per hour with overtime payment also unchanged on weekdays and
Christmas Day at (>d. per hour, and on Sundays at per hour for
the first three hours and 7\d, per hour for subsequent hours.
Radnor and Brecon . — ^An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of
wages to come into force on November i, 1937 (i.e., the day following
that on which the existing rates expired) and to continue in operation
until April 30, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over are 33s. per week of 48 hours in winter and
54 hours in summer (instead of 325. per week of 50 hours in winter and
54 hours in summer) with overtime unchanged at qd. per hour. In
the case of female workers of 18 years of age and over the minimum
rate is unchanged at 5df. per hour with overtime also unchanged at
6\d. per hour on weekdays and *j\d. per hour on Sundays.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
October 12, 1937, proceedings were taken against seven employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
workers
involved
Cornwall. .
Camelford ..
£ s. d.
100
£ s.d.
£ s. d.
20 8 5
I
»» • •
Penzance . .
2 0 0
—
30 0 0
I
Devon . .
Plympton . .
600
—
18 18 I
3
Derby
Derby
100
—
19 0 0
4
Lancashire
Ashton-
under-Lyne
10 0 0
■
37 0 0
I
It
Blackburn . .
400
—
40 0 0
I
Pembroke-
shire
Newport
0
0
—
26 18 I
1
25 0 0
—
192 4 7
12
8 I 2
WIRELESS TALKS, NOVEMBERv 1937
AGRICULTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
Nov. 3
6.20
Mr. W. S. Mansfield
Farming To-day : —
M 10
6.20
>9 99
The Ewe Flock.
Wintering Cattle (with his
M 17
6.20
II 99
stockman).
Systems of Farming (with
M 24
6.20
91 99
Dr. R. McG. Carslaw).
Basic Slag.
North :
Nov. 12
6.40
For Northern Farmers : —
.. 26
6.40
Prof. J. A. Hanley and
A Discussion between a Re-
presentative of the Milk
Board and a Big Distributor
Land Fertility.
Midland :
Nov. 4
6.40
another
Mr. A. Roebuck
For Midland Farmers : —
.. 18
7-55
Miss H. Molyneux
The Imperial Fruit Show.
Incubation and Rearing
West:
Nov. 1
6.35
Mr. I. Orr-Ewing, M P.,
Problems.
Quarterly Meeting of the
.. 4
6.40
and others
Mr. A. W. Ling and
Federation of West Country
Farmers at Long Ashton.
For Young Farmers.
M iJ
6.40
another
Messrs. A. W. Ling and
* For Western Farmers in par-
J. B. Passmore
ticular: Agricultural
„ 18
6,0
Machinery.
For Young Farmers.
M 25
80
Mr. A. W, Ling and
For Western Farmers : Sugar
Welsh :
Nov. I
i
8.50
Major Mockett
Mr. M. Williams and
Beet in the West.
Llanybyther Fair.
M 5
8.15
others.
Mr. W. H. Jones and
For Welsh Fanners only : A
Scottish :
Nov, 4
6.25
others
Mr. A. B. Fowler
Discussion on the Recrea-
tional Aspect of Rural Life.
For Scottish Farmers : —
,, II
6.40
Mr. J. Duncan
Grass Drying.
,, 16
6.25
Mr. J. Dickson
A Hill Hirsel
M 25
6.30
Mr. A. Fraser
—
Northern
Ireland :
Nov. 5
9.45
Mr. I. W. Seaton
Mapping the Way to Higher
„ 12
I
7*45
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Yields.
Fanners' Work and Worry.
M 19
730 i
—
A Discussion on the Fruit
1, 26
6.30
—
Industry.
i A Young Farmers' Debate.
813
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
HORTIGinLTURAL
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
speaker
Subject
National :
Nov. 7
2.0
Mr. C. H. Middleton
Pruning.
14
2.0
Messrs. C, H. Middleton
and M. C. Allwood
Planting Roses.
„ 21
2.0
Carnations.
„ 28
2.0
Mr. C. H. Middleton
Soils and Manures.
North :
Nov. 5
730
Messrs. W. E. Shewell-
Cooper and J. F. Teem-
For Northern Gardeners : —
Delphiniums.
19
6.40
ing
Messrs. W. E. Shewell-
Cooper and J. Thomas
Chrysanthemums.
lb
West :
i
Nov. 5
925
Messrs. D. Harris and
D. van der Wilden
For Western Gardeners : —
Bulbs.
t. 19
6.45
Messrs. D. Harris and
L. D. C. McLees
Seeds
Foot-and-Mouth Disease. — No further outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth
Disease was confirmed in the Infected Area which covered parts of the
North Ridijjg of Yorkshire and of the County of Durham subsequent to
the initial outbreak at Marske on September 12, and, therefore, the area
was first contracted to approximately 5 miles radius round the infected
premises on September 27 and finally released from restrictions on
October 4.
Further outbreaks of disease were confirmed on October 4 at Fairlight,
Hastings, East Sussex, and on October 5 at Scamblesby, near Ix>uth,
Lines (Lindsey). The usual restrictions were imposed over areas of
approximately 15 miles radius round the respective premises. The areas
under restrictions lie in the county of East Sussex and in the county of
Lincoln (parts of Lindsey and Kesteven) respectively.
No further outbreaks have been confirmed in either of the Infected
Areas referred to in the preceding paragraph, and the areas were
contracted to approximately 5 miles round the infected premises of
October 19. Provided tlie disease position remains satisfactory, infected
area restrictions will be withdrawn from these Areas on October 26.
The existence of Foot-and-Mouth disease was confirmed at Thuming,
Norfolk, on October 16, and at Salhouse, Norfolk, and Worplesdon, Surrey
on October 17. The usual restrictions were imposed over a combined
area of 15 miles radius round the two infected premises in Norfolk, and
15 miles radius round the infected premises in Surrey. The areas under
restiiction in consequence of the outbreaks in Norfolk and Surrey lie in
the counties of Norfolkr and East Suffolk, and in the counties of Surrey,
Southampton, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Middlesex respectively.
814
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Principles of Economic Planning. By G. D» H. Cole. Pp. xxiii + 435.
(London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1935. Price 6s.)
In this book Mr. Cole's object is to indicate, once again, the defects of
the existing planless economic system, to demonstrate that the kind of
planning that may be possible nnder capitalism is not likely to set them
right, and to sketch the type of programme that a government resolved
to plan for the full utilization of economic resources under a system of
substantial equality of incomes ought, in his view, to set before itself.
This is hardly one of Mr. Cole's best books. It is long and ill arranged.
The exposure of the vices of planless capitalism is stale and over laboured.
There are some errors of fact : The British Wheat Act does not (as stated
on page 127) prescribe the use of a minimum quota of British wheat by
the milling industry ; and the levy which it imposes falls on all flour and
not imported flour only (page 171). The argument that Denmark has
experienced no hardship from the British bacon quota is hardly sub-
stantiated by the figures quoted in support of it (page 154), for these
figures relate to total British imports of bacon and hams (including
imports from Empire countries), and not those from Denmark alone.
The figures relating to Denmark alone, while reflecting a considerable rise
in price, nevertheless show a substantial fall in total value. Mr. Cole's
economic theory also tends to be dogmatic and slight. His view of the
effects of a tariff (p. 267) is strangely confused : "to the extent to which
the imposition of a du^ raises the home price of the dutiable goods, the
tariff begins to lose its effect, for importers can afford to pay the duty out
of the higher price." It is, of course, obvious that the possibility of
continued importation \vill ordinarily prevent prices from rising by more
than the amount of the duty, but if the foreign supplier pays the duty
out of the higher price it is not he at all but the home consumer who, in
the last resort, is paying it. In any case it is absurd to argue that a
tariff loses its effect in proportion as it raises prices. The matter is of
course, complicated by the ease or difficulty with which home production
respK>nds to the tariff ; but this is a point which Mr. Cole does not mention.
In the last part of the book Mr. Cole outlines the operation of a com-
pletely planned economy. This will, he thinks, involve the fixing of a
production programme for each industry, based on a forecast of demand ;
allowance being made for foreign trade (conducted as far as possible by
barter) and the forecast of demand being based on knowledge of the
planned distribution of incomes. Under the planned economy the greater
part of everyone's income is to take the form of a " social dividend " and
will not be a payment for work done ; but payments for work done will
still have to be made on a scale sufl&cient to provide the necessary incentives
to effort. Payments of interest, after a transitional period, will cease
altogether. Parliamentary government is assumed to survive in some
form, but Mr. Cole is not sure what the form will be. "A planned economy
may not be inconsistent with Fascism, but it is plainly inconsistent with
capitalist parliamentarism." The transition, however, is assumed to be
brought about by constitutional means, for Mr. Cole does not believe that
a revolutionary situation exists in Britain.
Mr, Cole believes that the tendency towards restriction of production
would not be so strong in agriculture as in other " sectionally planned "
(i.e., trustified or cartellized) industries, and he is therefore rather more
hopeful of the possibilities of agricultural planning under capitalism
than of planning in other industries. Marketing organization he thinks
815
Notices of Books
is indispensable ** as long as the actual production remains in the hands of
a large number of separate farmers.** Nevertheless, control of imports
is also necessary, and this can only be satisfactorily worked by Import
Boards. Import quotas alone are too expensive for the consumer and
benefit the foreign supplier as well as the home producer. More than
these measures, however, will be needed if agricultural planning is to be
tackled effectively. Mr. Cole suggests that the land ought to be
nationalized and the private landlord eliminated ; the State should assume
responsibility for providing fixed capital, and should insist on reasonable
standards of cultivation. Mr. Cole also favours experimentation— on the
lines suggested by Dr. Addison in his proposal for large-scale State farms
— in new niethods of productive organization. However, *' no one in
Great Britain proposes that the State should at any early point in the
process of socialization take the direct conduct of the greater part of
agriculture into its hands,**
*111® Internal Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Sheep, Their Treatment
and Control. By I. C. Ross, D.V.Sc., and H. M. Gordon, B.V.Sc.
P. XX 4 - 238 ; 46 plates and 35 text-figs. (London; Angus and
Robertson. 1937. Price 25s.)
It is very fitting that a text-book on the parasitic helminths of sheep
should come from Australia, where mutton and wool production hold
such an important place in animal husbandry. As the authors point out,
there is no more important source of disease and economic loss to the
sheep industry throughout the whole of the Commonwealth than that of
helminth parasites. They consider that there is ample reason for a publica-
tion such as this, treating the subject in a more specialized way than
has been done in various recently published text-books, and expounding
the association of the parasites with disease in a way that can be appreciated
by laymen. It has not been the aim of the authors to teach helminthology
to the sheep fanner, however, but only to enable him to obtain as much
information as possible from a book that is primarily written for the
scientific worker.
The arr^gement is the usual one of first giving a description of the
morphological characters of each group and species, and following with a
detailed account of life histories, epidemiology, methods of control and
treatment.
The helminths and helminthiases of Australian sheep receive the fullest
attention, but parasites that have not yet been located in Australia are
also included. The sections of fascioliasis, parasitic gastritis and nodular
disease are particularly full, and there is much interesting information
on the diagnosis and pathology of parasitic gastritis caused by the several
different species of tgichostrongyloid worms in the stomach and intestine.
Most, but not all of the observations on this subject tally with experiences
m this country, but it is surprising to find that diarrhoea is regarded as an
mvariable sympton of trichostrongylus infestation, difierentiating it
irom haemonchosis ; the faeces of sheep affected with trichostrongylosis
m the recent outbreak in this country were characterized by their hard
and dry nature, whereas profuse diarrhoea is usually associated with
haemonchosis. In mentioning the copper sulphate and nicotine sulphate
mixture that has been used for some time in South Africa and the United
States, and recently tried on an extensive scale in this country, attention
IS nghtly called to the narrow margin of safety between the toxic and the
curative dose, and the need for caution.
The text is clearly written and well illustrated by many original aind well-
chosen drawings and photographs. There are a few typographical errors,
816
Notices of Books
a reference to the appendix on p. 162 appears to be incorrect, two words are
transposed wrongly at the foot of p. 43, and " larva should read in the
plural on p. 80, but these are all that came to the reviewer's notice.
The third section of the book gives a brief account of methods of
collecting and preserving parasitic worms and of the diagnosis of hel-
minthic disease. An appendix on the relationship to sheep of the parasites
of the natural fauna of Australia, a glossary of the scientific terms (for the
use of laymen) and a good index complete a very useful addition to the
literature on sheep diseases.
The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. — Vol. XCVII.
Pp. cxlviii + 498. Ulus. (London : John Murray. 1936. Price 155.)
Practical agriculturists as well as research workers will find much useful
matter in the current issue of this very old-established annual publication.
In addition to the usual official reports and particulars of the Society's
activities during the past year, there are special articles on important
agricultural subjects. An illustrated article by Mr. R. T. Shears, entitled
“ Housing the Agricultural Worker," deals with conversion and recon-
ditioning under the Housing (Rural Workers) Act. Messrs. R. McG.
Carslaw and C. Culpin write on " Labour, Power and Equipment in
Arable Farming," Mr. M. Griffith on the Cahn Hill experiments in improve-
ment of hill grazings, and Dr. E. M. Crowther on " The Technique of
Modern Field Experiments," continuing the story told by Mr. G. E.
Fussell in a previous issue of the same journal. A useful paper on the
troublesome sheep tick (Ixodes ricinus) and methods of control, is con-
tributed by Mr. W. Lyle Stewart. Two illustrated articles by Mr. W. S.
Mansfield and Professor J. A. Scott Watson deal with the Cambridge
University Farm, and Mr. Clyde Higgs' Dairy Farms respectively, and
readers will agree that the descriptive caption, " Notable Farming
Enterprises," is well deserved. Professor R. Rae writes on " Systems of
Housing for Pigs," and Mr. R. S. Langford follows with a review of
"Changes in ^ef Imports before and after the Ottawa Agreement."
It may be fairly claimed that this old-established publication is in-
dispensable for those who desire to keep abreast of the latest develop-
ments in scientific agriculture.
Electrification of Agriculture and Rural Districts. By E. W. Golding,
M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E., Mem. A.I.E.E. Pp. xii -j- 244. (London ;
The English Universities Press, Ltd. 1937. Price 16s.)
This is one of a series of works on electrical engineering being published
by the English Universities Press. It is divided into three sections, the
first being a general review from the economic and social aspect, the
second describing the actual applications of electricity to agriculture and
rural work, and the third dealing with the purely electrical aspect.
Mr. Golding has therefore covered every aspect of his subject with some
thoroughness.
From the point of view of the farmer and the farmer's wife, Part II
would be the most interesting section. This deals with the practical uses
of electricity for lighting, heating and domestic work, and generally for
providing power for farm jobs and in relation to horticultural o^rations.
The information provided is quite comprehensive and detailed. It
describes such things as electric cookers in detail, stating their cost and
the economies and advantages of their use, while from the information
supplied, the charges for running them at local rates can be readily
calculated.
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Notices of Books
Sufficient has already been written about the application of electric
power to farm operations to give every reader of this Journal a good idea
of the variety of ways in which this source of power can be adapted for
farm work. Mr, Golding's detailed description of the available apparatus
and of its use on the farm is as adequate as is that of its use in the
farmhouse.
The general discussion with which the book opens will undoubteffiy
meet with some criticism. Few people are in entire agreement on any
general question relating to farming* and Mr. Golding has dared to take a
definite standpoint* although he admits in his preface that all that he has
done is to attempt to present a fair review of the whole question in so far
^ this is possible by one in the electrical engineering profession.
World Consumption of Wool, 1936 . A Supplement to " Wool Intelligence
Notes," prepared in the Intelligence Branch of the Imperial Economic
Committee. Pp. 126. (London: His Majesty's Stationery ’Office.
1937. Price 25 . 6d.)
The latest issue of the Imperial Economic Committee's annual review
of wool textile activity in the chief manufacturing countries not only
gives a general -picture of the position and trends during the year 1936,
but also, in the majority of its tables, enables comparisons to be made with
previous years from 1930.
The improvement in the demand for wool, which began in I935» con-
tinued progressively in 1936, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Poland and
the United States of America being mainly responsible for increased
imports of raw wool. Imports into France were much reduced, owing,
it is suggested, to general industrial conditions, and to a shrinkage in
exports of the processed article. Germany and Italy suffered from a
shortage of supplies, owing to their inability to find sufficient foreign
exchange for imports of wool, while in Japan activity was somewhat
hampered, in the latter half of the year, as a result of the trade dispute
with Australia. The United States, which had for some time been working
out its domestic stocks, bought largely in both Australia and South America
in the latter part of 1936.
Prices showed moderate fluctuations early in the year, but latterly a
definite upward trend was in evidence. The rise was most marked in the
lower qualities of crossbred wools, and one reason suggested for this was
the utilization of these grades in goods for Coronation decoration.
Statistical appendices provide useful information regarding world pro-
duction of, and trade in, raw wool, and wool tops, yarns and tissues.
Orchard and Small Fruit Culture. By E. C. Auchter and H. B. Knapp.
3rd Edition. Pp. xxi -f- 627, and 278 Figs. (New York : John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. ; London : Chapman & Hall, Ltd. 1937. Frice 255.)
This book was written in 1929 and revised in 1932. In this new edition
the work of revision has centred on bibliographical and statistical material.
The conditions described are such as prevail in different parts of the
United States of America, but the general principles of fruit production
are the same the world over. •
The chapter on harvesting, storing and marketing is particularly valuable,
the sound advice given being supported by many statistical tables showing
where apples are produced, proportions of different grades due to the
variety and the grower, causes of low grades, storage holdings in different
months and seasons, price tendencies, exports, etc. Marketing and the
reasons for successes and failures in co-operative enterprises are considered.
818
Notices of Books
The chapter on establishing the orchard is also supported by statistics
showing apple regions and varieties, effect of soil on grades, and increasing
or decreasing popularity of varieties. In dealing with nutrition, the absence
of response to potash applications under their climatic conditions is
striking in comparison with the marked results obtained in this country.
The chapters on fruit production describe good practice similar to our
own, but more attention is given to the management of orchard soils,
including the use of mulch and cover crops to maintain organic matter —
a point that does not always receive the attention that it needs in this
country.
It is curious that the only method of exhibiting apples mentioned is
on plates, in view of the popularity of commercial fruit shows here. The
production of small fruits is only briefly mentioned. A valuable feature
of this book in addition to the statistical tables already mentioned, is the
long lists of books, bulletins, circulars and scientific papers, with dates of
publication, given at the close of each chapter.
Uber Abschreibungen und Wertungen im Landwirtschaftlichen Betrieb
(Depreciation and Evaluation in Agriculture), By G. Klauder, Ph.D,
Pp. 87. (Berlin : Paul Parey, 28-29 Hedemannstrasse. 1937.
Price RM.6.20.)
In this brochure. Dr. Klauder discusses the relation between writing-
off and the actual business of the farm, and how it has the effect of a
distribution of expenditure, but not of a simple statement of the position
regarded solely from the viewpoint of capital. A critical examination of
the various forms of procedure for writing-off, shows that some are well
adapted to wear and tear, consumption, etc., while others are inconvenient
to manage. The discussion is necessarily technical, but it will repay study
by the economist who is interested in the business management of the
farm.
Egg Prices : A Study of the Factors Affecting Prices and Production. —
By O, J. Bcilby. Pp. 66. (Oxford : Agricultural Economics Research
Institute, Parks Road. 1937. Price 2s, 6 d.)
The post-war expansion of the poultry industry reached its highest
point in 1934, since when there has been a gradual decline in the number
of birds kept on holdings of over one acre. To a considerable extent this
decline is due to unfavourable prices in relation to production costs,
especially evident in the abnormally low egg prices prevalent during last
winter. Mr. Beilby*s study of egg prices makes its appearance at a critical
juncture in the history of poultry-keeping. He deals with the various
problems in an able and impartial manner, and gives a clear and concise
explanation of the causes of price fluctuations and the influence of the
chief factors affecting egg prices, viz., demand, home supplies and imports.
The policy of import restriction so strongly advocated by certain
sections of the industry is not considered by the author to be an effective
means of ensuring an immediate return to better prospects for poultry-
keepers, the decline of prices being attributed mainly to larger home
supplies. It is stated that 66 per cent of the price changes between one
year and another is due to home production, 19 per cent, to changes in
demand and only 5 per cent, to changes in imports. The general conclusion
is that to achieve even a slight improvement in prices the cut in imports
would have to be so disproportionately great that the adoption of such a
policy would be almost impracticable. Other important facts connected
with poultry-keeping are discussed, while the report also gives details
819
Notices of Books
of the changes in home production, in imports and the countries from
which they come, the changes in feeding stuff prices and the increase in
mortality rates. This brochure should assist to an understanding of some
of the problems that confront the poultry industry.
World Trade and Its Future. By Sir Arthur Salter. Pp. loi. (Phila-
delphia : University of Pennsylvania Press ; London : Humphrey
Milford. 1936. Price ys. 6d.)
This book consists of a reprint of five lectures given by Sir Arthur
Salter at Swarthmore College in the spring of 1936. After briefly describing
the characteristics of world trade as it was carried on before the Great
War, Sir Arthur surveys developments during the post-war period and the
depression, and concludes with a final lecture entitled ** A policy for world
tr^e in the future.’* Among the fundamental economic conditions of the
present time perhaps the most important is the changing trend of popula-
tion growth. This has freed the western world from the fear of, food
shortage, but we are confronted with an immense problem of transfer.
** There must be a large movement from the land into industry, the
distributive trades and into personal services of all kinds.” At the same
time the adjustment of production to demand is likely to be a much
more difficult matter than during the period of expansion in the nineteenth
century.
Writing before the tripartite currency agreement of last year, Sir
Arthur gives first place among his practical proposals to a removal of
uncertainties as to the relative value of currencies by some form of pro-
visional stabilization, possibly leading to the re-establishment of a gold
standard, a development which he inclines to favour. He nevertheless
makes it clear that the gold standard must be purged of its abuses, and
in particular that Central Banks must co-operate to prevent wide variations
in the general level of gold prices. Foreign investment he thinks will
remain at a lower level than in the pre-depression period, though it may
rise again in the not distant future. As regards the removal of tariffs and
other trade impediments, Sir Arthur believes that progress is most likely
to be made as a result of an examination by each country of its import
policy on the basis of a clear conception of its national policy as a whole.
Proposals could then be prepared for the removal of anomalies and the
encouragement of imports of the types favoured by the national policy ;
and these would provide the basis for negotiation with other countries.
Such negotiations, however, should be bilateral or plurilateral rather than
universal ; and for successful negotiation under these conditions Sir
Arthur believes a modification of the most-favoured-nation clause to be
desirable so as to permit the formation of low-tariff groups of countries
whose mutual concessions need not necessarily be extended to the outside
world. The Ouchy Convention of 1932, and the resolutions of the
Montevideo Conference of 1933, are quoted as models.
Sir Arthur’s is an eminently realistic outlook, progressive but free
from doctrinaire attachment to unattainable ideals. It is well summed
up in his concluding sentence : ” We must, I suggest, regard our present
economic nationalism not simply as an enemy we have to slay but as the
possible parent — with proper encouragement and education — of a better
system than itself.”
La3dnft Battery Management. By H. E. Swepstone. Pp. 16. (London:
The Feathered World, 1936. Price 6i.)
Intensive methods of commercial egg farming offer many advantages
to the poultry-keeper who, in these days of keen competition and low
prices, is compelled to give very careful consideration to all the factors
820
Notices of Books
that control costs of production, and there is an urgent need for the
information contained in this practical little booklet. The subject is
dealt with in as concise a manner as possible, and only essential and
practical information is given within the restricted limits imposed by a
publication of this size. The illustrations and letter-press are of undoubted
practical value, and the booklet should find a wide circulation among
poultry-keepers.
Deserts on the March. By Paul B. Sears. Pp. 231. (Norman : University
of Oklahoma Press, New York ; Simon and Schuster. 1937.
Price $2.50.)
In 1798, the Rev. T, R. Malthus published his remarkable ** Essay on
the Principle of Population,'* in which he demonstrated conclusively the
tendency, recognized by certain earlier philosophers, for population to
increase to the point of pressure on the means of subsistence. The great
colonization of the nineteenth century and the agricultural possibilities
opened up by the introduction of artificial fertilizers furnished an apparent
answer to Malthus' alarmist theories. In recent yearsT however, the
supposedly infinite horizon has suddenly shrunk, and the world to-day
can see the limit of its agricultural possibilities. In no country has the
realization of a limit to natural resources been more forcible than in the
United States, and Professor Sears' book is one of several recent works
on the subject of soil wastage and soil conservation.
‘ ‘ Deserts on the March " is a remarkable study of the impact of man
on nature. When the colonist arrives in a virgin land he intrudes on a
long-established equilibrium. How disastrous to the soil this intrusion
may be is shown by examples from China, India and Egypt. The author's
main theme is the story of the pillage of the soil resources of the United
States by the white settlers. It is interesting to note that he considers
the British to have been more reckless in spoliation than the German
and Dutch colonists, who brought with them to the New World a tradition
of conservative agriculture.
The essential facts of the tragic stor}' are well known — exhaustive
cultivation resulting in loss of humus, deterioration of soil structure,
erosion, and ruin. Erosion affects the river systems, burdening them with
silt, whereby their beds are dangerously raised in their lower reaches.
The removal of the natural cover and the exposure of unabsorptive sub-
soil increases the frequency and severity of floods. During recent years,
the disastrous dust storms in the West have also shown that arable cultiva-
tion has been pushed too far in the direction of the desert.
Professor Sears, whilst painting in vivid colours the tragic picture of
pillage and waste, believes that the situation may yet be saved. His
solution of the problem goes deeper than the technical methods of soil
conservation. Whilst stressing the need for, more technical knowledge
he pleads for an increased sense of responsibility for the natural resources
of the nation. He also urges national action, possibly through taxation,
to encourage good and discourage bad management.
The destruction and waste that have gone on in the United States have,
happily, not occurred in our own country. In spite of Professor Sears'
strictures on the British colonist, the fanner at home has not had the
opportunity to be other than conservative in his methods. Yet the
principles underlying soil conservation and the possible dangers of reckless
exploitation should be familiar to everyone interested in agriculture,
above all to those connected in any way with the utilization of the land
of our Empire overseas, to much of which Professor Sears' arguments
are directly applicable.
‘‘Deserts on the March " may be strongly recommended. The author,
821
Notices of Books
a master of his subject, tells his story vigorously and dramatically. That
it has reached a third printing in the year of publication is sufficient
evidence of its success in the author's own country.
Grass Drying. By E. J. Roberts, M.A., M.Sc. Agricultural Research
Council. Report No. ii. Pp. 125, 14 figs, and map. (London :
His Majesty's Stationery Office. 1937. Pi'ice 2s.)
Grass Drying. By S. W. Cheveley, M.Sc. Pp. 127, and 9 figs. (London:
Ivor Nicholson & Watson, Ltd. 1937. Price 6s.)
The literature of grass drying grows apace, and it is inevitable that
among the numerous publications in this, the initial stages of the process,
very much the same material should be found. It is in the manner of
presentation that the greatest differences arise, and the greatest difference
between these two works is that the second is the work of an enthusiast
and the first is that of an unbiased investigator. Mr. Chevel^ is
apparently convinced about grass drying, but it may be suspected that
he expresses his opinions too confidently. It has not yet b^n proved,
for instance, that dried grass will do all and even more than can be done
with cakes.
Mr. Roberts' work* was undertaken for the Agricultural Research
Council, and he visited most of the grass drying outfits in this country
and travelled abroad to investigate them in other countries. His book,
as is indicated above, contains very much the same material as that of
Mr. Cheveley, but the material is presented with more caution. Both
books deal extensively with the available machinery for. drying, with the
management of grass land for drying, and with the apparatus required to
enable young short grass to be cut. Either of them forms a valuable
introduction to the subject, and if the two are read in conjunction with
the Oxford Agriculture Research Institute Bulletin reviewed in this
Journal for June, anyone who is interested in the subject will obtain a
complete review of present knowledge on the subject.
Plant Ecology. By Hilda Drabble. Pp. 142 Sc 24 Figs. (London :
Edward Arnold & Co. 1937. Price 75. 6 d.)
The teaching of " Nature Study " in schools and colleges is now largely
replaced by Ecology, which, on a more scientific basis deals with the
" home-life " of animals and plants, their relationships one to another,
and their grouping into communities. There has therefore arisen a need
for text-b^ks of several standards. The present work is an adequate
presentation of the chief environmental factors that influence the ecological
distribution of plants in Britain, followed by accounts of the chief plant-
communities. The subject is carried approximately to the Interm^iate,
or nearly to the Pass, B.Sc. standard of I^ndon University, but no scheme
of practical or field-work is suggested, except in a meagre epilogue. This
is unfortunate, for it would be a grave mistake in botanical education if
plant ecology were to develop as a cramming subject. It should be made
impossible to answer ecological questions except on the basis of personal
observations and experiments. If used as a guide to the type of research
the student can carry out in woodlands, grass land, marshes, and by the
coast, Mrs. Drabble's book should fulfil a useful purpose. The accounts
of the plant communities are concise, accurate, and written in a clear
unambiguous style. The importance of autecological studies and experi-
ment is neglected and the work is essentially limited to sytiecology. As
a text-book of plant-ecology it is therefore incomplete. Twelve excellent
double plates, mostly from photographs taken by Professor E. J. Salisbury,
illustrate typical plant communities. A short bibliography and a list of
test questions is given.
82a
NoTicss OF Books
Jefferies* England : Nature Essays. By Richard Jefferies. £d. by
Samuel J. Looker. Pp. xxxvii -f 35^, and 24 figs. (London :
Constable. 1937. Price 85. 6d.)
The recrudescence of a literature sentimentalising over the countryside
reveals the artificiality of the Augustan age, when Watteau shepherdesses.
Gay's poems and other examples of a truly urban appreciation of a rustic
holiday were multitude. The last decade, because we can print more
speedily and forget more rapidly, has seen the issue of a vast quantity of
work of this genre. In these circumstances it would have been profoundly
astonishing if the more descriptive essays written by Richard Jefferies
had not been gathered together and reprinted. It was an obvious thing
to do and two editors have come forward with such a production.
Samuel J. Looker's " Jefferies' England " is a selection of essays, of a
particular type, made from five volumes of miscellaneous essays. They
define, according to the editor, th^ latest and most developed period of
Jefferies' life and thought, but many people would be inclined to join
issue with him. The beauty of these descriptive passages cannot be
denied, and indeed no one would wish to deny it : but description of
nature, saturated as it may be with a mystical philosophy whose definitions
are none too clear, is no more than a pleasant pastime for a naturalist of
the quality of Jefferies.
Other work that he did is likely to be of far more permanent value.
In such works as " Hodge and his Masters " and “ Toilers of the Field "
he has placed on record the conditions of life of human beings in the
countryside, and has used all the great artifice he possessed to dramatize
these living people. Incidentally, he fills in a background of the environ-
ment in which they lived, so that we see both the people and the country.
Of course, this is a question of taste. For .some the way of living of
mankind is the one thing they find of interest ; for others these details
abstract all their pleasure in field and hedgerow. To these last “ Jefferies'
England " will be a source of unfailing enjoyment.
Growth Hormones in Plants. By P. Boysen Jensen. Translated by
G. S. Avery and P. R. Burkholder. Pp. xiv -f 268, 64 figs, and 17
tables. (London : McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Ltd. 1936.
Price 2 IS.)
Although the idea of growth-promoting and growth-retarding substances
in plants was suggested by the early botanists, and accepted by Darwin,
it was not until 1910 that the hormone concept, with all that it implies,
was applied to plants by Fitting; but such has been the rapidity of
advance of this once controversial subject that to-day plant hormones
can be extracted, analysed and even crystallized ; and their action can
be measured and predicted with an exactitude comparable to that
associated with any other compound occurring in the plant.
No comprehensive review of this vast new field of experimental biology
was available until Boy sen- Jensen, who has himself contributed much of
the important experimentation on the subject, published his book entitled
Die Wuchsstoffe und ihre Bedeutung fUr die Analyse des Wachstums und
der Wachstumsbewegungen der Pflanzen, which presented a complete
historical review of the subject. An English translation of this classic
is greatly to be welcomed, especially as it has been the occasion of a
revision of the original text and an extension of the field to cover the
literature published during 1935-
All the main contributions to the subject of gprowth substances
(Wtichsstoffe) in plants are reviewed, critically but wi^out undue b^.
From this review we learn the technique of the investigations on which
conclusions are based, and many interesting facts about the behaviour
823
Notices of Books
of the growth substances. Minute quantities of these substances when
present in plant stems stimulate growth, so that unilateral application in
sensitive organs such as the A vena coleoptile brings about curvature, the
degree of which can be used as a measure of the amount of hormone
present.
The growth hormone occurring in different plants is the same, and
identical substances (auxin) have been extracted from a variety of other
sources, both plant and animal. They have been prepared in a crystalline
condition and their chemical composition and structure have been deter-
mined. Three compounds have been found to possess the hormone
properties, and are referred to as auxin a, auxin b and 3-indole acetic
acid (heterauxin). Various other compounds possess similar properties,
though to an inferior degree.
The transport of the growth hormones is a matter of great interest.
In living tissue they move only in a basi-petal direction and independently
of concentration, so that they are capable of moving along a gradient,
from a lower to a higher concentration ; this capacity can be reversibly
abolished by anaesthesia. The rate of transport is too rapid to be accounted
for by diffusion, though they can also be transported in the transpiration
streaun through the dead cells of the xylem.
A further curious fact, showing that the action of the growth substances
is intimately bound up with the vital processes of the plant, is that roots
are in all respects opposite in their reaction to stems* root growth being
inhibited rather than promoted by the presence of the same hormones
that are essential for stem growth. The growth of axillary buds is also
retarded by a substance produced by the terminal bud and there is eveiy
indication that this is the ordinary growth substance. Phototropic
movements are accompanied by a differential distribution of the growth
substance within the illuminated organ and a similar unequal distribution
of the growth hormone is observed when a plant is placed horizontally
and undergoes geotropic movements. The hormone is the same in both
shoots and roots, only the reactions of the tissue in the two organs being
opposite. These observations have greatly added to the difficulty of
finding a satisfactory explanation of the action of the plant hormones and
no very definite conclusion has yet been reached as to their mechanism.
There are indications in certain experiments, however, that the substance
is actually consumed during growth, and not merely catalytic in action.
Some authors have attempted to associate the movement with differences
in electrical potential and it has been observed that the substance tends
to move towards a region that is electropositive.
Another effect of the growth substances, and one that may have immense
practical importance, is their action upon cell division and cambial activity ;
thus the presence of hormone stimulates callus formation and root develop-
ment, and may even bring about the occurrence of this in plants that
normally form little or no callus. When this is so the rooting of cuttings
may be promoted, so that propagation by this means becomes possible
in plants that are otherwise not capable of vegetative propagation. One
can foresee many practical developments on these lines by the appropriate
use of plant hormones, and more than one firm is now marketing pre-
parations of this nature for which great claims are made.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationery OmcE*
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 9 December, 1937
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Royal Veterinary College and Hospital
On November 9, the King, accompanied by the Queen,
opened the new buildings of the Royal Veterinary College.
Their Majesties were attended by the Minister of Agriculture
and were received at the College by the Duke of Gloucester,
President of the College, Lord Crewe, Senior Vice-President,
and Sir Merrik Burrell, Chairman of the Council. Sir Merrik
Burrell read an address to the King as follows : —
“ May it Please Your Majesty,
" The Court and Council of the Royal Veterinary College
gratefully acknowledge the signal honour conferred on every
one connected with the college, and, indeed, on the veter-
inary profession as a whole, by your Majesty in graciously
consenting to open these new buildings and by her Majesty
the Queen in being present with your Majesty.
" These buildings replace old buildings erected in 1791,
during the reign of King George III. In all probability,
his Majesty took a personal interest in the efforts of the
then Duke of Northumberland and other gentlemen to raise
the funds necessary to create the first veterinary college in
Great Britain, for, a few years before that time, as Elector
of Hanover, he himself founded the Hanover Veterinary
School.
" The college is fortunate in the possession of portraits of
King George III and Queen Charlotte, and will be even more
fortunate when it possesses the portrait for which your
Majesty has so kindly undertaken to sit, and which is to be
painted by Mr. PhiUp de Laszlo,* and most generously
♦ The Ministry regrets to record the death of Mr. de Laszlo on
NovemW 22.
A Ses
Notes for the Month
ftBBeaalad: by bun to the college in memoiy ol your
M«}ec^*s pmeacfi here to-day.
"iThe co&ege has had the honour of continuous Royal
patronage since 1830, and received its first Royal Charter
in 1875; this was re-granted in a revised form in 1936.
His Royal Highness the l>ake of Connaught was its
president from X9Q4 to I93S« when His Royal Highness
tbe Duke of Gloucester honoured us by succeeding him.
Sonte 14 years ago,, the old buildings had become so out-of-
date, so inadequate, and so dilapii^ted, that it was resolved
to demolish them comj^etely ai»l to rebuild on the same
site, with additional adjoinii^ land— the whole purchased
from dee Ecclesiastical Commissioners. The wisdom of the
governors’ decision was confirmed by a Departmental
Committee.*
" The governors have had a very hard task in trying to
collect the necessary funds, but with the assistance of a grant
of ;^i50,ooo from the Government and with the help of many
generous subscribers a sum of £285,000 has become avail-
able. A further sum of £40,000 is still needed to build the
large animal hospital and operating theatre, so completing
the building scheme, and to provide the full scientific equip-
ment of the college.
“ We are confident that the opening of these new buildings
will open wide also the doors of a new era in the history of
the veterinary profession in this country.”
The King accepted the address and, in reply, said : —
‘ ‘ I thank you sincerely for your address. The Queen and
I are very glad to be here to-day, as we are deeply interested
in the prosperity of the livestock industry in this country.
Indeed, the well-being of the whole corrununity depends
largely on the health of our domestic animals being cared for
by a highly-trained veterinary profession.
"The value of the annual output of food from animal
sources amounts to over £170,000,000, but there is a very
considerable wastage through disease. This serious economic
loss to the country can be greatly reduced, thanks to the
rapid advance of science in recent years; even so, furtiier
♦ The Committee was appointed by the Minister of Agriculture in 1928
and was under the Chairmanship of Sir C. J. Martin, C.M.G., M.B.,
D.Sc., F.R.S.
8 a6
Notes for the Month
research is continually needed to extend the methods of cure
and — what is still more important — the prevention of disease.
“ My Government is taking steps to form a national veter-
inary service, through which to conduct a vigorous attack
on animal diseases on a national scale; but successful
research, wise administration, and efficient practice all
depend on the sound education of the individual.
"It is, therefore, very gratifying that, with financial
assistance from both public and private sources, the former
board of governors of the Royal Veterinary College should
have been able to reconstruct it on modem lines. I trust
that the funds necessary for the completion of the hospital
will be forthcoming shortly.
" In declaring the new buildings of the college open, I
should like to congratulate Major Maule, the architect, on
the splendid result he has achieved, and to express the hope
that the important work which lies before the new court,
council, and staff may be successfully accomplished.”
Farmers are well aware of the importance to agriculture of
this development in veterinary education. The new Veter-
inary College building accommodates teaching departments of
medicine, anatomy, pathology and physiology; a general
assembly and lecture hall to seat 300; four lecture theatres,
each seating 100; the students’ library, refectory, and kitchen;
men and women students’ and staff conunon rooms; and a
residential fiat for the Principal.
Each department includes small private laboratories for
individual research by the staffs, and there is accommodation
for post-graduate teaching and research work by visitors from
other centres at home or abroad. The building also houses a
department of preventive medicine.
The Research Institute in Animal Pathology was built in
1924, and is connected to the main college block by a wing
containing a large pathological teaching museum, wiffi animal
quarters below. The various hospital quarters, with opera-
ting theatres, include the Beaumont Animals’ Hospital (a free
clinic founded a few years ago for the treatment of animals
owned by poor people), the canine hospital, and the animal
husbandry department with a smedl model dairy.
At the present time the College has 367 students. State
assistance in respect of the educational work carried on was
given from 1795 to 1815, and has been renewed since 1907.
A 2 827
Notes for the Month
Agriculture Act; 1937: Part IV (Diseases of Animals)
In the note on this subject in the last issue of this Journal
(pp. 725-731) it was stated that the date provisionally fixed for
Part IV of the Agriculture Act, 1937. to come into operation
is January i, 1938, but that in view of the large amount of
preliminary work necessary it was not then possible for a defi-
nite announcement to be made on the subject. The question
has been further considered and it has been decided to adopt
the procedure outlined in the following circular letter which
was addressed to local authorities on November 12. It will
be noted that the Minister expects to be in a position on April i,
1938, to assume responsibility for the functions to be' trans-
ferred, and that it is accordingly proposed that Part IV of the
Act should come into operation on that date.
November 12, 1937.
Circular Letter Addressed by the Secretary of the Ministry
OF Agriculture and Fisheries to Local Authorities concerned
IN THE Application of Part IV (Diseases of Animals) of the
Agriculture Act, 1937
Sir,
1. I am directed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries to refer
to the Circular Letter addressed to local authorities on the 28th July last
on the subject of the transfer of veterinary functions under Section 19
of the Agriculture Act, 1937, express his cordial appreciation of
the manner in which the Questionnaires enclosed therewith were completed
by local authorities. The information thus furnished has proved invaluable
to the Minister in formulating the initial plans for the transfer of personnel
and functions contemplated by the Act.
2. The Minister is now in a position to indicate to local authorities,
in broad outline, his proposals for the field organization of the State
Veterinary Service, and the procedure to be followed with a view to
effecting the smooth transfer of functions on the ** appointed day.’'
Field Organization of State Veterinary Service
3. Great Britain will be divided into 78 Divisions, each in charge of
a Divisional Inspector, and Divisions will be grouped into Areas, each in
charge of a Superintending Inspector. Each Division will, in most cases,
consist of a single administrative county, but in some a group of counties,
in which the volume of work would not justify the employment of more
than one Inspector of Divisional rank, will form a Division. Each Division
will include the county and other boroughs (or burghs) geographically
situated therein which are separate local authorities for the purpose of
the Diseases of Animals Acts. The Divisions and Areas will be distributed
as follows : —
Divisions
Areas
England , .
. .
45
13
Wales
, .
13
2
Scotland ..
-
• . 20
7
Total
• .
78
22
8«8
Notes for the Month
It is contemplated that in each Division there will be a Divisiona
Office, situated wherever possible in the county town within easy access
of the County Council Offices. A list of the Divisions, with the proposed
location of the Divisional Office, is enclosed. In cases in which a County
Veterinary Department is at present housed in a part of the County
Offices, or in a separate building in the vicinity, the Minister hopes that
it may be possible for the Council concerned to let the accommodation
for use by the Ministry as a Divisional Office, if only as a temporary
arrangement pending provision of permanent accommodation if necessary
elsewhere. In this connexion I am to say that H.M. Office of Works have
been asked to make the necessary arrangements for the provision of
Divisional Offices, and that Department will be communicating at an
early date with the County Councils concerned.
Procedure in Regard to the Transfer of Functions
4. If the transfer of functions is to be effected smoothly on the
appointed day ** it is very desirable that the key ” men in the new
organization, i.e., the Superintending Inspectors and the Divisional
Inspectors, shall be appointed and in position before that date. It is
proposed, therefore, to proceed forthwith with the appointment of three
senior men in local authorities’ service (two in England and Wales and
one in Scotland), and thereafter with the selection and appointment of
Superintending and Divisional Inspectors. It is hoped that local
authorities will allow those of their senior men who are offered these
appointments to accept the posts and take up their duties with the Ministry
so that they can proceed to make arrangements in their respective Areas
and Divisions for the transfer of functions on the ’* appointed day.”
Wherever possible a local authority officer appointed as Superintending
Inspector will be allocated to an Area including his old county. Similarly,
a local authority officer appointed as Divisional Inspector will, wherever
possible, be allowed to remain in his old county. There must, of course,
be exceptions, but in a large number of cases the ex-county veterinary
officer, although technically responsible to the Ministry and charged
with a wider range of duties, will be available to advise the junior staff
in carrying out the functions of the local authority until the ” appointed
day.”
The remaining veterinary staff, if they have applied for and been
offered appointments under the Ministry, will be transferred to the
Ministry’s service with functions as from the ” appointed day.”
Date of Operation of Part IV of the Agriculture Act, 1937
5. It will be appreciated that the process of selection, appointment and
allocation of the Superintending and Divisional Inspectors will take some
little time, and that the setting up of Divisional Offices in 78 cities and
towns throughout the country alone represents a task that would be
difficult to complete by the date originally contemplated as the ” appointed
day ” for the purposes of Part IV of the Act, viz., ist January. 1938.
It is clear that the transfer must be a gradual process, culminating in
the formal transfer of functions and the remaining local authority staff
on the ” appointed day.” After full consideration of all the circumstances,
it has been decided to defer the date of operation of Part IV of the
Agriculture Act, 1937, April. 1938. No order under Section 34 (3)
of the Act in this respect will be made at present, but the Minister con-
fidently expects to be in a position on that date to assume responsibility
for the functions to be transferred.
6. A further Circular Letter will be addressed to local authorities as
soon as possible dealing with other matters at present under consideration
in connexion with the transfer of functions.
829
Notes for the Month
7. 1 am to add that the arrangements outlined in this letter have been
discussed with representatives of the County Councils' Association and
the Association of Municipal Corporations, in England and Wales, and of
the Association of County Councils in Scotland, the Convention of Royal
Burghs, and the Association of Councils of Counties or Cities in Scotland,
who expressed general approval of the Minister's proposals.
I am. Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) Donald Fergusson.
Interesting Birds: (10) The Lapwing
The Lapwing, Peewit or Green Plover is a handsome and
conspicuous bird, well known to country folk generally. It
is one of the most useful of all our birds and is now rigidly
protected in most districts.
The Lapwing eats large numbers of insects and other pests.
Although it takes a good many earthworms, it also destroys
snails, slugs, wireworms, beetles, and the larvae of insects
such as the Crane-fly, Turnip and Cabbage Moths, and Yellow '
Underwing, which prey upon the roots of grass, turnips, cab-
bages and cereals. The Lapwing is also of service to the sheep-
rearer, as it eats water-snails that harbour the immature form
of the liver-fluke, which causes liver-rot in sheep.
The Lapwing breeds in April and sometimes even in March.
Its nest is a mere shallow hole or depression in the ground.
Quite often it is scooped out and rounded by the bird, but
sometimes it is nothing more than a natural hollow or tlie
imprint of a horse’s hoof. It is lined with roots, rushes, grasses
or other vegetable matter. The eggs are nearly always four
in number. Like the eggs of other plovers they are pear-
shaped, and are arranged by the bird so that the points of the
small ends meet in the centre. This facilitates even sitting
and easy covering by the bird. The eggs are very handsome,
and vary in ground colour from greenish-olive to pale ochre
and even light blue-grey. As a rule they are heavily blotched
and spotted with black.
The hen Lapwing is noted for its trick of luring away an
intruder by shamming injury, flapping along with one wing
trailing as if broken, or stumbling about in an endeavour to
attract an unwanted visitor away from the young.
The Lapwing renders great service to agriculture and is
well worthy of the title " The Fanners' Friend." Apart from
the fact that the bird and its eggs are protected by law, there
is no justification whatever for molesting so beneficial a species.
830
To fau pai^c 830
.a p wing approaching Nest Photograph Copyright by Eric J. Hosktng
Notes for the Month
Oxford Fanning Conference
In view of the interest aroused by die two piyirfous Confer-
ences, it has been decided to establish die Oxford Fanning
Conference as an annual event, to be held under the joint
auspices of the School of Rural Economy, the Agricultural
Research Institute and the Institute for Research in Agricultural
Engineering.
The earlier Conferences were confined to mechanized farm-
ing, but it has been decided that in the future diis occasion
shall provide a common meeting ground for farmers, research
workers and others, at which any subjects of particular interest
to British agriculture may be discussed.
The next Conference will be held on January 4-7, 1938, and
will deal mainly with the maintenance of fertility, with special
reference to the Government's agricultural policy and to the
control of weeds and pests.
Further particulars and the detailed programme will shortly
be available from the Conference Secretary, 10, Parks Road,
Oxford.
Coronation Planting Committee: A Record for the King
The Coronation Planting Committee are preparing a Record
of tree planting and amenity schemes, both public and private,
organized in commemoration of the Coronation in Great Britain
and in overseas Empire countries. The Record will be
presented to His Majesty by the Queen, as Patroness of the
Coronation Planting Committee. By permission of the King, the
volume will later be reproduced in a form suitable for purchase
by local authorities, libraries, museums, institutions and
interested individuals.
Details of some two thousand planting and amenity schemes
undertaken by local authorities and other public bodies, in-
cluding Coronation Committees, troops of Boy Scouts and Girl
Guides, Women’s Institutes and by private indSviduals in
the United Kingdom, have already reached the Committee.
Information has also been received of planting on a consider-
able scale in the Dominions and Colonies and of several notable
schemes from the United States of America.
For the assistance of the compilers of the Record, those who
have been responsible for any type of Coronation memorial
are asked to forward detailed particulars, on a special form,
which may be obtained from the Honorary Secretary, Corona-
Notes for the Month
tion Planting' Committee, 68, Victoria Street, Westminster,
S.W.i.
Much Coronation planting is expected to take place just now.
The Committee are particularly anxious to know of any
planting or other amenity schemes which have been held over
until the present season as well as those which were dedicated
earlier in the year; and they very much desire to receive the
information urgently, so that the Royal Record may be pre-
sented early in 1938.
Imported Poultry and Eggs
In consequence of the fact that in a number of instamces
poultry and eggs for hatching have recently been brought
from abroad, in apparent ignorance of the regulations which
govern the importation of such products, a Press notice calling
attention to the provisions of the Poultry and Hatching Eggs
(Importation) Order of 1936 was issued by the Ministry at the
end of October. The notice was in the following terms : —
The special attention of all poultry-keepers, particularly those
who may import poultry and hatching eggs from abroad, is
drawn to the requirements of the Poultry and Hatching Eggs
(Importation) Order of 1936, which controls the importation of
poultry and of eggs intended for hatching. Failure to comply
with Aese requirements, which are briefly indicated below,
renders the responsible persons liable not only to great incon-
venience and expense, owing to difficulties and delay in
delivery of the birds or eggs, but also to heavy penalties for
infringements of the law.
This Order, which has been in force since the beginning of
ffie current year, prohibits the landing in Great Britain of
live domestic fowls, turkeys, geese and ducks, if they have
been brought from any country offier than Ireland, ffie
Channel Islands or the Isle of Man, unless their landing has
been authorized by special licence previously obtained from
ffie Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, or, for consignments
of poultry (other than geese) not exceeding 21 birds, unless
they are accompanied by a veterinary certificate of ffie
scribed' kind. The Order also prohibits ffie landing in Great
Britain from any offier coimtry except Ireland, ffie Charmel
Islands, or the Isle of -Man, of day-old chicks of domestic
fowls or the eggs of domestic fowls intended for
hatching, unless the chicks or eggs, as the case may be, are
accompanied by a veterinary certificate. The veterinary
832
Notes for the Month
certificates required for both poultry and hatching eggs must be
signed by authorized officers of the Government of the country
of origin. Certificates issued by other veterinary surgeons
will not be acceptable.
Copies of the Order — which contains specimens of the
veterinary certificates required — and any other information
regarding this Order, may be obtained from the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, lo, Whitehall Place, London,
S.W.i.
Appointment of the Livestock Advisory Committee
Ifre Livestock Industry Act, 1937, provides for the consti-
tution of a Livestock Advisory Committee, with Sub-
Committees for England, Scotland and Wales, for the purpose
of giving advice and assistance to the Livestock Commission
in the discharge of their functions. The Act further provides
that the Committee shall consist of representative members
and four additional independent members; and that the repre-
sentative members shall be persons appointed as representing
respectively the interests of —
{a) persons carrying on in the United Kingdom the business of
keeping live stock,
(6) local authorities in Great Britain,
(c) persons carrying on in Great Britain the business of ettecting
sales of live stock by auction,
and such other interests concerned in the marketing, or pre-
paration for sale, of live stock or products of the slaughtering
of live stock as appear to the Ministers to be immediately
affected, or likely to be immediately affected, by the operation
of the Act.
After consultation with such bodies as appeared to them
to be representative of the various interests concerned, the
Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Secretary of State
for Scotland and the Secretary of State for the Home Depart-
ment have appointed the following to be members of the
Livestock Advisory Committee :
Chairman :
Sir John Chancellor, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.C)., D.S.O.
Other Independent Members :
Sir Francis Boys, K.B.E.
Sir Robert Greig. M.C., LL.D., D.Sc.
R. N, Jones, Esq.
Representatives a f Livestock Producers m the Umted Kingdom :
R F. Astill, Esq., J.P.
T. G. Clement. Esq.
W. Graham, Esq.
833
Notes for the Month
W. J. Hyndman, Esq.
C. T. Joice, Esq.
J. A. D. Pirie, Esq.
J. O, Steed, Esq.
T. Williams, Esq.
J. R. Wood, Esq., J.P:
Representatives of Local Authorities in Great Britain :
Lt.-Col. Sir Merrik Burrell, Bt., C.B.E.
A. Chadwick, Esq.
J. H. Dickson, Esq.
R. W. Hastings, Esq.
E. A. Hornsby, Esq.
Professor J. T. Share Jones, M.D. (V.h.c.), D.V.Sc.,
M.Sc., F.R.C.V.S.
Lord Provost Robert Nimmo.
Captain R. J. Thomson.
Lt.-Col. C. W. Whitaker, M.A.
Representatives of Livestock Auctioneers in Great Britain :
H. F. Finn-Kelcey, Esq., F.S.I., F.A.I.
D. S. Hutcheson, Esq., F.A.I.
F. A. Lloyd, Esq., F.A.I.
Major R. M. Woolley, F.S.I., F.A.I.
Representatives of other interests concerned in the marketing or preparation
for sale of live stock and products of the slaughtering of live stock :
Rt. Hon. A. V. Alexander, M.P.
A. A. Bonner, Esq.
C. A. Coggan, Esq.
G. H. Collinge, Esq., O.B.E.
R. Duncalfe, Esq.
T. H. Gill, Esq.
W. R. Hunter, Esq.
G. D. Pool, Esq.
A. Welsh, Esq.
R. Wood, Esq.
The Livestock Commission have appointed Mr. R. Ross,
M.B.E., to be Secretary of the Committee.
The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries has appointed the
following to be members of the English Sub-Committee of the
Advisory Committee : —
Sir Francis Boys, K.B.E. (Chairman).
Rt. Hon. A. V. Alexander, M.P.
P. F. Astill, Esq., J.P.
A. A. Bonner, Esq.
Lt.-Col. Sir Merrik Burrell, Bt.,
C.B.E.
A. Chadwick, Esq.
C. A. Coggan, Esq.
G. H. Collinge, Esq., O.B.E.
H. Dickson, Esq.
, Duncalfe, Esq.
H. F. Finn-Kelcey, Esq., F.S.L,
F.A.I.
834
T. H. Gill, Esq.
R. W. Hastings, Esq.
E. A. Hornsby, Esq.
C. T. Joice, Esq.
G. D. Pool, Esq.
S. O. Ratcliff, Esq.
J. O. Steed, Esq.
J. H. Walter, Esq., F.A.L.P.A.
Lt.-Col. C. W. Whitaker, M.A.
T. Williams, Esq.
J, R. Wood, Esq., J.P.
R. Wood, Esq.
Major R. M. Woolley.
Notes for the Month
The Secretary of State for Scotland has appointed the fol-
lowing to be members of the Scottish Suh-Committee of the
Advisory Committee: —
Sir Robert Greig, M.C., LL.D., D.Sc. (Chairman).
D. Brown, Esq.
T. G. Clement, Esq.
W. Graham, Esq.
W. R. Hunter, Esq.
D. S. Hutcheson, Esq.
Lord Provost Robert Nimmo.
J. A. D. Pirie, Esq.
J. A. Sinclair, Esq.
Captain R. J. Thomson.
A. Welsh, Esq.
The Welsh Suh-Committee will be constituted shortly.
The first meeting of the main Advisory Committee and of the
English Sub-Committee took place on October 28.
Pigs in England and Wales: 1935 to 1937
The following statement compares the estimated numbers
of pigs on farms in England and Wales on September 4, 1937,
with the corresponding figures in June and December of the
past three years :
1935 1936 1937
(thousands) (thousands) (thousands)
June . .
494
483
455
Sows for breeding
September . .
—
—
472
December
507
480
—
June . .
40
34
32
Boars for service
September . .
—
—
33
December
41
34
—
Other pigs, two
months and over J
' June . .
September . .
( December
2,074
2,5^9
2,187
2,580
2,107
2,628
Under two 1
months
r June . .
September . .
1,205
1,100
1,038
1,223
[ December
1,046
962
—
( June . .
3,813
3,804
3,632
Total
September . .
[ December
—
—
4,356
4.113
4,056
—
Although an inquiry on a voluntary basis has been carried
out in December of each of the past two years this is the
first occasion upon which the Ministry has obtained figures
of the pig population in September, There are accordingly
835
Notes for the Month
no corresponding figures (for this month in previous years)
that can be used for comparison with the figures now obtained.
The increase in the number of sows since June of this year is
similar to the increase between June and December in 1935,
and that increase was followed by a sharp decrease by the
following June. Similarly, there was a relatively small
decrease between June and December last year, but a much
greater decrease six months later.
Other pigs of 2 months and over increased by about 400,000
or more between June and December in each of the past two
years, although the figures in the following June declined, and
the increase of 500,000 between June and September .this
year may similarly be of a seasonal nature.
Forms of inquiry were sent out to all occupiers of agri-
cultural holdings over one acre in extent, numbering about
370,000, and the above figures were estimated from the
returns received from over 270,000. The information will be
of value in estimating the supplies of pork and bacon during
the next few months, and it will gain in value when compar-
able figures become available from the inquiries that the
Ministry of Agriculture proposes to undertake quarterly in
future.
Numbers of Turkeys
The Ministry announces that as a result of an inquiry on
September 4, the number of turkeys on agricultural holdings
in England and Wales on that date is provisionally estimated
at 975,000, compared with 683,000 on June 4. The increase
of 290,000 consists mainly of young turkeys hatched since
June 4, and represents an additional supply for the Christmas
trade.
Until a few years ago, the hatching season for turkeys in this
country was nearly over by the time the June 4 returns were
collected, and the increase now shown between June and
September is evidence of the manner in which farmers have
set themselves to cater for the Christmas demand for small
turkeys, a demand formerly met almost wholly by supplies
from the Continent.
836
IMPERIAL FRUIT SHOW; 1937
J. Turnbull,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
During the last few years it may well have been thought
that the leading exhibitors had so nearly reached perfection
in the presentation of their fruit that further advance was
impossible, but the appearance of the leading exhibits at the
Imperial Fruit Show at Birmingham this year showed a definite
advance on anything previously seen. The points on the
score cards can hardly show this, as there is a natural tendency
to mark down from the best exhibits in the particular show.
Many years ago one or two exhibits were awarded full marks,
but ftey would probably not have received more than 94 or 95
per cent, this year. Examples of outstanding merit in this show
were Mr. Gaskain’s King Edwards, which gained 97^ marks in
the British Empire class, 96I in the 22-box class and 98I in the
4-box class. Then there were Mr. T. Neame’s pears. Confer-
ence in half-boxes 98I, and in trays 97, Fertility 98J, and Glou
Morceau 98 in half-boxes and Comice 98 in trays. Such scores
were not confined to the old hands, as Mr. S. B. M. Bremner,
almost a newcomer, was awarded 97 for his winning exhibit
of Cox’s Orange Pippin in trays. Many more exhibits scored
between 96 and 97 per cent., some of these gaining no better
than third prize, so it will be seen what a very high standard has
been reached.
The larger classes attract the greater attention, and in the
British Empire section Messrs. W. Seabrook and Sons’ 10 boxes
of Worcester Pearmain and Mr. Gaskain’s 10 boxes of King
Edwards stood out above the other entries in their respective
classes, by reason of their very bright and attractive colours,
and were superb examples of showmanship. Unfortunately,
there was no Canadian entry this year, owing to the early
date of the show. In the 22 half-boxes of any dessert variety
Mr. H. Mount’s very bright Cox’s were better than Mr.
Seabrook’s Worcesters and both were well in front of the other
entries. In the 22 boxes of any culinary variety Mr, W. F.
Gaskain won easily with his King Edwards, though Mr.
Seabrook’s Monarchs were a good second. In the tray
classes Mr. S. B. M. Bremner won in the United Kingdom
837
Imperial Fruit Show, 1937
Championship section, but was defeated by the Rt. Hon, D.
Lloyd George in the United Kingdom section, the winning
exhibits in each section being outstanding for their wonderful
colour and finish, their fine grading and exceptional neatness
in packing. In the 4-box classes the prizes were well distributed.
In the Championship section, Mr, H, Mount won the Cox's
and Newtons, Dr, Fox, a newcomer, won the Ellisons, Mr. F.
Scott the Superb, and Hoveton Fruit Farm the Worcester (both
recent additions to the list of exhibitors), Mr. W. Brice won the
Bramleys, Messrs. W. C. Chandler the Lanes, and the
Eardiston Farming Co. the 3 half-barrels Bramleys. All of
these exhibits showed wonderful colour and skin finish in. the
fruit, and were well ahead in their packing.
In the United Kingdom section, from which previous first
prize winners were excluded, there were also some very fine
exhibits, the first prizes generally receiving 93 to 95 per cent,
of the marks and the seconds go per cent, or more. Glewstone
Plantations did particularly well, winning with Cox's Superb,
Newtons and Lanes, all being outstanding for their colour and
packing. In this section in particular there was a larger
number of newcomers than usual, and this augurs well for the
future of the show. Most of them had realized the need for
clean fruit, and some had evidently studied the very high
standard of packing required before entering. There y/ere a
few instances where there was too much disease and pest
marking, generally scab or tortrix caterpillar, some in which
packing was not quite up to show standard, and a few that
seemed to show no idea of any kind of packing at all. It is
to be hoped that the very detailed marking set down on the
score cards will enable them to see where they have fallen
short. Every exhibitor must make a beginning, and it is only
by continual striving and attention to detail that success can be
achieved.
Empire Apple Packing Competition. A new feature of
the Imperial Fruit Show this year was the Empire Apple
Packing Competition, open to packers selected to represent
the United Kingdom and any Dominion or Colony. There
were four competitors, two representing the United Kingdom,
one Canada and one New Zealand. The competition aroused
the keenest interest amongst the general public, who crowded
into each session, as well as amonpt fruitgrowers, who were
able to compare the methods of the different countries.
838
Imperial Fruit Show, 1937
Each competitor had to paok 3 boxes of apples twice a day
throughout the show, though for various reasons the boxes
packed on the first and last days of the show were not included
in the competition. The prizes offered were £20 and a gold
medal, £10, £5, and £4. In addition, 'each competitor
received a certificate.
Every session brought crowds of the general public who,
though quite unfamiliar with the technique, watched the
packers with close interest, and evidently recognizing that
each packer was an artist at her work, rewarded them with
acclamation. The stop clocks, devised by Mr. J. Stoddart of
the Ministry, made timing easy and were closely watched by
the public. The competitors, judges and all who assisted in
running the competition, are to be congratulated on the happy
air in which it was conducted.
It may be imagined that judging such a competition, in view
of the very great differences in the ideals of those brought from
all quarters of the globe, was a matter of great difficulty, involv-
ing the sacrifice of something by both sides. Mr. J. M. Jephson
of the Department of the Canadian Fruit Trade Commissioner
and Mr. W. H. Barker of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries were the judges and proved equal to the task. At
the beginning they discussed the points of principle that arose,
with the writer acting as Chairman of Judges. The method
adopted was extremely laborious, but it was essential to put
the verdict beyond dispute. The fact that their decisions have
been recognized by the competitors as just is sufficient testi-
mony to the care and fair-mindedness with which they carried
out Aeir duties.
In the score card used, 67 marks were allotted for quality of
pack and 33 for time, a total of 100 marks for each pack of
3 boxes, or 1,200 in all. While speed was desired, the marks
were intended to ensure that it was not gained at the expense
of quality of pack. When the competitors are all so good,
as shown by the veiy high marks awarded, it is hard to have
to place them in order of merit, but this is what the judges
had to do and the awards were : —
1. Mrs. Stillingfleet, Canada i,o68
2. Mrs. Delves, United Kingdom i,oo8
3. Mrs. Tong „ „ 996
4. Miss Ballantyne, New Zealand . . . . . . 984
The average times per box were 3 min. sec., 4 min. 10
sec., and 4 min. 6 sec., respectively, each box containing 175
839
Imperial Fruit Show, 1937
apples. Mrs. Stillingfleet was awarded 6 per cent, more than
Mrs. Delves on time and i per cent, less on quality of pack.
When not being judged for quality of pack. Mrs. Stillingfleet
averted under 2| min. per box, and Mrs. Delves under
min., and even then the packs were far above the ordinary
commercial pack for quality.
Mrs. Stillingfleet was undoubtedly the fastest packer and
is heartily to be congratulated. She hails from Kelowna, British
Columbia, and was chosen after a series of eliminating competi-
tions had been held. Though she had not previously packed
in public, she has trained new packers for some years and is
herself capable of packing 150 boxes a day. She is a worthy
representative of her country.
Mrs. Delves of East Peckham, Kent, and Mrs. Tong of
Boughton, Kent, were chosen from among 22 entries by 3
judges, who visited the farms. They have both demonstrated on
the Ministry’s stand for some years and are well known to
English fruit-growers. They have acquitted themselves well on
behalf of the United Kingdom and need not be disappointed,
when they consider how much more they were called upon
to do.
Miss Ballantync, the daughter of a New 2 k;aland fruit-
grower, happened to be in this country and agreed to represent
New Zealand. Her service should not be judged by her posi-
tion on the list. She is to be congratulated on her courage in
entering at all, as she had no means of knowing how she stood
in regard to other packers, either here, or at home. Her entry
added very greatly to the general interest in the competition
and made it a truly Empire one.
840
PRODUCTION OF BROCCOLI IN WEST CORNWALL
J. J. MACGREGOR, M.SC., B.Sc.
Among the new features that mark the agriculture of recent
years, the general farmer's excursions into more specialized
practice have received frequent notice. Of such excur-
sions is the production of market garden crops. The reasons
for this development vary with the local conditions. For
example, it may be that the prices realizable for alternative
crops offer more scope ; -that costs may be cut by mass produc-
tion: that surplus crops may be used as food for animals; that
a careful study of demand may show that it is possible to
replace imports excluded by specific duties; and that the
farmer may make fuller use of certain types of soil and take
advantage of a beneficial climate.
The following article seeks to analyse broadly the effect of
such factors as are applicable to the husbandry of West Corn-
wall, and in particular to indicate the economic effect of such
fiscal changes as might be expected to be advantageous to the
area.
While it is realized that specific changes may exert an in-
fluence on the husbandry of a district as a whole, a review of
the effect on one particular crop allows the concrete examina-
tion of economic theories on production and marketing from
observations based on practice and financial results. Broccoli
cultivation in West Cornwall represents a good example for
such an anal3^is because of the concrete evidence available
to measure the effect of fiscal and other stimuli.
(i) West Cornwall is readily isolated as an “ exporting ”
area; (2) because of the distance from the main markets the
traffic practically all goes by railway, thus making it possible
to obtain adequate statistics of monthly trade; (3) the cauli-
flower crop grown for export to other parts of the United King-
dom is almost entirely of the winter variety, so that official
data on “ cauliflower and broccoli ” acreage can be more
strictly related to one crop than it can in other counties, such
as Kent, which produces also for the summer market; (4)
there is a long tradition of broccoli growing on a double-
cropping system with early potatoes, marking a very intensive
841
Broccoli in West Cornwall
and highly specialized culture in the Penzance and Gulval
districts. In some ways, even as regards Cornwall, the avail-
able data are subject to definite limitations and qualifications,
but nevertheless a rough measurement of recent developments
may be found by examining some of the factors at work —
among which is the important fact that in recent years many
outlying extensive farms in the area have been turning to
broccoh growing as a sideline.
Acreage under Broccoli and Cauliflower. The Annual
Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture show that the area
of cauliflower and broccoli in the chief growing counties i§ as
follows, and that there has been a noticeable tendency in Kent
and Cornwall to increase the area; —
Table I
Chief Counties Growing Cauliflower and Broccoli*
1928
acs.
1929
acs.
1
, 1930
! acs.
i 1931
1 acs.
I
1932
acs.
1933
acs.
1934
acs.
1935
acs.
England and
Wales
13.478
13.863
14.557
15.783
17.671
20,695
20,107
19.538
Cornwall
i »555
1.735
2,176
2,599
3.463
3.409
3.517
3.367
Devon . .
123
118
118
135
182
305
317
372
Bedford
499
393
, 433
438
424
706
430
496
Essex . .
430
522
i 436
460
489
779
626
504
Kent . .
2.739
2,908
1 3.071
3.228
3.860
4.758
4.267
4 - 3*6
Lancaster
797
773
897
986
908
1,096
1.436
1.295
Stafford
397
424
465
501
469
518
597
596
Worcester
523
535 1
462
564
565
870
635
636
York, W.R. . .
915
981 1
1
1,091
1,028
939
1.074
1,187
».I 73
• It happens that on June 4, when these returns are collected, some
of the land in Cornwall is still under another crop, and therefore there is
a tendency to under-estimate the total area grown there, but how far
this applies to other counties is not known, although in Lines, where the
broccoli area runs to a big acreage, most of this is under potatoes at
June 4. In any event the winter variety is usually planted out before
the middle of July. Since 1931, according to the June 4 returns, the
counties of Gloucester, Hampshire, Lincoln (Holland), Norfolk, Notting-
ham and Warwick have all also shown significant areas, which exceeded
some of the areas shown in the above table.
Production and Marketing Costs. The writer, when a
member of the Economics Branch at Seale-Hayne College,
made a surveyf of some of the conditions of producing and
marketing the crop, and from carefully prepared estimates of
about 36 growers found that it was a costly crop to grow.
t Cost of Growing Broccoli in Devon and Cornwall, 1032-33, Farmers'
Report No. 7.
842
Broccou in West Cornwall
Indeed, the average estimates exceeded £21 for growing costs
alone, and, although this included items not demanding a
direct cash outlay, such as farmyard manure, which may
have exaggerated the high cost, the cost of other items may be
accepted. Of this growing cost over 40 per cent, was for
manures (for it is considered necessary to manure heavily
with “ mixed dressing ” of pile manure composed of well-
rotted humus, seaweed, etc., in addition to artificials); about
20 per cent, for man labour; slightly less than 20 per cent, for
rents; and about 10 per cent, for horse labour.
While a few growers sold the crop standing, the customary
practice was to prepare it for the distant markets, and this
implied cutting, grading, packing, wire and crates, etc.
There is considerable evidence that the high charges involved
and the expansion of production have stimulated better pro-
duction and grading and have even led to planned production,
i.e., timing the crop. Crates are now almost universally used
in place of the old coir nets, and although they are non-return-
able (and cost about 'jd.) it was believed that the outlay was
well repaid by the enhanced price of an attractively packed
crop. From the estimates it was found that the average cost
of preparing for market was about £16 per acre. The actual
figures are shown in the following table : —
Table II
Cost per acre of Preparing Broccoli for Market, 1932-33
I.
Wire, labels, etc.
£
1
s. d.
0 3
Per cent.
6*4
2.
Crates . .
Q
3 0
580
3 -
Cutting, grading and packing :
labour
4
3 II
265
4 -
Carting : horse labour
0
4 2
1*3
5 -
Road charges , .
I
4 ^
7*8
£15 15 10
100*0
In following the costs a stage further to include transport
and marketing at the wholesale markets, such as Covent
Garden, only a few detailed estimates were made available,
since most of the growers sold through a commission agent who
deducted these charges from the gross price. From the esti-
mates it was found that these costs were well over £20, as
shown in Table III, although the average total cost of
marketing for 12 other growers was £28 13s.
843
Broccoli in West Cornwall
Table III
Cost per acre of Transport and Marketing of Broccoli, 1932-33
s, d.
Per cent.
X . Rail charges
15
16 9
68-0
2, Porterage and market tolls . .
3. Sellers* commission
2
7 3
10*2
5
I II
21*8
£23
5 II
100 -o
Altogether these costs approximate to £6o per acre, and have
to be covered by the wholesale price before a profit remains to
the grower. Indeed the estimates of 12 of the growers indicated
that their average total cost was just over ;£bo.
For this particular reason it was extremely difficult to'form
an adequate idea of the returns to the grower, as during the
season ffie price was subject to violent fluctuations even from
day to day, so that in the absence of well-kept records it was
impossible for the producer to give any reliable estimate. Of
the production, however, it is possible to get a fairly adequate
idea of the total number of plants grown and cut. Twenty-
four growers planted an average of 8,600 plants and cut for
sale 6,800 — a number that would represent about 320 crates.
Prices: Trend and Seasonality. Adequate data on prices
are difficult to obtain. The Ministry of Agriculture Statistics
quote the seasonal average wholesale price of fruit and vege-
tables compiled from the Agricultural Market Report, which is
published weekly. The price quotations for Cornish Broccoli
are obtained from Birmingham, Bristol, Hull, Leeds, Liver-
pool, London, Manchester, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. The
following table shows the seasonal average so obtained.
Table IV
Season's Average Price of Cornish Broccoli :
per crate
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
s. d.
5. d.
s. d.
5. d.
5. d.
s. d.
I St quality .
. 13 6
II 3
9 5
9 10
14 3
12 6
2nd
. 10 3
8 8 71
per doz.
6 II
II 6
9 II
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
5. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
5. d.
s, d.
I St quality .
• 4 5
3 II
3 6
4 0
3 I
4 0
2nd „
. 3 5
3 0
2 9
3 2
2 4
3 0
As the crop is subject to frequent price fluctuations through-
out the growing season it is difficult to get any adequate idea
of individual growers’ returns but it is possible to get a closer
idea from the weekly quotations in the London market, the
844
Broccoli in West Cornwall
most important market for Cornwall, as reported in the Market
Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and as shown here.
Table V
Weekly Price /or 2-doz. crate of ist Quality Cornish Broccoli as
Percentage of First Week for the First i 8 weeks of the year at London
for years 1922-24 and 1931-36
Year
Average Price
Price
Weeks
18 weeks
1st week
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
%
5th
%
shillings
%
%
%
1922
21-0
22*0
100
100
TOO
100
109
1923
9*5
10*0
100
TOO
TOO
TOO
TOO
1924
15-9
15-0
100
TOO
83
67
67
1931
6-8
6-0
100
II6
108
108
TOO
1932
7-8
7-0
100
86
86
86
TOO
1933
5*9
3-5
100
129
143
286
229
1934
lo-o
14*0
lOO
TOO
72
72
72
1935
6*8
50
100
120
160
160
120
1936
9*5
lO-O
100
90
100
TOO
TOO
Average Relative Price
100
105
106
120
III
Weeks
Year
6th
']th
Sth
gih
loth
iith
izth
0/
0/
0 /
0/
0/
/O
/o
/o
/o
/o
/o
/o
1922
.. 98
82
82
82
73
91
82
1923
100
100
100 100
80
80
80
1924
.. 94
97
100 94
200
200
94
1931
100
100
108
116
116
133
150
1932
. , 150
128
128
128
115
II5
100
1933
229
172
172
229
200
143
143
1934
64
64
72
86
79
79
79
1935
, . 120
140
140 120
120
140
180
1936
90
So
80
90
TOO
120
80
Average
Rel-
ative
Price . . 1 16
107
109
116
120
122
1 19
Year
ilth
%
14th i$th
0/ 0/
16th
ijth
iSth
0 /
1922
/o
91
/o
100
/o
109
/o
II4
/o
TOO
/o
109
1923
80
80
90
TOO
120
100
1924
87
94
70
147
120
94
1931
100
1-25
116
II6
116
116
1932
86
XI5
II5
I 2 I
128
115
1933
172
158
129
II4
172
143
1934
72
64
57
57
50
50
1935
140
120
140
160
140
120
1936
•
90
60
70
120
120
120
Average Relative Price
102
102
100
117
II3
107
The figures indicate the price per crate relative to the first
week of the year in 1922-24 and 1931-36. The years in between
845
Broccou in West Cornwall
the two periods do not give continuous quotations at Covent
Garden. (Percentage figures are used in order to discount
the effect on the average of extreme price variations in the
different years. There are obvious difficulties in using this
method of presentation, especially as the first week of the year
does not correspond to the first week of the broccoli season;
but it should be possible, on closer examination, to estimate
the extreme price variation if so desired.)
Although it may be questioned whether the number of years
is sufficient to show a definite seasonal trend, it appears that
two periods of higher prices and two periods of lower prices
occur in the first i8 weeks of the year. The first period of
higher prices would apjjear to commence about the 4th week,
or about the end of January and is prolonged, with fluctuations,
until about the 12th week or into the third week of March.
There is a less distinct period of higher prices almost at the
end of April, and in between is a low price period that compares
with that of January. It would appear ft at the peak of pro-
duction occurring in March and April is responsible for the
low prices at this time. Some correlation may be drawn
between these relative price figures and those for production
in Table VI.
As was pointed out in the above report, accurate information
about the home production of broccoli and the prices ruling
at the main markets are very difficult to assess. It was stated*
that " in 1925 the production of cauliflower and broccoli in
England and Wales was estimated at 162,000 tons, with a
value of £1,680,000. In 1931 the acreage under these crops
had increased by about one-third. Of the total home-grown
supplies, it is estimated that less than 15 per cent, represented
broccoli.
In the same year 1931, importation of cauliflower and broc-
coli into the United Kingdom amounted to about 44,000 tons,
worth at least £400,000. In addition, the value of cauliflower
in brine probably amounted to a further £100,000.
As regards the fresh vegetables, it is probable that over
80 per cent, is imported during the period October to April,
inclusive.
Home-grown supplies of broccoli are chiefly obtained from
Cornwall and Kent, the peak periods of production are usually
March and April respectively. Supplies, however, from these
♦ Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (The Marketing of Cauliflower
and Broccoh, Marketing Leaflet No. 35, October, X932,)
Broccoli in West Cornwall
centres, although on the increase, are no larger than the
imports.”
A reliable indication of the seasonality of the production in
West Cornwall can be obtained from the following figures
prepared from data kindly supplied by the Great Western
Railway Company. More than half of the normal production
occurs in March and April — the latter month generally showing
the greater output.
Table VI
Average Monthly Rail Traffic in Broccoli for the
Eight Seasons, 1928-29 to 1935-36
Season
As Percentage of Total Season Traffic
Production
(Season
1928-29=100)
Sept.
Oct.
Nov
Dec.
Jan
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
1928-29 . •
1*4
3-8
2-3
2*2
8-7
20*5
43*3
17-8
100
1929-30 . .
—
2-3
2-0
3*1
4*7
4*3
20-1
40-9
22*0
112
1930-31 • •
—
2-2
2-7
5-0
5*7
17*0
28*2
27*1
12 * I
104
1931-32 . .
—
*•4
7*5
7-8
10-5
9-0
20*4
29*4
14-0
123
1932-33 • •
—
0*2
1*0
7-2
7*3
17*5
35*5
22*7
8-6! 150
1933-34 • •
0* 1
0*4
0-8
0-8
6-1
6-4
23*5
490
12-9
183
1934-35 • •
0*3
2-0 I
4*3
J 5-4
I 2 * 9 i
i6* I
22*4
21*5!
511 170
1935-36 . .
0*2
1-2
40
6-9
ii-i
17-8
35*6
15*7
7 * 5 l 173 1
Unweighted
i
1
1
1
1
Average . .
jo-
' J *4
1 1
3-3
6.,{
1
12 * I
258
j 31 *2
12-5
The index figures in the final column are most valuable as
showing the great increase in production, especially since the
1932-33 season. It would appear that much of the change
is due to the stimulus of the duties imposed on horticultural
produce. As the original area under specialist intensive pro-
duction is rather limited, it seems fairly obvious that the expan-
sion has come from the more extensive cultivation on general
farms. This fact appears to be corroborated by the June 4
statistics (see Table I).
The original duty operating from December 1931 on foreign
cauliflower and broccoli was 3.S. per cwt., or roughly fd. per
head. Since 1934 the duty from March i to June 30 is
increased to 4s. per cwt., under the Import Duties Act, 1932*
In the year following the application of these duties, the imports
from France, the Netherlands and Italy alone were reduced
from over 800,000 cwt. in 193^ about 270,000 cwt., France
and Italy suffering the greatest reduction. In 1932 about
14,000 cwt. each were imported from Belgium and the Channel
Islands.
Since 1934 the trade returns have classified cauliflowers and
847
Broccoli in West Cornwall
broccoli as a separate return. In 1935 these imports amounted
to 144,694 cwt., a reduction of over 9,000 cwt. on the previous
year, and tiie declared value was £98,916. Imports from
France and Belgium were both much heavier than in 1934,
representing 82 and 44 per cent, of the total in each of the
years 1935 and 1934. These increases were, however, offset
by a considerable drop in imports from the other supplying
countries, as the following table shows.* Empire supplies in
1935 were only 3 per cent, of the total importation, compared
with 24 per cent, in 1934.
Table VII
Monthly Imports of Cauliflowers and Broccoli into
THE United Kingdom in 1934 and 1935*
Month
1
Chamiell _
Islandst
(
Nether-
lands
1
Bel-
gium
j j
Italy j
f
1
Other
Coun-
tries
!
1
j Total
i
1934
cwt.
' cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
January . .
97
48
—
—
1,690
14
1,849
February . .
77
5 b
—
47 « 1 7.375 ;
112
8,098
March
2,026
, 24.893
161
481
9,166
431
37,158
April
33-581
1 26,278
88
• —
345
2
60,294
May
760
21
985
727
3
2,496
June
—
4
23,061
12,844
35.909
July
—
-
2,546
238
—
-
2.784
August
—
1
51
—
—
—
52
September
-
2
206
—
—
2
210
October . .
1
9
ir
—
—
4
25
November
33
1.039
6
166
2,712
3,956
December
173
330
—
647 1
3
1.153
Total . . t
1
36.748
52,681
27,115
14.934
21.935 j
571
153.984
1935
January . .
160
24.493
487 ’
0
25.14b
February. .
078
37.557
—
420
20
28,675
March
1,689
9.886
:
1.077
6
12,658
April
838
^.725
103
i
336
I
10,018
May
4
5
1,824
1,586 1
66 i
—
3.485
June
—
90
15.935
28.776
— '
44.801
July
--
—
1,256
2.495 !
—
3.751
August
—
142
—
—
- - ;
142
September
3
119
—
—
1
t
122
October . .
09
16 I
66
—
—
I !
152
November
3 ^
1,101 j
22
—
....
i
1.213
December
121
3.330 j
i»o 35
■
1
4.531
Total . .
i
3.592
85-263
20,502
32,872 j
1
2,386 j
79
144,694
♦ Imperial Economic Committee, “ Fruit Intelligence Notes,’* March
ii. 193^, P- 13-
848
Broccoli in West Cornwall
It is of some importance to consider the seasonality of pro-
duction — with due allowance being made for climatic features
— as indicated in Table VI in relation to Table VII which shows
the effect of import duties on French imports, which have
shifted from March and April to January and Februaiy.
Seasonality is often much more important than total supplies.
Before 1931, the railway data placed emphasis on Cornish
deliveries in March and April, but by 1934 there was a tend-
ency for Cornwall to go for December, January and February
deliveries. Owing mainly to the Colorado Beetle Regulations,
France had shifted to the earlier production of January and
February, so that if this is to be a fairly permanent feature,
it is now interesting to speculate on what will be the Cornish
procedure and choice of variety to meet a time when competing
supplies will be at a lower level.
From this evidence it can be concluded that the early effect
of the duties was to cause a very sharp reduction in the importa-
tion of broccoli and cauliflower, but in 1935 a portion of the
reduction had been retrieved by France and Italy. It is,
however, worth mentioning that since the reduction of imports,
the West Cornwall production alone has greatly exceeded the
total imports from overseas.
849
A NEGLECTED ASPECT OF PIG-KEEPING:
MANURE PRODUCTION
Stephen Williams, M.Sc., N.D.A.
Midland Agricultural College
Some time ago information was sought regarding the rate
of production of manure by feeding pigs. Wild guesses were
hazarded, but none could be supported by any concrete evi-
dence. A few instances will suffice to indicate how accurate
information might be useful.
A smallholder farming, say, a 30-acre all-grass dairy farm,
wishes to occupy his hours more fully and to increase his in-
come by keeping more pigs. He has the cash and a good
market for pork and bacon pigs. To what extent can he
profitably expand in pig production ? This is one of the major
problems. Putting aside such considerations, at the moment,
as the limits set by the amount of capital and labour available,
it is obvious that for maximum profit the manure produced
must be put to a useful purpose. There must be an adequate
amount of land on which it can be applied without harming
the herbage. The difficulty resolves itself into discovering
how much manure can be expected from a certain number of
P^SS-
As part of an investigation carried out at the Midland Agri-
cultural G)llege from October, 1936, to April, 1937, the manure
produced from several groups of pigs was weighed daily.
These pigs were kept in modern Danish-type houses and pro-
vided with either chopped straw or shavings as bedding mater-
ial, at the rate of lb. per pig per day. All pigs were being
fed for selling as baconers, and ffie maximum amount of food
they were given was 7 lb. per head daily. The manure con-
tained 70-78 per cent, of moisture.
The Table shows the weight of manure that can be collected
per pig, kept under these conditions, per day at ages from 8 to
36 weeks.
From this Table it is easy to calculate the amount of muck
produced by pigs during any portion of their lifetime from
weaning to slaughter. For example, it has been calculated
that one pig from the age of 8 weeks to 36 weeks will produce
approximately io| cwt. of “ collectable ” muck. On average,
then, I pig produces io| cwt. of manure in 28 weeks, i.e.,
approx. I ton in one year,
850
A Neglected Aspect of Pig-Keeping
Age of pig,
weeks
Weight of manure
per pig per day,
lb.
Age of pig,
weeks
Weight of manure
per pig per day,
lb.
8-10
30
22-24
5-8
10-12
3*2
24-26
6*5
12-14
i 3*5
26-28
7.2
X4-I6
1 3*8
I 28-30
1 8-0
i6-i8
4*2
30-32
9-0
x8-20
4*8
32-34
10 * I
20-22
5*3
1 34-36
1
it -5
Thus each head of stock maintained throughout the year
on a farm where weaners are fed to bacon weight by the time
they are 36 weeks old will produce i ton of manure.
Again, a feeder buying strong stores at 18 weeks old and
then fattening them off by the age of 30 weeks, can count on
one ton of pig manure being produced per head of (pig) stock
maintained.
Between the ages of 8 and 30 weeks, one pig produces under
the conditions defined above about 7 cwt. of ‘‘ collectable ”
muck. Now, on the College Farm, each of the 30-40 breeding
sows wean approximately 18 pigs per year, most of which are
fattened off as baconers by the age of 30 weeks. Therefore
the annual production of the progeny of one sow, say 18 pigs,
would be 18 X 7 = 126 cwt. of “ collectable ” manure. If
pork production be the object then pigs are finished at, say,
22 weeks old, and from the Table it will be found that each
pig will produce (from 8 to 22 weeks old) approximately 3J
cwt. of “ collectable ” muck. Thus the year’s progeny of
one sow finished as pork at this age will produce 18 x 3^=63
cwt. of “collectable ’’ muck.
Two further illustrations will serve to show how this informa-
tion can be of use in ordinary farming practice.
Let us consider a typical mixed farm, part under plough
and part pasture, where the usual practice is to apply some of
the farmyard manure, at say 8-10 tons to the acre, to frequently-
mown meadows, the greater portion being given to the arable
land in preparation for root, silage and forage crops. A dress-
ing of 10-25 muck to the acre is ample for these crops
and on most soils the application of greater amounts than,
say, 30 tons per acre would probably result in considerable
loss of plant nutrients. It is a wise policy, where much dung
is available, to increase the acreage devoted to green crops
A NfiGuccTBD Aspect of Pig-Keeping
and thus raise the level of fertility of the soil, so that die same
bulk of cereals may be produced from the somewhat reduced
area of land devoted to them. The taking of an extra root
crop in the rotation is advocated because the land can be kept
clean easily, the stock have a healthy, clean and abundant
supply of succulent food in winter, and mechanical and
chemical fertility of the soil is raised through constant cultiva-
tion and the application of natural and artificial manures to
the roots.
Where large quantities of muck are produced the farmer is
advised to consider a modification of his four-course rotation
“Wheat, roots, spring cereals and temporary ley, to the fol-
lowing : wheat, roots (including such cash crops as sugar beet
and broccoli), oats (part barley, perhaps), ley for winter graz-
ing and a hay crop, roots (including potatoes). A silage mixture
might well be grown on a part of both root breaks. The pro-
portion of arable land devoted to roots has been increased from
J to f . Thus on a farm with 40 acres arable worked on a
four-course system there will be 10 acres of roots which will
absorb, say, 150 tons of muck, whereas modification to the
five-course system would involve the growing of 16 acres of
roots and forage crops capable of absorbing 16 x 15 = 240 tons
manure. It is important, then, to determine what number of
pigs in addition to other stock constitute a suitable complement
for the amount of arable land on the holding.
One other example may be cited — a corn-growing farm.
Here, a major problem is the conversion of straw into manure
and the maintenance of soil fertility in spite of exhausting crop-
ping. The bullock-fattening yards have in many districts
fallen into disuse, but there is no doubt that pigs can very
successfully convert straw into muck. How many pigs should
be kept in order to produce the required quota of farmyard
manure ?
Of course, .considerations other than the amount of muck
produced will be important in deciding what number of pigs can
be most economically maintained.
852
A SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF CALCULATING
BALANCED MIXTURES FOR MILK PRODUCTION
E. T. Halnan, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
The principle of rationing dairy cows in accordance with
milk 5deld is now commonly practised in this country, since
farmers adopting it have found that they can effect considerable
economies in feeding costs by so doing. The methods of corre-
lating food requirements with milk yield are so clearly
outlined in the Ministry’s Bulletin No. 42 that there is no
need to give them in any detail here.
The main principle in these methods consists in working out
a maintenance ration that suffices to supply the protein and
energy required to maintain the cow in health. In addition
to this maintenance ration, a milk production ration is calcu-
lated to supply the protein and energy required per gallon of
milk produced. The ration for maintenance plus i gal. of milk
is chiefly composed of home-grown foods, and once fixed will
remain unaltered for a considerable length of time For this
reason, it is usual, and not unreasonable, to call in the services
of the Agricultural Organizer to advise on its construction. The
ration for milk production above 1 gal., on the other hand,
may be mainly made up from purchased feeding stufk, and in
order that the farmer may take advantage of market changes
in the price of feeding stuffs, he will constantly wish to change
its composition. Unfortunately, the present methods of work-
ing out balanced rations for this purpose involve a fair amount
of arithmetical calculation, and can only be obtained by trial
and error. The AgriculturaJ Organizer is too busy to be able
to calculate such rations for every farmer in his county, and
the farmer himself is also too much occupied with the demands
of his b usiness to attempt to master the present methods of
calculating such rations. The writer has therefore made an
attempt to simplify the calculation of such rations in the hope
ffiat he could evolve a method that the average fanner could
use with reasonable ease.
853
Calculating Balanced Mixtures
Books and bulletins dealing with the scientific computation
of rations contain tables of composition of feeding stuffe, and
include data as to the amounts of protein equivalent and starch
equivalent present in a pound of each feeding stuff quoted, and
of protein equivalent and starch equivalent needed for every
gallon of milk. From these figures the reader is expected to
work out for himself balanced mixtures suitable for milk fxo-
duction, and also to estimate the amount of fire mixtoie
required for the production of each gallon of milk. In view of
the difficulty experienced by the average reader in doing this,
it is usual for the authors of such compilations to give a series
of mixtures that are suitably balanced for milk production.
Alttiough this helps the reader to a certain extent, it preVents
him from obtaining full value from the tables, and makes the
S3^tem somewhat inelastic. In connexion with poultry produc-
tion, the author of this article has evolved a somewhat simpler
method of calculating rations for egg production, and it was
decided that this method could also be applied to rations for
milk production.
The method consists in constructing a table of composition
of feeding stuffs commonly used for milk production, but,
instead of giving the amounts of protein equivalent and starch
equivalent present per pound, the table gives the amounts of
milk yielded by this protein equivalent or starch equivalent.
We thus get two columns of figures, in one of which is given the
number of gallons of milk that the protein equivalent of one
pound of the feeding stuff will )deld in milk protein, and in the
other is given the number of gallons of milk that the starch
equivalent of one pound of the feeding stuff will )deld in milk
starch equivalent. The former figure is obtained by dividing the
protein equivalent present in one pound of the feeding stuff by
0.6, which is the protein equivalent required to produce the pro-
tein in I gal. of milk; similarly, the starch equivalent in i lb. of
the feeding stuff is divided by 2.5 which is the starch equivalent
required to supply the energy in i gal. of milk. The following
table of composition of feeding stuffs has been obtained in
this manner. This method of presentation has two advantages :
(i) it indicates at once to what extent the feeding stuff is
balanced in itself, since if the figures given in the two colunms
are the same, such feeding stuffs will be perfectly balanced for
milk production; (2) it ako, as we shall see later, renders sub-
sequent calculations much more simple.
854
Calculating Balanced Mixtures
Table of Composition of Feeding Stuffs, giving the Amounts of
Milk, in Gallons, provided for in the form of Starch Equiva-
lent AND Protein Equivalent, by each pound of Feeding
Stuff.
A
B
Feeding Stuff
Gallons Milk, as
Gallons Milk, as
Protein Equivalent
Starch Equivalent
Barley
0*10
0*28
Beans . .
0*33
0*26
Brewers* grains (dried)
0*22
. . 0*19
Brewers* grains (wet)
o*o8
.. 0*07
Coconut cake
0*27
0*32
Cotton cake, decorticated . .
0-57
0*32
Cotton cake, undec. (Bombay)
025
. . 0*16
Cotton cake, undec. (Egypt)
0-28
0*17
Dairy cakes . .
0*25-0-30
0*26-0*28
Distillers* grains
0*32
0*23
Fish meal
o*8o
0*21
Ground-nut cake, dec.
QO
vO
0
. . 0*29
Ground-nut cake, undec.
0*45
0*23
Linseed (flax seed) . .
0*32
0*48
Linseed cake . .
0*42
0*30
Maize . .
0*12
0*31
Maize, flaked
015
0*34
Maize germ meal
015
0*31
Maize gluten feed
0*32
0*30
Malt culms
0*27
0*17
Oats . .
0*13
. . 0*24
Palm-kernel cake
0*28
0*30
Palm-kernel meal (extr.)
0*28
0*28
Peas . .
0*30
.. 0*28
Locust beans
0*07
0*28
Rice meal
0*12
0*29
Sesame cake . .
0*65
0*29
Soya-bean cake
o*6o
0*28
Soya-bean meal (extr.)
0*63
0-26
Sugar-beet pulp (dry)
o*o8
0*26
Treacle
005
0*20
Wheat
0*17
0 * 2Q
Wheat bran . .
0*17
0*17
Wheat midds. (coarse)
o* 18
0*23
Wheat midds. (fine) . .
0*20
0*28
Yeast (dried)
0*68
.. 0*27
It will be noted from the above table that bran, mixed dairy cakes,
palm-kemel meal and maize gluten feed are well balanced foods for milk
production, whereas the cereals and food of animal origin are not well
balanced.
The following notes indicate the method of calculating a
balanced mixture for milk production, and of estimating the
number of pounds of the mixture to be fed per gallon of milk.
Case I. — To Obtain a Balanced Mixture from Two Foods.
Foods that are badly balanced for milk production will obviously contain
either too much protein equivalent or too much starch equivalent. It
will be obvious that we cannot get a balanced mixture from two foods
855
Calculating Balanced Mixtures
that are both either high in protein equivalent or starch equivalent.
We must therefore select two foods, one of which is high in protein
equivalent, and another that is high in starch equivalent.
Example,-^To balance bean meal and crushed oats. A little thought
will sufilce to show that in a balanced mixture the number of gallons
of milk, as protein equivalent, will exactly balance the number of
gallons of milk, as starch equivadent.
We are required to find how much bean meal we need to add to one
pound of crushed oats to get this desired result. Let x represent the
amount of bean meal required.
Now Protein Equivalent gal. =* Starch Equivalent gal. Therefore,
from table of composition given above
1 Xo*i3'b^Xo*33— I xo-24-fjrxo-26
that is (o • 33 — o • 26) = o • 24 — o ■ 13
Therefore o *07 4r = o • i x
whence at i • 6
That is to say, the balanced mixture is i lb. of oats and i’6 lb. of
bean meal, or 10 lb. of oats to 16 lb. of bean meal.
To find the quantity of this mixture required per gallon of milk
produced is simple : it is done by taking the figures in either column
A or column B of the table of composition and multiplying by the
jxjunds of food of each ingredient used in the mixture. This gives the
number of gallons of milk.
Thus 26 lb. of the mixture contains 10 lb. of oats and 16 lb. of bean
meal.
This will yield ioxo*i3-bihxo*33 gallons of milk
= 1-3 4 - 5-28
— 6- 58 gal.
whence it follows that 4 lb. of the mixture should be fed per gallo 1
of milk.
Case 2 . — To Obtain a Balanced Mixture using more than Two Foods.
When more than two foods are used, all the foods except one are
mixed in any desired proportion, and the protein and starch equivalent
figures per pound of the mixture are worked out from the composition
figures of the separate ingredients. This is then equated with the
remaining food as given in Case i.
Example . — To obtain a balanced mixture using bran, coarse midds.
flaked maize, and decorticated ground-nut cake. It is decided to use
2 parts bran, 2 parts midds., and i part of flaked maize.
From the table of composition : —
gal. gal.
2 parts bran yield 2 x 0-17 0*34 P.E. and 2 x 0‘i7 » 0-34 S.E.
2 parts midds. yield 2 x o- 18 ==* 0*36 P.E. and 2 x 0-23 =0-46 S.E.
I part flaked maize
yields x x 0*15 « 0*15 P.E. and i x 0*34 »* 0*34 S.E.
Therefore 3 lb. of the mixture
3deld 0*85 gal. P.£. and 1*14 gal. S.E.
Therefore i lb. yields . .
856
o‘i7 gii. P.£. and 0-23 gnl. S.E.
Calculating Balanced Mixtures
Equating one pound of the mixture against -r lb. of decorticated
ground-nut cake we get : —
I xo*i7-f-jr xo*68 = i xo-25-f^ xo-29
whence (o • 68 — o 2g) x o • 23 —017
whence 0*394? = o • 06
i.e. 4? 0*15
Therefore the mixture will l>e 15 lbs. of ground-nut cake to every
TOO lbs. of the cereal mixture.
To find the number of lb. of mixture required per gallon of milk
produced : —
1 15 lbs. of the mixture will give 100 x o - 17 -h 15 x 0*68 gallons
~ 17 -f 10*2
= 27*2 gallons.
The number of lb. of food per gallon will, therefore, be 115 divided
by 27*2 = 4 J lb. approx.
B
857
SPRAYING FOR PLUM SAWFLY;
With Notes on Red Spider and Thrips
F. R. Petherbridge, M.A., and I. Thomas, Ph.D.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
The Plum Sawfly {Hoplocampa flava L.) is still a serious
pest of plums in East Anglia, and in those seasons when the
“ set ” of plums is poor it causes big losses, especially to
Czar plums, to damsons, and to a less extent to Victoria plums.
Previous experiments (^* ^)* in this country have shown that
the time of spraying is important, and that tfie best control has
been obtained by spraying with Derris, together with a mineral
oil emulsion or with a spreader.
In 1936 Leib® carried out a series of spra3nng experiments
in the Rhineland against the continental Plum Sawfly {Hoplo-
campa minuta Christ.). In these experiments he found that
spra5nng with 3 per cent, quassia (alone or with 0.5 per cent,
soap) gave excellent results, considerably better than by
spraying with 0.4 per cent. Derris.
OAer German workers Jancke and Maercks* also carried
out spraying experiments against the same pest in the Rhine
Palatinate and they found that an extract of quassia chips
(3 lb. to 10 gal.), with or without the addition of 0.25 per cent,
of soft soap, gave good results. They also give their experi-
ence of the keeping qualities of the quassia spray : ‘ ‘ an extract
of quassia was kept for a fortnight until it began to have a
putrid odour, and to throw down a flocculent precipitate. It
was tested daily against Aphis pomi De Geer, and no decrease
in efficiency was observed, so that it would seem that a quassia
spray ready for use could be kept for some days if the weather
should prevent its immediate application."
Since carrying out the experiments described in this paper
our attention has been drawn to experiments in Germany by
Thiem® on the control of both H. flava and H. minuta. The
following account is extracted from the Review of Applied
Entomology (Vol. 25, Ser. A, Part 8, p. 465, Aug., 1937).
Tests in various parts of the country have proved the efficiency of
quassia extract with or without soap against these sawflies. To prepare
the spray with soap : 3 lb. quassia chips are soaked for several hours
3 gal. water and then boiled for an hour. The liquid is strained off
and a solutio n of J lb. soft soap in i gal. water rs added. The mixture is
858
* For references see p. 865.
Spraying for Plum Sawply
then diluted to make lo gal. In each year the first application was
made when the larvae began to hatch, which they usually do when the
petals are falling. Most of the withered calyces had fallen or the fruitlets
had developed at the time of the last application. The best time with
early or medium blossoming plums is when most of the petals have fallen.
Quassia acts on the eggs and also on the young larvae that come in contact
with a sprayed surface or feed on sprayed fruitlets. The larvicidal action
did not occur with Codling Moth {Cydia pomonella L.). The quassia spray
destroyed leaf aphides, but was quite harmless to bees.
Experiments were carried out in 1937 to test the value of
quassia as compared with Derris.
Experiment I. This experiment was carried out near Cam-
bridge in a large orchard belonging to Messrs. Chivers &
Sons, Ltd. The trees sprayed were very large damson trees
(over 40 years old) and lo-year-old Czar plum trees, planted
in alternate rows. On April 30, petals had begun to fall on
the Czars and were falling fast on the damsons. On this date
only one sawfly was found after twenty minutes beating. The
sprajing was carried out on May 10, when the ” cots ” (=
receptacles) of the young plums on both the Czars and damsons
were beginning to split. At this date no sawfly larvae were
found. The following mixtures were used: —
(i) Derris
13 oz.
= 0-2%
Sulphonated Ix^rol
3 oz.
Water
40 gal.
(2) Derris
13 07 .
= 0-2%
♦Mineral Oil Emulsion (proprietary)
3l pints =
= 1-0%
Water
40 gal.
(3) Quassia
12 lb.
- 3 %
Soft soap
I lb. =
■■= 0-25%
Water . .
40 gal.
* This Mineral Oil Emulsion (made from summer oil) contained 83 per
cent, oil by volume (85 per cent, by weight) and had a guaranteed
unsulphonated residue figure of 99*9 per cent.
The making of the quassia spray was started on May 7;
the soft soap was dissolved in well water and then the quassia
chips were added. On the morning of the spraying the
quassia-soap solution was poured through a strainer to remove
fte chips and then diluted to the required strength, "nie
quassia chips were thus soaked for three days. In making
wash No. 2 the mineral oil emulsion was first added to the
water, and the Derris powder was then mixed with a small
quantity of water and added to the emulsion in the tub.
Blocks of trees in seven adjacent rows were sprayed on May 10.
B 2 859
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
A power sprayer was used, giving a pressure of 250 lb. with
6 lances. Twenty Czar trees and 32 damson trees were
sprayed with mixture (i). Fourteen Czar trees and
6 damson trees were sprayed with nearly 80 gal. of mixture
(2). Eighteen Czar trees and 5 damson trees were sprayed
with nearly 80 gal. of mixture (3). Twelve Czar trees and 5
damson trees were left as controls.
On June 2 a count was made of sound and sawfly-infested
plums (200 plums were counted at random on each tree), the
results being recorded in Table I.
TABLE I (Czar Plums)
*1
Date
Total
Percentage
Treatment
of
Plums
Damaged by
Spraying
Counted
Sawfly
Control
. .
—
2,200
33*0
Derris
. . 13 oz.
Sulphonated Lorol
. . 3 oz.
Mav 10
2,000
6-6
Water
. . 40 gal.
Derris
. . 13 oz.
Proprietary Mineral
Oil I
'7 Hno
"X • T
Emulsion
. . 3J pints
Water
. . 40 gal. J
Quassia
. . 12 lb. 1
Soft soap . .
I lb.
1
3,600
0*3
Water
. . 40 gal. J
On August 6 and ii the plums were picked and weighed;
the average weight per tree is given in Table II.
TABLE II (Czar Plums)
No.
Weight
Average
Treatment
of
of Plums
Weight per
Trees
in lb.
Tree in lb.
Control
. .
12
103
8-6
Derris
13 oz.
Sulphonated Lorol
3 oz.
20
340
170
Water
40 gal. .
Derris
13 oz. ^
Proprietary Mineral Oil
I
Emulsion
3i pints [
14
298
21*4
Water
40 gal. J
Quassia
12 lb. 1
Soft soap
1 lb. [
17
320
i8*8
Water
40 gal- )
On June 2, a count was made of tiie sound and sawfly-
infested damsons, 2 or 3 lots of too damsons being taken at
random on each tree; ^ results are recorded in Table III.
860
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
TABLE III (Damsons)
Date
Total
Percentage
Treatment
of
Damsons
Damaged by
Spraying
Counted
Sawfly
Control
—
1400
19-7
Derri.s
13 oz. ]
Sulphonated Lorol
3 oz. 1 May lo
1,500
5-7
Water
40 gal. J
Derris
13 oz. .
Proprietary Mineral Oil
1
Emulsion
a pints j
i *4
Water
40 gal. }
Quassia
12 lb. )
Soft soap . .
I lb. 1
1,500
0- 1
Water
40 gal. )
The crop on these trees was a light one, the control trees
averaging about half a hundredweight per tree. Owing to the
variation in the size of the trees and the loss of large branches
on some, a strict comparison of the crop from the various
plots was not possible. The sprayed trees gave a higher
yield and this was particularly noticeable on the plots sprayed
with quassia or with mineral oil and Derris.
Experiment 2 . This experiment was carried out at Over,
Cambs., in an orchard belonging to Mr. R. Cole. The trees
sprayed were Czars, nearly forty years old, and closely planted
so that the tops of the trees interlaced except where a tree had
been removed. The fruit was mainly on the tops of the trees.
These trees were in full bloom on April 28, and on April 30
the petals had begun to fall. On April 30 two sawflies were
found after half-an-hour's beating.
The spraying was carried out on May 14 when the “ cots ” of
the young plums were beginning to split. At this date no
sawfly larvae were found. The following mixtures were used :
(i) Derris . . . . . . . . 13 oz.
Sulphonated Lorol . . . . 3 oz.
Water . . . . . . . . 40 gal.
(i) Derris . . . . . . . . . . 13 oz.
♦Proprietary Mineral Oil Emulsion . . 3J pints
Water . . . . . . . . 40 gal.
(3) Quassia . . , . . . . . 12 lb.
^ft soap . . . . . . . . I lb.
Water 40 gal.
* This mineral oil emulsion (made from summer oil) contained 83 per
cent, oil by volume (85 per cent, by weight) and had a guaranteed un-
sulphonat^ residue figure of 92 per cent.
In order to have the quassia wash at hand when required
the making of this was started on May 7. The soft soap
861
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
was dissolved in well water and then the quassia chips were
added. These were removed by means of a strainer on the
morning of the spraying. As the spra3dng did not take place
until May 14, the quassia chips were soaking for nearly 7
days. Eight rows of trees were used in this experiment and
each plot consisted of a block of 25 or more trees. There
were eight plots in all, so that each treatment was duplicated.
A power sprayer was used giving a pressure of 250 lb. with
two lances. The spraying was done by Mr. Cole's usual
spraying staff.
On June 2 a count was made of sound and sawfly-
infested plums, 100 plums per tree being counted at random:
the results are recorded in Table IV.
table IV. — Czar Plums (Sprayed May 14)
Total
Percentage
Treatment
Plot
Plums
Damaged by
Counted
Sawfly
Control
s
2.500
1,200
15*2
i6* I
Derris
. . 13 07 ..
2,400
2.300
Sulphonated Lorol
Water
3 oz.
. . 40 gal.
! 2
1 ^
5*0
5*2
Derris
, . 13 oz.
Proprietary Mineral
Oil 1
[ ^
2,000
3*3
Emulsion
. . 3.^ pints 1
5
2,600
^•3
Water
. . 40 gal. J
Quassia
Soft soap . .
. . 12 lb. ]
I lb.
1 3
2,800
1*4
Water
. . 40 gal. J
1 7
2,200
1*5
The crop on these trees was a very light one, the control
trees averaging about 3 lb. of plums, whereas the sprayed
trees averaged over 10 lb. per tree. Owing to the variation in
the size of trees and the loss of large branches on some, a
strict comparison of the crops from the various plots was
not possible.
These experiments show that quassia extract, with a weak
soft soap solution and sprayed at a strength of 3 per cent,
when the “ cots ” of Czars and damsons are beginning to
split, gives a very good control of the Plum Sawfly. Mineral
oil emulsion and Denis sprayed at the same time gave a good
control, and aldiough not as good as the quassia wash was
better lhan Denis and Sulphonated Lorol. Mineral oil and
Derris was the only one of the three washes to bring about
an appreciable reduction in the numbers of tiie Fruit Tree
Red Spider and of the Thrips (Taeniotkrips inconsequens) and
862
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
gave a heavier crop than the other two sprays where these
pests were present.
How the Sprays affected the Red Spider. The Fruit
Tree Red Spider {Oligonychus ulmi Koch.) is one of the
worst pests of Czar plums and is particularly severe on damsons
in Cambridgeshire; many damson orchards are sprayed every
year with lime-sulphur (i in 6o) plus a spreader, about ten
days to a fortnight after petal fall. The trees in the above
experiments were not sprayed for Red Spider this year.
In spite of the wet season the Red Spider on plums and
apples increased rapidly in numbers and caused considerable
browning of the leaves in a large number of plantations. As
the trees in the above experiments varied in the amount of
Red Spider attack, an estimate of the infestation of each tree
was made on July 9 and 12. Where no obvious leaf damage
was seen, o was recorded; where the leaf damage was very
severe 100 was recorded. Intermediate marks were given for
less severe attacks. By this method the following figures
were obtained : —
TABLE V. — Estimate of Rf,d Spider Attack (Average per Tree)
Czars
Czars
Damsons
{Over)
{Iliston)
Control . . . . , .
1 Plot 4
28'3 \
25*5 '
65 0
72*0
Derris -f Sulphonated Lorol
•(
2I‘4\
20' 0 f
54*1
44-0
Derris -j- Mineral Oil Emulsion .
■1
6*8 \
9*6/
13*5
I 4 'i
Quassia -f Soft soap
•{
i 9 o|
27'4 I
50*5
54-0
These figures show that quassia and soft soap was of little
value in reducing attacks of Red Spider and the same applies
to Derris + Sulphonated Lorol. The Derris and mine^ oil
emulsion, on the other hand, gave a fairly good reduction of
Red Spider, and at the time of making these counts this was
noticeable in the greeness of trees in these plots. At the time
of picking, however, some of the damson trees on the plot
where mineral oil was used were little better than the neigh-
bouring controls, whereas others were easily distinguishable
by their greener colour.
How the Sprays affected the Thrips Inju^ to the Plnim.
In Experiment I, the damage caused by Thrips {Taeniothrips
863
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
inconsequens Uzel.) was noticeable but not very bad. This
damage has been described in a fo^vious paperi*. A count of
the marked Czar plums showed that those from the trees
sprayed with mineral oil and Derris were much cleaner than
those on the unsprayed trees, whereas on the other two plots
the markings were very similar in extent to those on the
controls.
In Experiment II the damage caused by Thrips was severe.
On the control plots about 95 per cent, of the plums were
Thrips-marked, and the trees sprayed with Derris + Sulphon-
ated Loroi and with quassia + soft soap were little better. On
the plots sprayed with mineral oil and Derris, only al^out 50
per cent, of the plums were Thrips-marked and even on these
the markings were not so severe as on the other plots.
Suggested Control Measures.
1. For the Control of Plum Sawfly only —
Quassia . . . . . . 12 lb.
Soft soap . . . . . . I lb.
Water . . . . 40 gal.
The quassia chips should be soaked in the soap solution
for at least 24 hours. No experiments have been carried out
with concentrated extracts of quassia, which if they give the
same results are less troublesome to use than the quassia
chips.
2. For the Control of Plum Sawfly when Fruit Tree Red
Spider or Plum Thrips are troublesome —
Mineral Oil Emulsion . . si pints
Derris . . . . 12 oz.
Water . . 40 gal.
This is likely to give better yields and cleaner plums or
damsons than the soft soap and quassia where Red Spider or
Thrips are troublesome. The spraying should always be done
when the " cots " {^receptacles) are beginning to split.
Mixtures containing mineral oil and quassia or lime-sulphur
and quassia may be worth a trial, although no experiments
have as yet been carried out with these washes.
Summary. In the above experiments one spra3dng widi 3
per cent, quassia and soft soap when the " cots " of Czar
plums and damsons were beginning to split gave a very
good control of the Pluih Sawfly {Hoplocampa flava L.).
Mineral oil emulsion and Derris also gave a good control,
but Derris and Sulphonated Loroi was not quite so good.
8b4
Spraying for Plum Sawfly
Mineral oil and Derris was the only one of these washes to
check the Fruit Tree Red Spider {Oligonychus ulmi Koch)
and also the Thrips {Taeniothrips inconsequens Uzel.).
The authors are very much indebted to Mr. J. H. Stapley
for his asastance in recording, to Mr. K. V. Cramp, Horti-
cultural Organizer for Cambridgeshire, for his co-operation,
and also to the growers named for the facilities afforded in
carrying out these experiments.
References
^ Kearns, H. G. H., Marsh, R. W., and Marlin, H. : Long Ashton Anntial
Report, 1936. pp. 113-116.
2 Petherbridge, F. R., and Thomas, 1 . : The Control of Plum Sawfly.
four. Min. Agric., Vol, XLII, Feb., 1936, pp. 1108-1118.
Leib, P. : Zur frage der bekSimpfung der Pflaumensagewesp)e. Am.
Schddlingsk, 12, No. 9, pp. 101-107, Sept., 1936.
Jancke, 0 ., and Maercks, H. : Versuche zur bekampfung der PfJaumen-
sagewespen. Prakt.Bl. Pflanzenh., 14, No. 7, pp. 189, 198, Oct., 1936.
^ I'hicm, H. : Erfolgreiche Bekampfung der Pflaumensagewespen mit
Quassia. Kranke Pflanze 14, No. 4, pp. 59-65, Dresden, April, 1937.
865
NOTO ON THE USE OF CHLORATE WEED-KH^LERS
0 . Owen, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.I.C.,
Experimental and Research Station, Cheshunt, Herts
During the last ten years there has been a decided growth
in the use of weed-killers in which the active principle is a
chlorate — ^usually sodium chlorate. This compound appears
to possess all the requirements of a good weed-killer. It is
easily soluble in water, it is non-poisonous to animals, and it
is toxic to plants whether applied to the foliage or at the roots.
Its only failing is that it is not specific for weeds, and, conse-
quently, carelessness in its use is apt to lead to serious losses of
cultivated plants. That this is happening on an increasing scale
is the reason for the present note.
Ever since 1927, the Cheshunt Research Station has been
consulted frequently about damage to plants in commercial
nurseries, market gardens, and private gardens where the
responsible agent has been chlorate. In the main the com-
monest plant affected has been the tomato, but many plants
raised for bedding purposes and for decorative work have been
submitted for examination. The first instance in the records
here was that of severe injury to tomato plants. The plants
affected were confined to certain areas in two particular houses
on a nursery. Soon after planting, the lower leaves became
desiccated and eventually dropped off, while the tops of the
plants showed a mottle similar to mosaic. Later, lesions
appeared on the stems. The affected areas had been replanted
several times without success and the application of various
fertilizers was of no avail. Neighbouring plants in other parts
of the same houses made normal grow& and bore fruit. In
this particular instance the presence of chlorate in the soil
was proved in concentrations between 0.02 and 0.03 per cent,
sodium chlorate, but its origin is still a mystery.
Since that time many cases have been dealt with, and the
source of the chlorates traced. In one instance injury to
plants twelve feet away from a glasshouse wall was traced to
an application of sodium chlorate to the nursery road outside
fee house, six weeks previously. Heavy rain had washed
866
Use of Chlorate Weed-Killers
the chlorate underneath the wall foundation into the house.
In another instance the loss of some thousands of tomato
seedlings was due to the fact that in moving the seed boxes
from one part of the nursery to another, it had been necessary
to stand mem in a road for some little time. The road had
been treated with chlorate and the bottoms of the boxes were
sufficiently wet to take up the chlorate necessary to damage
the seedlings.
Injury to rows of plants adjacent to walls outside which
chlorate has been applied is quite common. Another way in
which chlorate can be introduced is from standing-out ground.
Here it is applied to keep down weeds and quite often the pots
are carried into houses at some time or other. Enough chlorate
can be carried on the pots in this way to have a serious effect
on susceptible plants, such as tomatoes, when planted in the
houses. Further, it is not easy completely to wash out the chlor-
ate from ordinary earthenware pots, and although some plants
show a low susceptibility to chlorates, when the pots are used
for susceptible plants damage is almost certain. The effect of
mild poisoning on a tomato leaf is shown in Fig. i and more
severe injury in Fig. 2.
The first instance of damage to chrysanthemums was due
to the fact that solid chlorate had been applied to the standing-
out ground and the workmen responsible had omitted to wash
it in. This explained the first case of chrysanthemum injury
on this particular nursery, where chlorates had been used
without harm for several years previously.
The first effect of chlorate on the chrysanthemum is to make
the veins pale; then the leaf crinkles, distortion of the upper
leaves occurs, and finally the whole leaves appear to shrink
and turn a peculiar grey-grfeen colour. The effect on the whole
plant is to cause stunting of the tops while the lower leaves
exhibit little or no abnormality (see Fig. 3).
General damage to crops in a kitchen garden was traced to
contamination of the water supply. Application of chlorate
to paths was followed by heavy rain. Some days later vege-
tables growing some distance away from the treated paths
showed general mottling and distortion, which was attributed to
a parasitic disease. The damage was, however, traced to the
use of water from a pond into which the treated paths drained.
In another instance considerable injury to plants in a con-
servatory is believed to have been due to the fact that a water-
ing can used for watering weed-killer on to paths had been
867
Use of Chlorate Weed-Killers
dipped into the water reservoir normally reserved for use in the
conservatoiy I
That there is variation in the susceptibility" of plants to
chlorates has been shown by pot experiments.
During sunny weather, tomatoes under glass will show
ill-effects of concentrations in Ihe soil of the order of one part
of sodium chlorate in ten thousand parts of soil, within twenty-
four hours. Dahlias and winter cherries are, if an 5 dhing, more
susceptible than tomatoes, and under similar conditions show
serious scorching and desiccation within forty-eight hours, and
plants are apparently dead at the end of five days. Garden
nasturtiums and wallflowers are slightly less susceptible, -but
the damage is unmistakable at concentrations of the order of
one-and-a-half to two parts per ten thousand. Cinerarias and
asters show a somewhat higher resistance, but the symptoms
are apt to be confused with those ordinarily associated with a
virus. Veins darken and a mild mottle appears at first.
Later, the mottle becomes more pronounced and distortion
of the younger leaves occurs. Finally the browning of
the veins is general and desiccation of the older leaves begins
(Fig- 4)-
The effect of low concentrations on young cucumber plants is
not unlike that on asters, and is shown in Fig 5 .
Lettuces show symptoms similar to those described for the
aster, although at low concentrations of chlorate there is no
browning of the veins, but broad beans show general distortion
and paling of the foliage for considerably longer periods.
The antirrhinum shows comparatively high resistance, and
when a concentration of the order of two parts per ten tihou-
sand is present in the soil, some growth continues, although the
veins of all the leaves are very pale in colour.
Fig. 6 shows the effect of a concentration of slightly 1^
than one part per ten thousand on a primula, as compared
with a healthy plant of the same age. The same concentra-
tion causes injury to the sweet pea. Some stunting
and distortion are accompanied by general vein clearing. Both
these plants were included in a batch of various plants that
suffered injury following the careless use of weed-killer.
Heaths show a resistance higher than other plants examined,
and at the concentrations mentioned here plants appear to be
unaffected.
In response to many inquiri^ we have examined at various
times most of the artificial fertilizers used in ^asshouse work,
868
To face p. 868 .
Fig 4 — Mottling and distcjrtion of Xstt r plant dm to jiGwoning I k'. 5 Ftlcct of poisoning on Cucumber plant.
Effect of poisoning on Erimula The plant on the rii^ht i'. health\
Use of Chlorate Weed-Killers
and never has a trace of chlorate been found in them. Nor
have we found traces in “ normal ” uncontaminated water
supplies.
Two questions arise. The first is whether anything can be
done with soil that has been contaminated. Beyond washing
there appears to be no treatment that assists matters. Addi-
tion of stable manure and the application of sulphate of
ammonia have a transient beneficial effect, but symptoms
generally recur, although possibly in a milder form. Where
the chlorate concentration is very low, plants may recover after
watering and subsequent feeding.
The second question is how long soil is likely to remain toxic
in the open. This must depend on the type of soil and the
water that it receives. Unless the rainfall is high it appears
that a dressing of half an ounce to the square yard will be
toxic to plants for some months.
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that care must be
exercised in the use of this type of compound, and that where
boxes or pots have become contaminated with chlorates they
should be washed carefully before further use.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to Dr. G. C. Ainsworth
for taking the photographs.
869
LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT: i
REPORT FOR THE YEAR ENDED MARCH 31, 1937
PART II*
Milk Recording. Table XII shows the number of members
of Milk Recording Societies, together with the number of
herds and cows recorded, in each year since 1917-18, when
all Societies were required to adopt a uniform year.
TABLE XII. — Number of Milk Recording Societies
Year ended
October i
Societies
Members
Herds
Cows
1917-18
27
639
708
19,793
1918-19
38
1,191
1.332
37.880
1919-20
46
2.075
2,312
61,323
1920-21
52
3.328
3.664
97.903
1921-22
55
3.949
4.362
117,023
1922-23
55
4.365
4.767
127,151
1923-24
52
4.764
5.209
138,089
1924-25
50
5.081
5.516
148,905
1925-26
49
5.174
5.656
154.322
1926-27
51
5.166
5.650
156.847
1927-28
50
4,862
5.320
149.971
1928-29
50
4,616
5.065
*144,812
1929-30
49
4»50i
4.934
140,266
1930-31
49
4.412
4.836
137,866
1931-32
49
4.267
4,682
135.912
1932-33
49
4.187
4.598
135.902
1933-34
49
4,211
4.622
141.325
1934-35
49
4,264
4.696
148,426
1935-36
49
4.355
4.792
156,268
As in the last two years, membership of Milk Recording
Societies showed an increase in 1935-36, and there is every
indication that this increase will be maintained in the current
year.
Average Yield of Recorded Cows. The excellent hay
crop of 1935 was followed by a winter that was not too
severe, and these factors, combined with the greater attention
that is now being paid by milk producers to rationing, caused
milk yields to be maintained at a very high level, with the
result that a new record for the average yield of full-year
• The first part of the report appeued in the November, 1037, issue of
tWs Journal.
870
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37
cows was set up. The average of 741 gal. was 7 gal. in
excess of the previous record obtained in 1934-35, and 28 gal.
in excess of the average for the 5 years ending 1934-35.
The number and average yield of milk of all cows recorded,
and of full-year cows, for each year since 1917-18 are shown
in Table XIII.
TABLE XIII. — Average Yield of Recorded Cows
Year
Oct. I
to
Oct. I
Particulars of all cows and
heifers recorded
Particulars of cows recorded
for full year
No. of
cows
and
heifers
Total
yield
Aver-
age
yield*
No. of
cows
Percent-
tage of
total
cows and
heifers
Total
yield
Aver-
age
yield*
Gal.
Gal.
Gal.
Gal.
1917-18
19*793
8,426,958
426
8.775
44
5.255.923
599
1918-19
37.880
16,204,941
450
17.989
47
10.543.516
579
1919-20
61.323
29.344.887
479
27,266
44
17.363,347
637
1920-21
97.903
48,512,380
495
48,248
49
30,892,620
640
1921-22
117.023
60,463,617
517
163.318
54
41,208,073
651
1922-23
127,151
67,904,224
534
68,349
54
46,956,565
687
1923-24
138,086
73.963,165
535
73.338
53
50,299,884
685
1924-25
148,905
76,419,498
513
77.132
51
51,695,291
670
1925-26 j
154.322
81.623,788
529
81,669
53
56,102,434
687
1926-27
156.847
82,161,809
524
81,749
52
55.677,261
681
1927-28
149.971
76,896.131
513
77.171
51
51.931.633
673
1928-29
144,812
75.948.485
524
74.171
51
51,207,594
690
1929-30
140,266
75.293.001
537
71.432
51
50,766,464
711
1930-31
137.866
75.357.035
547
71,480
52
51,386,105
719
1931-32
135.912
73.793.049
543 j
I 70,826
52
50,243,265
709
1932-33
135.902
73.422,655
540 1
73.328
54
51.300,933
700
i 933“-34
141.325
76,274,826
540
74.493
53
52.423,417
704
1934-35
148,426
82,661,157
557
76,178
51
55,921,162
734
1935-36
156,268
87,862,328
562
78,757
50
58,339,461
741
* Before 1924-25 the average yield was calculated at the equivalent of loj lb
to a gallon, and subsequently at loi lb.
Increased average yields for full*year cows were secured
by 29 societies, the largest increase being 530 lb. — from
7,185 lb. (695 gal.) to 7,715 lb. (747 gal.) in Shropshire. The
highest average yield ever obtained was returned by the
Derby and District Society with 9,099 lb. (881 gal.), while
Essex also returned the very high average of 8,534 lb. (826 gal.) .
Averages in excess of 8,000 lb. (774 gal.) were also obtain^
by Hereford, Hertford, Norfolk, Peak, Suffolk and Yorkshire.
Twenty societies had average 5delds between 7,500 lb.
871
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37
(726 gal.) and 8,000 lb. (774 gal.), and twelve obtained yields
between 7,000 lb. (677 gal.) and 7,500 lb. (726 gal.).
The number of individual herds with average yields, for
full-year cows, of 8,000 lb. (774 gal.) or over was 1.576, or
36 per cent, of the total herds recorded for the full year, as
compared with 1,504 in the previous year and only 1,193
I 933 ' 34 - Herds with average yields of 10,000 lb. (968 gal.)
or over numbered 353, against 304 in 1934-35, while 32 herds
had average yields of over 13,000 lb. (1,258 gal.). In Table
XIV are given a few examples of the increase effected in the
average yields of herds as a result of recording, together with
approximate estimates of the cash value of the increased
yields. These examples indicate that much improved returns
may be obtained in individual herds as a result of the greater
attention to breeding, selection and feeding that normally
follows the adoption of milk recording.
TABLE XIV
Herd
No. of
years
during
which
records
have
been
taken
Average
yield
per cow
in first
year
Average
yield
per cow
in last
year
Increase
in annual
average
yield
per cow
No of
full-year
cows in
last year
of period
Cash value of
increase of last
year over first year
at 15 . per gallon
Per cow
Per herd
A (Pedigree
Jersey)
8
Gal.
583
Gal.
979
Gal.
396
26
i
19 16
i
514 16
B (Non-Pedigree
Shorthorn)
6
619
873
254
37
12 14
469 18
C (Pedigree
Friesian)
8
730
1,115
385
18
19 5
346 10
D (Pedigree
Guernsey)
16
504
951
447
15
22 7
335 5
E (Pedigree
Red Poll)
9
677
890
213
19
i
10 13
202 7
The standard yield prescribed for their breed or type was
reached by 24,361 cows, as compared with 22,082 in 1934-35
(Table XV). The number of Shortiioms with yields of
9,000 lb. or over increased from 10,192 to 10,876 and Friesians
t^t gave 10,000 lb. or over increased from 5,796 to 6,326.
Yields exceeding 10,000 lb. (968 gal.) were given by 14,919
cows, an increase of 1,382 over the previous year, while 108
87a
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37
gave over 20,000 lb. (1,935 gal.) against 79 in 1934-35. The
highest yield recorded during the year was 27,854 lb.
(2,696 gal), given by a Friesian cow owned by a member of
the Suffolk Society.
TABLE XV.---NUMBER of Cows that gave the Standard Yield prescribed
FOR their Breed or Type during the Year ended October i, 1936,
classified according to Breed and Yield.
Breed or Type
Stan-
dard
yield
Yields (in lb.)
Total
number
of cows
giving
the
standard
yield
8.000
to
9.000
9.000
to
10.000
10.000
to
11.000
11.000
to
12.000
12.000 14,000116,000
to to i to
14.000 16,000 |20,000
Over
20,000
Ayrshire
lb.
9,000
070
353
228
t 47
1
27
10
3
1.438
Blue Albion . .
9,000
—
47
26
17
25
7
4
2
128
Devon
8,000
41
13
6
I
—
1
—
—
62
Friesian
10,000
1.996
'1.471
1.693
O99 '
373
94
6,326
Guernsey
8,000
i,ii6
668
327
, 142
no
28 ;
8
—
1 2.399
Jersey . .
8,000
631 1
325
174
107
52
10
3
--
1 1,302
Lincoln Red . .
Shorthorn
9.000
120
79
: 44
37
2
!
i 291
Red Poll
9.000
— 1
471
302
164
127
29
15
I
1 1. 109
Shorthorn
9,000
— 1
[ 5.030
2.927 11.487
1,112
225
87
8
! 10,876
South Devon . .
8,000
115'
63
41
24
12
3 !
1
—
: 259
Welsh Black
8,000
26
1 19
6
, 5
3
I 1
—
—
60
Other Breeds . ,
8,000
*58
29
10
8
6
— i
—
—
III
Totals . ,
—
1*1,987
1 i
7.455
6,247
3.698
1 3.324
1
' 1.039
1 1
503
108
24.361
• Includes n Dexter cows with yields of 7,000 to 8,000 lb (Standard yield for Dexters
is 7,000 lb.)
The total number of cows and heifers of certain breeds
recorded during the year ended October i, 1936, and the
number and average yield of the cows recorded for the full
year, together with the percentage of full-year cows are shown
in Table XVI. The number of Shorthorns recorded increased
by 3,047 as compared with 1934-35, while Ayrshires increased
by 1,602 and Friesians by 1,243. Most of the breeds recorded
in any considerable number showed an increase in the average
yield for full-year cows. Shorthorns, which accounted for 55
per cent, of tixe total cows recorded, averaged 7,382 lb. against
7,318 lb. in 1934-35, while Friesians averaged 9,418 lb. and
Ayrshires 7,681 lb., showing increases of 127 lb. and 167 lb.
respectively on the year. Devons, South Devons, Red Polls
and Welsh Blacks, however, had reduced average yields.
873
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37
TABLE XVI
Total
Particulars of cows recorded for full year
Breed or type
number
of cows
and heifers
recorded
Number
Percentage
of total of
cows and
heifers
Total yield
Average
yield
Ayrshire
8,238
4ii97
50*9
lb.
32.237,410
lb.
7,681
Blue Albion . .
478
285 .
59-6
2,395.005
8,404
Devcwi
676
413
61 *0
2,462,898
5,963
Friesian
25.930
I3i742 ,
52*9
129,427.659
9,418
Guernsey
13.809
6,668
48-2
46,234.961
^.934
Jersey . .
8.579
4»23S !
49*3
28,271,874
6,671
Lincoln Red . .
2.233
1.145 i
51-2
8,238,914
7.196
Red Poll
<5.974
3i963 j
56-8
29,776,856
7.514
Shorthorn
85,487
42.191 i
49*3
311,466,382
7,382
South Devon . .
1,960
920 !
46-9
6,092,761
6.623
Welsh Black ..
716
445 1
62*1
2,572,986
5.782
Issue of Certificates. A new record was established by the
number of Certificates of Merit issued during the year. Certifi-
cates issued in respect of the three years ended October i,
1936, numbered 733, as compared with 665 for the previous
three-year period. In addition, 33 Certificates of Merit were
issued during the year in respect of earlier periods. Certifi-
cates of Merit are awarded on application by the owner, and
on payment of a fee of 5s. for each certificate, for cows that
have pven during a period of three consecutive Milk
Recording Years the prescribed yield of milk for their breed
or type and have been shown to be regular breeders. The
number of members of Milk Recording Societies who obtained
Certificates of Merit was 221, an increase of 15 over the
previous year. Certificates issued in respect of the three-year
period ended October i, 1936, numbered 195 for Shorthorns,
an increase of 24; 155 for Guernseys, an increase of 35;
131 for Red Polls, an increase of 14; 103 for
Jerseys, an increase of 10; but Friesians with 108 showed a
decrease of 18. The highest 5nelds certified for the various
breeds were:— Friesian, 63,798 lb.; Red Poll, 53,334 lb.;
Shorthorn, 43,318 lb.; Guernsey, 42,276 lb.; and Jersey,
40,498 lb.
^gister of Dairy Cattle. Volume XX of the Register of
Dairy Cattle was published in June, 1937, and contains
874
Live Stock Improvemkh', 1936-37
particulars of the 766 cows in lespect of which Certificates of
Merit have been issued since the publication of Volume XIX,
and also particulars of 16 pedigree bulls that qualified for
entry on the basis of the yields given by their dams and sires'
dams.
Testing for Butter-Fat. The Ministry’s Scheme for
Butter-fat Testing made further progress during 1935-36,
the number of members having cows tested being 927, as
compared with 854 in 1934-35. Testing was carried out in
1,020 herds containing nearly 31,000 cows, the number of
cows actually tested being 12,597, increase of 1,014 on the
year. The Scheme is working smoothly, but owners of commer-
cial herds are still reluctant to incur the extra expense of having
individual samples taken regularly, and in 1935-36 over 82
per cent, of the herds tested consisted wholly or mainly of
pedigree cattle. Table XVII shows the number of cows of
each breed whose milk was tested under the Ministry’s Scheme
during the year.
TABLE XVII; — Number of Cows Tested for Butter-fat under the
Ministry's Scheme during the Year ended October i, 1936,
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BrEED AND PERCENTAGE OF BUTTER-FAT.
Breed or
type
Percentage of Butter-fat
Total
! number
of cows
tested
Average
percent-
age of
butter-
fat
Under
3
3 to
3.5
0
ro
4 to
4-5
4-5 to
5
5 to
5-5
5-5 to
6
Over
6
Ayrshire
II
231
553
298
37
3
—
U133
3-78
Friesian
579
1,760
098
102
II
2
I
—
3.153
3*26
Guernsey
I
24
247
824
1,007
546
146
26
: 2,821
4 *61
Jersey
I
3
33
222
501
509
305
113
1 1.687
5-04
Lincoln Red
5
53
89
25
2
—
—
—
174
3*62
Red Poll
41
205
315
1 19
11
3
—
—
694
3*62
Shorthorn
124
954
1,299
342
23;
2
—
—
2.744
3-58
Other Breeds
3
21
84
65
14 i
4
—
—
191
3*92
Totals
765
3.251
3.318
1.997
1,606
1,069
452
139
12.597
! 3-89
The number of Shorthorns tested showed a small decrease,
but Jerseys increased by nearly 400, while Friesians,
Ayrshires, Guemse)^, and Red Polls also showed increases.
An average of over 5 per cent, of butter-fat was reached by
1,660 cows, practically all of which were Jerseys or Guernseys,
as compared with 1,333 in 1934-35, while 3,603 averaged
between 4 and 5 per cent, against 3,221 last year. The
average percentage of butter-fat for all animals tested was
875
TABLE XVIII.—MILK RECORDING SOCIETIES
Statement giving Particulars of the 49 Milk Recording Societies operating
DURING the Year ended October i, 1936
{The Societies are arranged in order of total numbers of Cows recorded.)
Society
•No. of
Members
No. of
Herds
Total
No. of
Cows
recorded
No. of
Cows
recorded
for full
year
Average
yield of
Cows re-
corded for
full year
Essex County . .
259
305
12,863
0,607
1 lb
8.534
Suffolk
307
344
10,528
5.736
8,139
East Sussex
^54
285
9.158
4.613
i 7.148
Hampshire
1 iS;
220
8,027
3.849
i 7.250
Berkshire
1 179
207
7.678
i.942
1 7.253
Norfolk . .
1 197
220
6.874
3.961
8,357
Somerset and North Dorset
1 173
197
6,872
3.833
i . 7.436
He^fordshire County . .
t 182
200
6.439
3.378
8,051
Kent
1 131
156
5 >i 97
2,608
1 7.352
West Sussex
1 126
143
4.852
2.365
7.536
Lancashire County
103
III
4.448
1,025
7.844
North Wilts
73
88
4,160
2,211
6,980
Surrey
126
138
4,096
1.953
7.099
Gloucestershire . .
118
130
3.856
1,966
7,921
Yorkshire
112
116
3^457
1.541
8,142
Oxfordshire
90
98
3422
1.843
7.397
Leicestershire and Rutland
85
92
3.126
1.492
7.192
Buckinghamshire
99
106
3.099
1.496
7.722
Shropshire
69
74
2,949
1,420
7.715
Warwickshire . .
94
98
2,903
1.397
7.856
Cambridgeshire and District . .
83
95
2.837
1,501
7.80T
Dorset
47
O4
2.757
1,614
7,064
Staffordshire
77
79
2,665
1,225
7.851
Northamptonshire
7 *
77
2.536
1.1O3
7.176
Nottinghamshire
53
56
2.330
984
7.731
Cheshire County
55
57
2,200
1,070
7.744
Cumberland and North West-
morland
81
84
2,148
875
6,514
Bristol and North Somerset . .
72
76
2,136
1,109
7.516
South Devon and District
92
93
2,060
938
6.653
Derby and District
56
58
1,981
830
9.099
South Wilts
35
43
1,926
1,182
7.590
Bedfordshire
55
57
1,896
886
7.846
Durham County
50
53
1.745
889
7.443
Peak (Derby)
56
57
i,6ii
668
8,211
Worcestershire , .
60
61
1,521
759
7.739
Northumberland
41
44
1.395
778
7.783
Lincolnshire
30
31
1.392
637
7.750
East Devon
44
44
881
509
6,609
Monmouthshire and Brecon . .
^9
29
853
428
7.715
Kendal and South Westmorland
30
31
788
321
6.245
Campden, Moreton and Dist.
(Glos.)
28
28
731
420
7.549
Carmarthenshire
25
26
719
324
7.555
Cornwall
42
42
705
410
7,030
Denbighshire and Flintshire . .
26
26
673
391
6,914
Anglesey and Caernarvonshire
45
45
627
391
5.633
Herefordshire
21
21
440
204
8.443
Cardiganshire
20
20
292
183
6,830
Pembrokeshire . .
12
12
220
134
6,876
Glamorgan
XI
II
199
98
7,880
Totals
4*311
4.748
136,268
78.757
7.654
* Members recording Herds of Goats only are not indtided.
876
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37
3.89, while, as regards individual breeds, Jerse3rs were easily
the highest with 5.04 per cent., followed by Guernseys witii
4.61 per cent, and Ayshires with 3.78 per cent.
Calf and Bull Marking. In 1935-36 nfiore advantage was
taken of the Ministry's scheme for the ear-marking and
registration of calves of milk-recorded cows, and 16,454 calves
were marked as compared with 15,233 in the previous year.
Most of the calves marked were heifers, but more bull calves
were marked than in any previous year, the number being
1,660 against 1,448 in 1934-35.
The number of bulls that were being used for service and
that were ear-marked and registered by Societies for their
members was 42.
Rationing. Reports received by the Ministry indicate that
most members of Milk Recording Societies pay close attention
to the rationing of their cows according to milk yield, and that
good use is made of the advisory services available. Advice
is generally sought from County Agricultural Organizers, whose
assistance is often of great help to members in dealing with
feeding problems.
Cost of Milk Recording. There was little change in the
average cost of milk recording in 1935-36 as compared with the
previous year; members paid an average of 4s. xd. per cow-
and the Ministry’s grants averaged is. xod. per cow.
877
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. The wholesale price for liquid
milk (other than Tuberculin Tested milk) in October, 1937.
was IS. sd. per gal. The wholesale price for Tuberculin
Tested milk was is. 'jd. per gal.
Pool prices for October, 1937, are given below, with
comparative figures for September, 1937, and October, 1936.
Pool Prices
Oct.
Sept.
Oct.
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
.. 14
I2i
13
North-Western
.. 14
12I
13
Eastern
.. i 4 i
12}
i 3 i
East Midland
.. I 4 l
I2J
13
West Midland
.. I 3 i
12
North Wales
.. 14
12
T2j
South Wales
.. 14
I2J
12}
Southern . .
•• I 4 i
12}
Mi
Mid-Western
•• 13}
12
I2J
Far- Western
•. i 3 i
12
I2i
South-Eastern
•• Mi
13
i 3 i
Unweighted Average
.. 14.05
12*30
12*91
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the Accredited pro-
ducers’ premium of id. per gal. and, for October, 1937, the
Tuberculin Tested producers’ additional premium of id.
per gal.
The accredited premium was paid on 27,205,225 gal. , and the
sum required for the payment of the quality premiums was
equivalent to a levy of .348(i. per gal. on pool sales.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at ijd.
per gal., compared with z^d. per gal. in October, 1936. Sales
on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
Oct., 1937 Oct., 1936
[estimated)
Gal, Gal.
Liquid 52,252,772 47,654,469
Manufacturing i 5 . 3 i 5 .o 53 25,325,116
67,567,825 72.979.585
Percentage liquid sales .. .. 77.33 65*30
Percentage manufacturing sales .. 22,67 34 •70
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
October was 7.24^. per gal, compared with 5.77<i. per gal.
for October, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into
chee^ on farms was 2,077,424 gal. compared with 2,302,175
gal. in the previous month and 1,836,381 gal. in October, 1936.
Draft Sugar Beet Marketing Scheme. The promoters of
878
Marketing Notes
this Scheme have notified the Minister of Agriculture and
Fisheries and the Secretary of State for .Scotland that they
do not wish to proceed with the Scheme.
Potato Marketing Scheme: Annual Election Meetings. The
fourth annual general meeting of registered producers took
place in London on October 28. At this meeting, the two
retiring Special Members of the Board, Sir William G. Lobjoit
and Mr. R. W. Halliday, were re-elected. Meetings for the
election of district members were held on October 16, in the
South-Western, South-Eastern, Eastern, Lincolnshire and East
Midland districts. Of the retiring members who offered them-
selves for re-election, all were returned unopposed with the
exception of the one for the South-Western district who was
defeated. Capt. A. H. Maule Ramsay, M.P., has again been
co-opted on to the Board.
Census of Stocks. A census of stocks on hand with registered
producers and authorized merchants at midnight on
November 6-7, has been taken by the Board, as in previous
years.
Area under Potatoes in Great Britain. The Board have
recently published a booklet, similar to that issued last year,
showing the acreage, by counties, of each variety of early and
maincrop potatoes grown in the years 1935, 1936 and 1937,
by registered producers under the Scheme. Sketch maps
showing the predominating varieties in the main producing
areas have again been included.
The booklet is entitled “ The Area under Potatoes in Great
Britain, Miscellaneous Publications No. 5,” and is obtainable
from the Board, price bd. post free.
Hops Marketing Scheme: Valuation of Crop. The whole
of the 1937 crop has now been delivered into approved ware-
houses and valuation is proceeding. It is expected that this
will be completed shortly, and that it will be possible to begin
trading at a much earlier date than last year.
Milk Acts; 1934 to 1937.' Cheese and Butter Milk Prices. For
the purpose of payments under the Milk Acts (whether by the
Exchequer to Milk Marketing Boards or by Boards to the
Exchequer) in respect of milk used for manufacture, the
Minister and Secretary of State for Scotland, with the approval
of the Treasury, have certified the cheese-milk price and the
butter-milk price to be 5.77 pence and 4.83 pence per gal.
respectively for the month of September, 1937.
879
Marketing Notes
Wheat Act; 1932: Sales of Home-Grown Wheat — Cereal
Year, 1937-38. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commission
by registered growers during the period August i to
November 5, 1937, cover sales of 6,965,689 cwt. of millable
wheat as compared with 6,317,636 cwt. in the corresponding
period (to November 6) in tiie last cereal year.
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Production of
Home-Grown Beet Sugar during 1937-38 Campaign. Accord-
ing to information furnished by the British Sugar Corporation,
Ltd., the total quantities of beet-sugar manufactured in Great
Britain during October, 1937, and the corresponding month
in 1936, were : —
1937
1936
White
cwt.
845,642
1,422,223
Raw
cwt.
1,001,582
1,159,698
Total
cwt.
1,847,224
2.581,921
Contracts for the Purchase of the 1938 Crop of Sugar-Beet.
On November i the Sugar Commission issued the following
statement :
Section 5 (i) of the Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936, requires
the British Sugar Corporation, Ltd., to enter into contracts for the purchase
of sugar beet upon terms and conditions agreed between the Corporation
and the representatives of sugar beet growlers, or where agreement is not
reached, upon such terms and conditions as may be determined by the
Sugar Commission.
Negotiations between the Corporation and the National Farmers’
Union on the subject of the beet contracts for 1938 were opened on
September 16 last and the question was referred to the Sugar Commission
for determination on October 20.
The Commission decided the terms and conditions of the contracts,
and their Order, made on November 10, fixed the following prices for
beet of the 1938 crop accepted for delivery at the factories named below.
(The corresponding prices for 1937 are shown in brackets.)
Factory
Beet Price per ton
193S
1937
Bury St. Edmunds
43/-
(36/6)
Cantlev
43 /~
(36/-)
Ely .
43/-
(36/6)
Ipswich
43/-
(36/6)
King’s Lynn
43/“
(36/-)
Peterborough
43 /“
(36/6)
Spalding
43 /“
(36/6)
Wissington
43/-
(36/*-)
Bardney
43/9
(36/6)
Colwick
Felstead
43/9
43/9
(37/-)
(36/6)
Kelham
43/9
(37/-)
880
Marketing Notes
Factory Beet Price per ton
Allscott 44/6 (37/6)
Brigg 44/6 ( 37 / 6 )
Kiddenninster . . . . . . . . 44/6 (37/6)
Poppleton 44/6 (37/6)
Selby 44/6 (37/6)
The prices quoted above relate to beet properl}^ topped and washed,
having a sugar content of 15 J per cent., and will be subject to an addition
or deduction of ^d, per ton in respect of each o • i per cent, by which the
sugar content is greater or less than 15^ per cent. A bonus of is.
per ton will be paid on all beet accepted by the Corporation for delivery
to English factories in September, 1938, or after December 31, 1938,
provided the grower has complied with the Clause in the Contracts
regulating deliveries of beet.
The arrangement introduced in the 1937 contracts whereby the Cor-
poration defrays railway freight charges in excess of 75. per ton on all
sugar beet accepted by the Corporation for delivery to the factories at
Allscott and Kidderminster, will be continued for the 1938 season.
The preferential price for pulp sold by the Corporation to growers will
again be fixed at 155. per ton gross, corresponding to net prices to the
grower of 5s. per ton for pulp delivered in October, 1938, 75. 6d,
in November, 1938, and 10s. in December, 1938.
The Commission's Order will not deal with the terms of the contracts
for beet consigned to the Scottish factory at Cupar, which will be the
subject of .separate negotiations between the Corporation and the
growers’ representatives.
As a result of negotiations regarding the terms and conditions
of the contracts for the purchase of the 1938 beet crop required
by the Cupar beet-sugar factory, referred to in the preceding
paragraph, the Sugar Commission issued the following state-
ment on November g : —
The terms and conditions of the Cupar contracts for 1938 have been
discussed by the representatives of the Corporation and the National
Farmers’ Union of Scotland and the question was referred to the Sugar
Commission for determination on November 4. The Commission have
decided the terms and conditions of the 1938 contracts and an Order will
be issued shortly fixing a price of 41s. per ton for beet with not more than
15 lb. tare per cwt. loaded into railway trucks at the grower's nearest
railway station and consigned to the Cupar factory.
This price relates to beet properly topped and washed, having a sugar
content of 15^ per cent., and will be subject to an addition or deduction
of 3^. per ton in respect of each o* i per cent, by which the sugar content
is greater or less than 15J per cent.
The pulp clause will be revised in the 1938 contracts so as to provide
that growers shall be entitled to pulp, up to a maximum of cwt. per
ton of beet consigned to the factory, at the preferential net prices of £4 55.
per ton for pulp delivered in October, 1938 ; £4 75. 6d. in November, 1938 ;
and £4 los. in Decembt'r, 1938, with the option to the grower of pur-
chasing extra pulp up to i ton per contracted acre at prices is. per cwt.
m excess of those quoted above.
Livestock Industry Act , 1937 : Livestock Markets. Section
14 of the Act provides that, from the beginning of November
this year, the approval of the Livestock Commission must be
881
Marketing Notes
obtained before any premises may be used as a livestock market
which were not lawfully used for that purpose during the year
ended November 30, 1936. Farm sales are expressly exempted
from this provision, together with premises used for any class
of sales which Ministers may decide to exempt by order. Such
an Order* has now been made by Ministers exempting sales
at agricultural shows of livestock that have been exhibited
at such shows.
Cattle Fund. The following table gives particulars of pay-
ments made out of the fund set up under the Cattle Industry
(Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934 to 1936, and the Livestock
Industry Act, 1937 : —
Average
Period Payments Animals Payment per
Animal
April to October, 1935
April to October, 1936 . .
April to October, 1937* * •
From commencement of subsidy
payments to October 31, 1937
2,194,879 929,892
2,269,261 976,563
2,211,441 931.867
12,090,943 5*099.472
i s. d.
272
266
276
275
♦ The payments of the period, April to October, 1937, comprised
;£90,876 for 39,241 animals certified under the Emergency Provisions
Acts, and ;f428,676 for 136,433 animals of quality standard and ;f424,979
for 213,764 animals of ordinary standard certified under the 1937 Act.
National Mark Egg Scheme. As a result of experiments
conducted at the Forest Products Research Laboratory of the
Department of Scientific & Industrial Research there has
been evolved a method of packing eggs that permits of the
use of fibre-board cases of lighter material than has hitherto
been regarded as suitable for the purpose.
In the course of the experiments it was found that this
reduction in the weight of material used for the outer container
could safely be made provided that the internal fittings were
such as to ensure the firm anchorage of the whole of the contents
of the container, and specifications of such fittings have been
prepared by the Laboratory. Manufacturers of containers
and of fillers and flats have been invited to submit their pro-
ducts to the Laboratory for test, for which a scale of fees has
been fixed. Certificates will be issued by the Laboratory in
respect of containers and fittings that are found satisfactory
under tests.
It has been decided that as from December i, 1937, it
shall be optional to packers in the National Mark Egg Sdieme
• S. R. & O. 1937, No. 960. H.M. Stationery Office, price xi.
882
Jo JuiG pa^c 882.
Bread -making Tests carricfl out by the National Bakery School, with samples of National Mark All-Knglish {Yeumati) Straights Flour,
milled from 1937 crop Wheat The test loaves uncut.
milleci from 1937 crop \Vhf*at Thr test loaves cut.
Marketing Notes
to use either cases and fittings made to the existing specifica-
tions or containers and fittings of the new type bearing a
certificate of the Laboratory. Complete details of the new
pack can be obtained on application to the Secretary,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, lo, Whitehall Place,
London, S.W.i.
National Mark Dressed Poultry. The aggregate output
of authorized packing stations during the nine months ended
September 30, 1937, amounted to 1,064,000 birds, of which
304,000, or 29 per cent., were packed under National Mark
labels. The total output of the packing stations for the corre-
sponding period in 1936 amounted to 1,184,000 birds, with a
National Mark output of 201,000 birds, or 17 per cent.
National Mark Dressed Poultry Trade Committee. The
inaugural meeting of the re-constituted Poultry Trade Com-
mittee was held on September 15. Among the matters dealt
with by the Committee was consideration of the special arrange-
ments that it is proposed to make this year enabling
producers to pack turkeys and geese under the National Mark
Scheme. The Committee approved the arrangements made,
which will function on similar lines to the arrangements made
last year to meet the Christmas seasonal turkey and goose
trade.
Home-Grown Wheat Flour for Bread Making. The
National Bakery School has this year again conducted bread-
making tests with National Mark All-English (Yeoman)
Straights flour. The tests were made with 13 samples of flour
milled from 1937 crop wheat by millers in various parts of
the country. They indicate that in every instance satisfactory
bread was produced from the samples tested. The photo-
graphs of the test loaves are shown on the accompanying inset.
The following observations are taken from the Director's
report: —
1. Most of the flours possessed a good colour and produced bread
with a creamish crumb ; the uniformity of crumb colour was
most marked again this year.
2. All the flours produced most stable doughs with the equivalent
of 14^ gallons of water per sack. Most of the flours would
carry 15 gallons per sack with safety.
During fermentation all the doughs gassed well and possessed
good stability. They all possessed good dough handling
properties.
3. Following the practice of previous years a aj-hour bulk fermentation
process was employed. All the flours produced good bread on
this process.
883
Marketing Notes
4. As will be seen from the illustrations, all the flours produced
bread of good volume, and were particularly satisfactory for oven
bottom bread. Some samples were also baked into cottage
bread and the results were most satisfactory — ^upstanding, bold
loaves being obtained.
5. The stability of the flours was much greater than usual.
Copies of Marketing Leaflet I2e, giving the recipe for using
National Mark flour in commercial bread-making, may be
obtained from the Ministry free of charge.
National Mark Schemes for Cheese. The quantities of
cheese packed under the National Mark in each of the schemes
during the quarters ending June 30 and September 30, 1937,
with comparative figures for the corresponding quarters of
1936, were as follows : —
Type of Cheese
Quarter
ended
June 30,
1937
Quarter
ended
June 30,
I93^>
Quarter
ended
Sept. 30,
1937
Quarter
ended
Sept. 30,
1936
Cheshire —
rwt.
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
(a) Farm made . .
16,297
14,566
22,285
20,020
(6) Creamery ma«.le
6,215
13352
6,238
1 1,122
Caerphilly . . . . ;
6,203
5*904
5*97 1
Cheddar . . . . |
133
739
L342 1
I 1.431
Lancashire . . . . |
2,822
*2,207 1
4*759 i
4.9-ii
Wensleydale . . . . j
160
* 92 j
29 j
185
Leicester . . . .
^23
* 1
297
76
Stilton —
i
(a) Blue . . . . 1
227
308 j
191
' 204
(b) White , . . . 1
330
640 i
GO
693
Cream . . . . . . 1
^7
* 1
12
13
cr
81
t - 1
iS.-i
t -
* These schemes came into operation during, or only shortly before,
the period in question.
t Scheme not in operation until February, i937.
Marketing Demonstrations. Arrangements have been
made for Demonstrations to be given at the following Fat Stock
Shows during December ; —
S how Locattoyi Date, 1937
BirmmgSBBfot^tock Show . . Birmingham . . Nov. 30 to Dec. 3.
Smithfield ,, ‘ .. Agricultural Hall, Dec. 6 to 10.
Islington.
Manchester ,, ,, . . Manchester . . Dec. 13 to 14.
At each of the Shows the operation of the scheme for the
direct sale of fat stock on a grade and deadweight basis will
be demonstrated.
Live animals will be exhibited in order to illustrate the types
of animals that will kill out at the various carcass grades under
the scheme.
DECEMBER ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King’s College, Nci&castle-upon-Tyne
The present month does not usually afford great opportunity
for progress with cultural operations. Short days and
frequent rain limit the working hours considerably. Low
temperatures and little sun mean little growth, and for this
reason the present and succeeding month are not regarded as
a favourable period for sowing. On many farms, if wheat has
not been drilled before the end of November, sowing is delayed
until February, when there is more likelihood of obtaining good
plant establishment.
Practically all root-crops arc cleared from the ground, except
the last of the sugar-beet and root crops intended for consum-
ing on the ground. Remarkable differences in climatic
conditions in adjacent localities, which have so characterized
the weather conditions of the past year, have been reflected in
marked differences in the crops harvested. On the whole,
1937 stands out as a year when hay yields have been good.
Pasturage in many parts has been abundant but not so uni-
formly good for the whole country as the hay crop.
A difficult winter and spring for cultural work on the land
caused crops to be sown under poor soil conditions in many
localities, with the result that there is much variation in the
crops obtained. Wheat is probably the best cereal crop, oats
in most instances have not done well, while barley crops are
variable. It is probable that barley is the cereal that is
most insistent on good soil conditions, and naturally this has
been the most variable during the past season.
Potatoes, although planted under moderate conditions and
frequently late, have finished a fair crop generally. There
has been a tendency during the past twenty years for the
potato crop to be grown only on the better soils. The standard
of manuring and cultivation has also improved. All these
factors help to bring up the crop to the average in an adverse
season.
The late planting of sugar-beet has resulted in a short growing
season, which is a disadvantage where maturity is desired.
Swedes and turnips are variable. In the north of England
very few outstanding crops are met witii, and where the crops
885
December on the Farm
looked most promising in the early part of the season, the
final result has not usually come up to expectations.
The poorer prospect for roots, together with the shortage of
autumn grass in many districts, was no doubt responsible for
the falling off in prices for store sheep during the latter part of
the season.
Drainage. When wet conditions frequently hinder cultiva-
tions, labour may become available for other purposes, and
some of this might be used to deal with drainage problems.
The need for drainage is apparent on a large number of farms.
Little under-drainage has been undertaken for many years, and
drainage systems in many instances are worn out, or in ‘need
of repair. Wet land reduces the number of working days,
makes tilth and seed bed more difficult to obtain, and encour-
ages disease. While putting down new systems is an expensive
matter, a great deal can frequently be done by attention tc
outlets, ditches, etc., this frequently releasing much trouble
some water. On many farms where deep cultivation is no\
practised, a pan forms below the ploughed soil, and this tends
to prevent water getting quickly to the drains. Subsoiling
under such conditions often does good, not only by providing
a greater area in which the plants may feed but by allowing
surface water to get away more quickly.
Mole drainage has proved very useful and profitkble on
some soils, but it cannot be adopted satisfactorily on very
large areas.
Before extensive pipe draining was undertaken in the
country, drainage was effected by means of the rigg and furrow
system. A good open furrow running with the fall of the
land can do much to clear water, and in planning winter
ploughing it is desirable to make use of all opportunities to
keep the land dry. Bad drainage limits the reffim from culti-
vations, manure and seed.
On a large number of farms the absence of a reliable plan of
the drainage system results in much speculation and loss
of time when a drainage question arises. It is advisable that
a record of all drains and alterations should be kept.
Varieties of Cereals. Some years ago the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany instituted a scheme for trials
with different varieties of cereals. The trials are carried out
by County Staffs at selected cenfres in the county. ValuaWe
886
December on the Farm
information as to the suitability of varieties for the different
districts has thus become available to the farmer. When
such trials are carried out, the crop is carefuDy weighed and
a reliable comparison of Ae varieties for the particular field
and season is obtained. While the results show that certain
varieties are generally superior to others, there are many
instances of a variety being best suited to particular conditions.
Growers should test the varieties that have shown the best
results in their own district alongside the variety normally
grown, to ascertain if a change is likely to be profitable. In
making comparisons it is important that an accurate measure
be taken. The varieties to be compared should be sown at
the same time under the same conations, and the resultant
crop carefully weighed.
Comparisons between two varieties grown in separate fields
should not be made without regard to variations of soil, manur-
ing, time of sowing, previous cropping, etc.
A variety that “ runs well ” is frequently given much credit
without any regard as to actual yield of grain or straw per
acre. At Cockle Park this year a variety of oats appeared
to be yielding well, as the grain ran freely from the thresher, but
the actual yield of grain per acre was the same as another
variety that did not run so well. In both, the yield of grain
was 23 J cwt. per acre, but with one the yield of straw was
23i cwt. while with the other it was 30 cwt. On the other
hand, to judge by bulk of crop in the field may be most mis-
leading. One variety that looked well produced 33I cwt. of
straw, but yielded only gj cwt. of grain. The estimation of
grain crops can only be within relatively wide limits, often
so wide as not to allow for what may be the difference between
profit and loss. It takes time and trouble to weigh, but it is
worth while if it enables the farmer to find the most profitable
variety.
Grass Land. Where there is much rough unconsumed
grass, every effort should be made to have it pulled off before
growth commences in spring. Where this can be done with
cattle and sheep it is an advantage. Matted grass land can
never be productive. Heavy harrows and other grass land
implements can be used to displace the mat. This, however,
is not sufficient, as the mat frequently settles down again.
Raking up and burning and encouraging decomposition by
treading with stock are means of clearing it out of the way,
887
December on the Farm
but it is necessary to follow these up by adequate spring and
summer g^ing. In wet weather, undue poaclung by stock
frequently 8l5i8 serious harm. The surface soil fs left in very
bad pineal condition, with the result that the pasture or
meadow is less productive during the following season.
Wet grass land can often be improved without drainage.
In the north of England, much undrained grass land diat was
originally in a waterlogged condition, growing rushes and
showing other signs of lack of drainage, has been considerably
improved by the application of phosphatic manures. For
summer grazing, this land does very well and compares favour-
ably with much of the pipe-drained land. The more v^orous
growth of the pasture plants with deeper rooting enables the
surface water to get more readily to the sub-soil. There is
less water shed off to accumulate in the furrows and low-lying
areas, with the result that die rushes have practically dis-
appeared. It should, however, be pointed out that the un-
drained land is not very suitable for wintering stock as it
poaches readily and the stock do not get a dry lying place.
Cattle. During die month, many of the earlier fattening
catde will be marketed. It is the month for fat stock shows.
If the large shows such as Smithfield, Edinburgh, Birmingham
and Norwich are the gathering centres for the lai^er feeders,
the local shows maintain the interest of the smallet feeders.
The encouragement given by these shows for feeders to turn
out an article of high standard is a great advantage, even if,
as may be so in extreme instances, the economic aspect is not
so satisfactory.
Young cattle are now being reared on a number of farms
where, in the past, the catde requirements have been purchased
either as dairy cows or stores ready for &dtening. A visit to
many rearing farms as well as to our markets for store cattie
reveals the fact that numbers of animals do not come up to
the desired standard. Both breeding and feeding affect the type
and standard of animal produced. At birth, die animal has
certain potentialities that it has derived from its parents, but
the proper development of'ithese depends on feeding and
management. Young growing animals need a suitably
balanced ratipn for the satis&ctory development of bone,
muscle, blood tissues,, etc. Over-feeding tis undesirable as
affecting the future economic life of die animal by unnecessarily
increasmg die cost of producing die store animal. On the odieT
888
December on the Farm
hand store cattle are too frequently relegated to a very
secondary place as far as food and management are concerned,
with the result thw^poor returns are obtained and inferior
animals produced.
The winter season is sufficiently far advanced for producers
of store cattle to be able to judge how far satisfactory progress
is being made by store cattle, and where necessary changes in
food and management should be made. On hill farms, ewes
often lose weight during the winter owing to poor diet. With
mature sheep this may be unavoidable and yet economic, but
as far as young growing sheep are concerned hill flockmasters
are careful to winter them on low ground under better condi-
tions. Similarly with growing cattle, it is important that they
should be kept in thriving condition. Apart from the question
of food supply, the general management affects their well-
doing. Housing conditions are frequently bad. Light, air,
freedom from draughts are as important as a dry bed.
The spring and summer progress of cattle may be as much
affected by the conditions of housing, etc., during winter as
by the food supply.
General. Lambing commences amongst Down flocks on
some farms during the month. On self-supporting grass farms
it is delayed until there is available pasturage for the nursing
ewes. On hill farms grass begins growth much later, and
lambing is therefore delayed until the end of March or April.
The conditions for hill flocks are most severe during January to
March, and a sharp look-out needs to be kept for ewes that
are not thriving, and help should be given before serious
falling off in condition occurs.
A certain amount of the winter food supply has already been
consumed, and now is a good time to take account of remain-
ing stocks and to make any necessary alteration in the rations
so that the best use may be made of the food available.
889
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
Loss of Lime from Soils. An estimated annual loss of 4 to
5 cwt. of lime (CaO) per acre from manured plots on Broad-
balk field at Rothamsted has often been taken as a rough
indication of the rate at which lime is lost from the soil. That
circumstances may greatly affect the rate of loss, however, is
shown by results from other centres. For instance, Woburn,
starting with a much lower content of lime than Broadbalk,
still contained one-half of the original supply after 50 years
of cropping, though the whole of its lime content would have
been completely exhausted in less than 20 years if the loss had
proceeded at the same rate as on Broadbalk. There is now
no doubt that the actual amount of lime in a soil greatly influ-
ences the rate at which lime is lost. Other factors also affect
the rate of loss. Under conditions of high rainfall the rate
of loss normally increases. Again, the system of manuring
may increase the loss of lime, e.g., where it includes frequent
large dressings of sulphate of ammonia continued over a long
period of years. On the other hand, maniu-ing may conserve
the supplies of lime in the soil, e.g., where farmyard manure
or the so-called physiologically alkaline or slightly basic ferti-
lizers, such as nitrate of soda, calcium cyanamide, basic slag,
etc., form the chief basis of the manuring programme.
Nevertheless it is desirable, if possible, to attempt to form a
general idea as to the length of time a given dressing of lime
may be expected to last in general farming practice. For this
purpose it is necessary first to explain that different sorts of
lime all serve die same purpose in the soil, namely to replenish
and maintain the supplies of calcium. Calcium is present in
the soil in a number of different chemical combinations, but
only two of these are important to our problem, namely calcium
carbonate and calcium present in loose combination with the
humus and clay particles and called the exchangeable calcium.
No matter what sort of lime or chalk is applied to the soil,
chemical changes will eventually convert it into one or other of
these two forms.
The amount of exchangeable calcium present in any soil will
depend (i) on the amounts of clay and humus in die soil, and
890
Notes on Manuring
(2) on the extent to which these are " saturated ” with calcium.
A soil that contains free calcium carbonate may be assumed to
have its clay and humus “ saturated " with calcium; if not,
saturation will gradually take place by drawing on the free
calcium carbonate, as happens when chalk, for instance, is
applied to an acid soil. In other words, the calcium carbonate
acts as a reserve and it is only when this reserve has become
exhausted that further loss of lime leaves the clay and humus
“ unsaturated ” and the soil becomes increasingly acid.
It follows from the fact that the exchangeable calcium is
associated with the clay and humus that heavy and peaty soils
when “ saturated ” contain much more exchangeable calcium
than sandy soils. Crop failure occurs at some particular degree
of ” unsaturation,” and hence, though a small loss of lime may
cause serious crop failure on a very light soil, a small dressing of
lime will put it right. On the other hand, when a heavy soil is
sufficiently acid to cause crop failure it requires a much heavier
application of lime to put it right again.
Mention has already been made of the heavy loss of lime
from the manured plots on Broadbalk field at Rothamsted on
a soil containing a good proportion of free carbonate of lime.
At Harper Adams, on a light loam soil, originally acid with
a " lime requirement ” of 2 tons CaCOg per acre, Morley
Davies showed that the rate of loss of added carbonate of lime
increased with the rate of application. All trace of free carbon-
ate of lime disappeared within 4 to 6 years of application. Even
plots that received 5 tons per acre carbonate of lime contained
no free CaCOg at the end of six years; some of the added lime
had been washed out and the remainder converted into the
exchangeable form.
Determinations of the exchangeable calcium in the soil
showed that the annual loss of lime over the first seven years
from the date of liming was at the high rate of 3 cwt. CaO per
acre from plots which received 5 tons carbonate of lime per
acre; cwt. CaO per acre where 2 \ tons of carbonate was
applied; and only i cwt. per acre where ij tons of carbonate
of lime was applied. Hence during the years immediately
following an application of lime the rate of loss is high if the
quantify applied greatly exceeds the amount required to coirect
the acidity of the field.
Examination of the present lime status of ffie very light
sandy soil at Tunstall, East Suffolk, suggests that following an
application of 5 tons per acre of lump chalk in 1926 to a soil
891
Notes on Manuhing
wilh a lime requirement of about 30 cwt, CaCOj per acre,
tbe average loss of lime duiii^ the period 1926-1937 has
been a,t the rate of about to if cwt. CaO per acre per annum.
In this instance free calcium carbonate persisted in the soil
longer than at Harper Adams^ but the small amounts oi clay
and humus m this required reiadveiy littie calcium to
“ satatate ’’ them and hence a iaige piopoihon oi the added
IBvidcxicc ol:>tai23cd bv J-tace at J3an^oj’, trom
medium loam soils in North Wales, also showed a definite
tendency for the rate of loss of |lime to Increase |with die
exchangeable calcium present. This is interesting, because
none of these Welsh soils contained any free carbonate of lime
and the losses of lime were therefore the average losses from
“ unsaturated ” soil without any addition of lime to affect
the rate of loss in the early years. The average annual loss
of lime from soils with a good content of exchangeable CaO
was 157 lb. CaO per acre as against an average annual loss
of only 75 lb. per acre on soils poor in exchangeable CaO. In
other words the soils with the highest exchangeable CaO
content lost lime at twice the rate of those with a low exchange-
able content. The average annual loss for all the Bangor
soils was 106 Ib. exchangeable CaO per acre per annum, with
224 lb. per acre as the highest individual loss.
Experiments on a light sandy soil at Woburn show the fol-
lowing losses of lime over a period of fifty years ; —
Manuring
Nil
Mineral manures alone
Minerals plus sulphate of ammonia
Minerals plus nitrate of soda
Farmyard manure . .
Loss of Exchangeable
CaO in 50 years
34 cwt. per acre
53 M
24
17
These figures also show that different systems of manuring
have a pronounced effect on the loss of lime.
Considering the evidence from all centres, soils with a high
lime status, i.e., “ saturated '' and containing free carbonate
of lime, are likely to suffer relatively heavy annual losses of
lime — ^probably from 3 to 5 cwt. CaO per acre per annum.
This loss will occur irrespective of whether the high lime status
is of long standing or has been recently induced by the applica-
tion of dressings of chalk or lime greatly in excess of the lime
requirement.
The rate of loss will decrease as the lime status of die soil
892
Notes on Manujong
deteriorates, and, on non>calcareous or slightly acid soils, or
on more acid soils diat have been limed with a dressing approxi-
mately sufficient to fulfil their lime requirement, the rate of
loss is not likely to exceed to 2 cwt. CaO per acre per annum.
On soils of still lower lime status the annual loss will fall until
it reaches an almost negligtble amount, bat such soils are
usually too acid for satisfactory growth of many of the common
a^dcuttural cro^.
-we •jLc.fwpl {■vvtciTmfedia.'te typ® a®. iowes^ ?lftW
status at w&icli most i&ttticre tcqaac 63 kaoy tltGic6<7iis (aal^
they are prepared to adopt rotations restricted to such crops
as oats, potatoes, rye and lupins) then it seems that the annual
loss will be about to 2 cwt. CaO per acre. It has already
been pointed out that this will vary slightly with manuring,
rainfall, soil type, etc., but taking the higher figure as the
best on which to base a safe estimate it seems that in general
the most economical liming policy for lime-deficient soils is
first to give them a dressing of lime in accordance with their lime
requirement and subsequently to apply 10 cwt. per acre of
ground burnt lime or about 17 cwt. per acre of ground carbon-
ate of lime every 5 years. Where, however, a cheap source
of waste lime or of lump chalk is available locally it is usually
better, in the long run, to give relatively heavier dressings of
this material than those suggested above, despite the possibility
of a higher rate of loss, for 4 to 5 tons per acre of undried
sugar-beet faqtory lime sludge or lump chalk is about the
smallest dressing that can be spread on the land an3dhing
like uniformly, and uniform spreading is essential to success
in all liming operations. The price of these bulky materials
is usually such that they are still often the most economical
form of lime when th&y can be bought locally.
Since a large proportion of the total loss of lime takes place
via the drainage water it might be supposed that the additional
and deeper cultivations performed on arable land would lead
to greater losses on arable than grass land. Such evidence as
there is, however, suggests that the difference is not very great
under ordinary farming conditions, and in view of tiie import-
ance of maintaining a high lime content in both pasturage and
hay for the sake of the health and productivity of the livestock
consuming them, grassland farmers should be prepared to
replace losses of lime of the same order as those mentioned
above for arable land, unless, of course, they regularly use
heavy dressings of basic slag.
893
Notes on Manuring
Phosphate and Seedling Growth, (a) In the Field. Refer-
ence is often made to the beneficial effects of phosphate on
the growth of young seedlings. On soils that are deficient in
available phosphate, crops will usually show a definite response
to phosphatic fertilizers throughout the whole season. On
soils less markedly deficient, an application of phosphate some-
times produces visible beneficial effects in the early stages of
growth but little or no increase in yield at harvest. Evidence
of such effects with the sugar-beet crop was given in these
notes for March, 1937. Two fields, one rich and the other
poor in available phosphate, were sown with sugar-beet. Both
showed visible responses in the seedling stage of the crop to
applications of superphosphate, bift only the one poor in
phosphate showed any appreciable increase in yield at lifting
time. It is not wise, however, to ignore an early response
even if an increase in yield does not alwa)^ follow. A vigorous
seedling will often survive a spell of unfavourable conditions
which might seriously check or even prove fatal to a weaker
plant.
Another instance of the beneficial effect of phosphate on
seedling growth is the well known effect of a dressing of
basic slag on the establishment of -a young " seeds " layer.
(b) Under Glass. In glasshouse work, however, fertilizers
are often deliberately omitted from composts and soils for seed
sowing, etc., on the grounds that a too liberal supply of plant
food in the early stages is likely to produce weak growth and
not a sturdy plant. Investigations by Lawrence and Newell
at the John Innes Horticultural Institution at Merton, however,
have shown that a judicious application of fertilizer, especially
phosphate, to the compost in which seeds are sown will not
only give more vigorous growth in the seedling stage but also,
in certain circumstances, is well-nigh essential to the production
of a sturdy plant. The experiments covered a variety of pot
plants, as well as turnip and tomato seedlings, so that the
results must have a wide application in practice.
Beneficial effects were obtained from an addition of super-
phosphate to unsterilized soil but the effects were even more
pronounced when steam-sterilized soil was used. Troubles
caused by fungi and bacteria have led to an increase in the
adoption of steam sterilization of soil and compost for boxing
or potting. Though this treatment usually controls many
disease troubles, seeds sow'n in freshly-sterilized sofl often
suffer a serious check in the early stages of growth, a difficulty
894
• Notes on Manuring
that, in the past, has been partly overcome by storing the soil
for some time after sterilization. Even when the soil has been
stored for two or three months after sterilizing, however, seed-
ling growth may be slow in the early stages if no fertilizer is
mixed with the soil.
Experiments at Merton with different fertilizers showed that
a great improvement in early growth resulted from mixing
superphosphate with steam-sterilized compost, but addition
of nitrogen in the form of hoof and horn meal, or potash
in the form of sulphate of potash, gave no better growth
during the first few weeks than superphosphate alone, and, in
general, it seemed best to mix the superphosphate with the soil
or compost after rather than before sterilizing. Potash proved
more important as the plants reached maturity, and though
probably unnecessary for a compost for seed sowing and prick-
ing off, should be included with nitrogen and phosphate in
composts for potting.
It is particularly interesting to note that, though some benefit
was obtained when superphosphate was used in conjunction
with unsterilized soil for seed sowing the benefit was veiy much
greater when steam-sterilized soil was used. It seems therefore
that the actual process of steam sterilizing a soil leads to an in-
crease in the amount of phosphate required to produce strong
and vigorous growth in seedlings growing in that soil. The
reason for this is not easy to find. Lawrence and Newell have
shown that during steam sterilizing a harmful interaction tahes
place between the ingredients of a compost, especially if lime in
any form is added before sterilizing. Steam sterilization is gener-
ally believed to increase the amount of available nitrogen in the
soil, but it is not yet clear whether this disturbance of the
balance of plant nutrients is the only factor involved in the
increase in the phosphate requirement of the soil. The
important point to bear in mind is the desirability of ensuring
an adequate supply of phosphate to seedlings whether grown
in the field or in the nursery. A small quantity of phosphatic
fertilizer should always be mixed with soil used for growing
seeds in boxes and for pricking on. This is particularly
important where the soil has been steam sterilized. Super-
phosphate at the rate of oz. per bushel of compost proved
a satisfactory source of phosphate for the seed sowing and
potting composts used at Merton.
895
PRICES OF ARnnCUL MANURES
Description
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended Nov. 17
Cost
per
Unitll
Nitrate of Soda (N. 15 J%)
£ s.
8 oc
£
8 oc
£ s.
8 oc
£ s.
8 oc
5 . d.
10 4
,, „ Granulated (N.i6%)
'
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
10 0
7 7 ^
7 7 «
II 4
*
7 100
7 100
9 9
7 Be
7 Be
7 2
7 lod
7 lod
7 3
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . .
2 18
2 15
2 15
2 15
3 II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5 4
.5 I
5 0
5 I
3 5
(Pot. 20%)
3 15
3 12
3 12
3 12
3 7
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
8 10
8 8
8 5
8 8
3 4
Sulphate. „ (Pot. 48%) . .
10 2
10 0
9 17
10 0
4 2
Basic Slag (P.A. 15}%)
2 126
2 5b
—
2 108
3 2
, .. (P.A. 14%)
Grd. Rock Phosphate (P.A. 26—
27*%)
|S
2 Sb
2 ob
2 ob
2 6b
3 3
2 17a
2 150
2 15a
2 12a
2 0
Supe^hosphate (S.P.A. i6%)
3 4
—
3 3/
3 og
3 9
(S.P.A. I3i%)
3 I
2 17
2 19/
2 i6g
4 I
Bone Meal (N. 3}%. P.A. 2oi%)
7 5
7 5 *
7 2
—
Steamed Bone Flour (N. i%,
P..\. 27 i- 29 f%) ..
5 5 *
5 10
5 oh
4 15
—
Abbreviations : N. = Nitrogen ; P.A. = Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A. = Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. « Potash.
♦ Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser’s nearest railvrtay station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
5 Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r, in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 55. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 105 . extra.
d Delivered in 5-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 55. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 105 . per ton extra and for lots of 4 cwt. and under 1 ton, 205. extra.
e For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is 15. per ton extra, for lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons, 55. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under 2 tons,
75. 6d. per ton extra, and for lots of under i ton, 205. extra.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes,
g Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, 15. ^d. extra.
h Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
% Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
^ These are calculated by regarding a ton as comMsing 100 ” units ” (equal parts
0/22*4 fertilizer, for example, tvith 16 per cent nitrogen, contains
x6 such ** units ” in a ton. Then, if the ^ce per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a ” unit " of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advise^ Leaflet No. 146, The Valuation of Artificial Manures,** wtainMe from
ike Ministry, free of charge.)
896
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College
Winter Keep (continued). Forage Crops. In last month's
Notes we discussed the varied nutritive possibilities of grass-
land produce, fresh or preserved. Turning now to consider the
produce of the arable land, the obvious substitutes or supple-
ments for grass would seem to be the various green fodder
crops, such as the kales, rape and cabbage. In chemical
composition they do in fact closely resemble average grass,
such as a good pasture affords in the late spring or early
summer. Disregarding the relatively small differences between
the individual crops the average composition of the dry matter
of these crops is roughly as given below : —
Composition of Dry Matter
Green
Extensive
Fodders
Grazing
Crude Protein
/o
16
/o
17
Oil (Ether Extract)
4
4
Carbohydrates (N-free Extract) . .
50
49
Fibre
19
20
Ash
II
10
Starch Equivalent
59
56
The concordance with the grass average is very close and
would seem to justify the conclusion that the dry matters
of the grass and of the fodders may be taken as equal in
nutritive value. Whereas, however, the former crop com-
monly contains 20 per cent, of dry matter, the average for the
forage crops is oidy about 14 per cent., so that on green
weight the latter should have about two-thirds of the feeding
value of the grass. There may also be a littie difference in
the make-up of the minerals of the two classes of crop, although
this will vary considerably. On average composition the kales
are rather richer in lime than average grass or cabbage. Rape
is rather richer in protein than kale, but less concentrated in
productive energy (starch equivalent).
In the marrow stem kale crop the leaves are more nutritious
897
Notes on Feeding
than the stems, the average composition of the dry matter being
much as set out below : —
Leaf
0/
Stem
0/
Crude Protein . .
/o
14
/o
9
Oil (Ether Extract)
3
I
Carbohydrates (N-free Extract)
. . 56
56
Fibre
12
25
Ash
. • 15
9
The richness of the leaf in ash may be noted, the outstanding
ingredients of it being lime, potash and chlorine.
Under “ forage croj)s " must also be included the tops and
crowns of the sugar-beet crop. These contain about 15 per
cent, of dry substance, the composition of which roughly
resembles that of the other forage crops in containing 15-20
per cent, of crude protein. Published anal5«es generally show
a similarly high proportion of ash, but a considerable part
of this is probably due to the adherent soil. In one sample
recently tested, the dry matter contained 21.6 per cent, of
ash, of which 8 per cent, undoubtedly arose from dirt. This
emphasizes the necessity, where beet tops are fed, of protecting
them as far as possible from soil contamination. In Germany,
where beet tops are extensively ensiled or dried, it is the usual
practice to wash the tops first. Further precaution is necessary
in the feeding of beet tops owing to the presence of a small
proportion of oxalic acid. In the sample referred to above
this amounted to about 2 per cent, of the dry matter, which is
high for a material that may act as a poison. The proportion
seems to be reduced if the tops are allowed to wilt for a few
days before feeding, and a further safeguard is to feed a little
ground chalk or limestone (J lb. per 3 cwt. beet tops) along
with them to ensure that tiie oxalic acid will be converted
to the insoluble, harmless form of calcium oxalate. A more
extensive description of the various forage crops will be found
in the Ministry's Bulletin No. 13.
Root Crops. Next to the green fodders in apparent suit-
ability to take the place of succulent grass come the various
root crops, such as turnips, mangolds, carrots and potatoes,
to which may be added sugar-beet pulp, since this is an integral
part of a root crop. The suitability is more apparent than
real, however, since the only points that these crops share in
common with grass are succulence and palatability. It is true
that they share the further characteristic of being bulky, but
this is due to their peculiar structure and the high proportion
8g8
Notes on Feeding
of water with which their cells are filled, and not to a high
proportion of fibre as with grass. A comparison of the composi-
tion of the dry matter of the two classes of material brings
out very clearly that the dry matter of roots is something very
different from that of grass, and approximates, indeed, far
more closely to that of barley and oats ; —
Composition of Dry Matter
Roots
Grass
Barley
Oats
%
{as above)
%
%
%
Crude Protein
8--11
^7
12
12
Oil (Ether Extract) . .
i-ij
4
2
5
Carbohydrates (N-free Extract)
70-80
49
78
67
Fibre
5-10
20
5
12
Ash
4-8
10
3
4
Starch Equivalent per loo lb. dry
matter
50-75
56
84
68
For the sake of simplicity data have been given for " roots "
as a class, but the variation between the individual crops
makes it necessary to show the range rather than to give an
average that would be meaningless.
It will be seen that as a class " roots ” furnish dry matter
that is much poorer in protein, ether extract, fibre and ash,
and correspondingly richer in carbohydrates, than that of grass.
On the other hand, it closely resembles the dry matter of the
cereals, the chief differences being in a slightly lower protein
and higher ash. The fibre content is mostly intermediate
between that of barley and oats, but it is of a more digestible
type.
It would appear logical, therefore, to regard the root crops
as providing a “ carbohydrate concentrate ” mixed with a
large proportion of water. Viewed in this light the function
of roots in rationing will be to effect economies in the use of
cereals and other starchy concentrates in the “ production "
ration. The ratio of water to dry matter varies greatly in the
different classes of roots, being on the average about 3 : i in
potatoes, 7 : I in carrots, mangolds and swedes, and 10 : 1
in soft turnips. Potatoes show the closest resemblance to the
cereals, since their chief carbohydrate is starch, whereas
in the “ roots ” it is one or more forms of sugar. For produc-
tion purposes, especially in the ruminant, sugar is less valuable
than starch, and this explains why the starch equivalent of
the dry matter of ‘ ‘ roots ’ ’ (55-65 per cent.) is rather lower than
that of, potatoes and the cereals.
Sugar-beet pulp differs from the roots in having had its
899
Notes on Feeding
sugar and soluble minerals removed, although in " molassed
pulp ” part of the sugar will have been restored in the form
of molasses. The dry matter of the pulp is thus poorer
tiian that of imtreated roots in soluble carbohydrates, and
correspondingly richer in fibre, but its general feeding qualities
still resemble those of " roots " with a starch equivalent in the
region of 55-65 per cent, for the dry matter. (See also Bulletin
No. 13).
Straws. The function of the various types of straw in the
“ winter keep '' programme is obvious and requires Utile
comment. At its best straw may be equal to fair quality ^y :
at its worst it is little more than “ ballast,” and probably ^ves
better value if trodden into manure than if passed through
the animal, since in the latter circumstance only about one-
half of the organic matter of the straw will reach the manure
heap.
The nutritive value of straw varies somewhat according to
the crop, but is mainly determined by the degree of ripeness
of the plants when cut, and the labour of mastication and
digestion imposed by the degree of hardness and toughness of
the straw. Straw of a relatively soft character from a crop
cut in the early stages of ripening will be more nutritious
than if it comes from ‘ ' dead-ripe ’ ’ plants. Other things being
equal, a tough, good-standing variety of straw will probably
be less nutritious than a softer type. It is probable, therefore,
that the straw from modern varieties of cereals is usually inferior
as fodder to that from the older varieties not bred for stiffness
of straw.
It is generally agreed that oat straw is the best feed of the
cereal straws, although in some districts practical opinion
favours wheat straw. Much depends upon the ripeness of the
crop at cutting, and the less forward ripening of the oat crop
when usually cut probably largely accounts for its superiorily
over the riper straws from barley and wheat, whose ‘ ‘goodness' '
has been more largely transferred into the grain.
The feeding value of the haulm from beans and peas is
affected by the same conditions of ripeness and physical
character as the cereal straws. Both contain about twice as
much protein, and at their best have a rather higher feeding
value. Their physical character is more variable, however,
and it is this quality more often than not that determines
whether they are worth feeding.
900
Notes on Feeding
The chaff or “ cavings ” arising from tiie tiireshing of fee
grain crops has much fee same nutritive character as fee
straws, apart from broken corn and weed seeds that may be
present. These would tend to raise fee feeding value, but if
the proportion of weed seeds is more than very small the good
husbandman will prefer burning this material to either feeding
it or incorporating it in the manure.
Corn. The chemical nature and nutritive qualities of the
various cereal and leguminous grains grown on our farms are
probably better understood than those of any other home-
grown feeding materials and therefore need only a brief refer-
ence. They all rank as “ concentrated ” foods and share in
common the quality of containing a high proportion of easily
digestible carbohydrates, mainly in the form of starch. As
to protein, the cereal grains contain 8-12 per cent., and the
leguminous grains (beans and peas) 22-26 per cent. For most
of our farm feeding (young growing stock, milking stock of all
kinds, laying hens, etc.) we usually require a “ production
ration ” of concentrates containing 16-18 per cent, of protein,
which is intermediate between the cereals and legumes, so that
the farmer with both leguminous and cereal grains at his
disposal need have no difficulty in making up “ balanced ”
rations from his home-grown produce if he so desires, although
prices in the feeding-stuffs market may often point to more
economic methods of meeting his requirements.
One point in particular must be kept in mind in using cereals
freely, namely, their relative poverty in protein and lime. For
the feeding purposes indicated above a mineral supplement
relatively rich in lime will almost invariably be desirable with
rations containing a high proportion of cereals, unless the other
foods in the ration (e.g., good hay, fish meal) are so outstand-
ingly rich in lime as to make good the deficiency of the cereals.
Even beans and peas, though relatively much richer in lime
than cereals, are not sufficiently so to give a complete safe-
guard, and a mixture of beans and cereals will still as a rule
require mineral supplement.
As between the different cereals oats are characterized by
con taining about three times as much oil as barley or wheat,
or even more if the comparison is made on the naked grain.
This advantage of the kernel of the oat is offset, however, by
the practical necessity of feeding the husk along with it, which
results in the feeding value of the oat “ as fed ” being about
901
Notes on Feeding
IO-Z5 per cent, lower than that of wheat and barley, which are
much die same. One practical advantage of the oat is its
safety, which makes it possible, if desired, to feed larger quanti-
ties &an would be safe with other grains. Barley, in this and
other respects, ranks intermediate between oats and wheat, the
free use of the latter (apart from cost) being subject to restriction
owing to its tendency to form doughy masses in the digestive
organs. For this reason it is generally recommended that
wheat be only coarsely ground if more than a small proportion
is to be included in the ration.
903
PRICES OP FEEDIHO STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu
rial
value
per
ton
- Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starcl
equiv
Price
per
lb.
starcl
equiv
Pro-
tein
equiv.
Wheat, British . .
i
9 3
i
0 9
8 14
72
5.
2 5
d,
I *29
%
9-6
Barley, British Feeding
9
0 8
8 12
71
2 5
I *29
6*2
„ Canadian No. 3
Western
8 13
0 8
8 5
71
2 4
I *25
6-2
„ Argentine
8 17S
0 8
8 9
71
2 5
I -29
6*2
„ Persian
8 1\
0 8
7 19
71
2 3
I *21
1 6*2
„ Russian
8 13I
0 8
8 5
71
2 4
1 -25
6 ‘2
Oats, English, white . .
9 0
0 9
8 II
60
2 10
I *52
7-6
„ „ black
and grey
8 13
0 9
8 4
60
2 9
1-47
7-6
„ Scotch, white
10 0
0 9
9 II
60
3 2
I 70
7*6
„ Canadian —
No. 2 Western . .
10 7*
0 9
9 18
60
3 4
I 79
7-6
No. 3 Western . .
9 I 5 t
0 9
9 6
60
3 I
1*65
7-6
Mixed feed
9 2
0 9
8 13
60
2 II
I -56
7-6
Maize, Argentine
7 7
0 7
7 0
78
I 10
0 *98
7-6
„ South African —
No 2 White . .
6 iSf
0 7
6 II
78
I 8
0 *89
7-6
No. 4 Yellow. .
7 2t
0 7
6 15
78
I 9
0*94
7 6
Beans, English, Winter
7 15 §
0 17
6 18
66
2 I
I -12
19 7
Peas, English, blue
II I 2 §
0 X 5
10 17
69
3 2
I 70
18 I
,, Japanese..
21 X 5 t
0 X 5
21 0
69
6 I
3-26
18 -I
Milling Offals : —
Bran, British
7 10
0 16
6 14
43
3 I
1*65
9.9
„ Broad
8 5
0 i6
7 9
43
3 6
I *87 i
10 *0
Middlings, fine,
imported j
8 5 i
0 13
7 12
69
2 2
I 16
12 *1
WeatingsJ . .
8 12
0 15
7 17
56
2 10
1*52
10 7
,, Superfine J
9 0
0 13
8 7
69
2 5
I -29
12 -I
Pollards, imported . ,
8 0
0 15
7 5
50
2 II
I *56
II *0
Meal, barley , .
10 0
0 8
9 12
71
2 8
1*43
6*2
„ „ grade II , .
9 5
0 8
8 17
71
2 6
1*34
6*2
„ maize
7 17
0 7
7 10
78
I II
I *03
7 ’6
„ „ South African
7 5
0 7
6 18
78
I 9
0*94
7-6
„ „ germ
7 10
0 II
6 19
84
I 8
0 *89
10*3
„ locust bean
7 15
0 6
7 9
71
2 I
I 12
3*6
„ bean
9 7
0 17
8 10
66
2 7
1*38
19 7
„ fish (white)
15 0
2 5
12 15
59
4 4
2 *32
53 *0
„ Soya bean
(extracted) t
9 17
I II
8 6
64
2 7
1*38
38 -3
Maize, cooked, flaked . .
8 7
0 7
8 0
84
I II
1*03
9*2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil ..
10 12
I I
9 II
74
2 7
1*38
24 -6
9 % ,, ..
10 0
I I
8 19
74
2 5
I *29
24 *6
^ . 80 /, „ ..
Cottonseed cake —
English, Egyptian
seed, 4J% oil
9 15
I I
8 14
74
2 4
1*25
24 *6
6 0
0 19
5 I
42
2 5
I *29
17*3
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian, 4*% oil . .
5 12
0 19
4 13
42
2 3
I *21
17-3
903
PIUOES 09 FBSDING STUFFS (cmHwiM)
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
• Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein.
equiv.
G>tton8eed cake,
£
5.
£
£ s.
s. d.
d.
%
decorticated, 7% oil
Cottonseed meal,
8
7t
I 9
6 18
68
2 0
I *07
34 7
decorticated, 7% oil
8
5t
I 9
6 16
70
I II
1*03
36 -8
Coconut cake, 10% oil
Ground nut cake,
7
i5t
0 18
' 6 17
1 77
I 9
0-94
^6 *4
6-7% oil ,
Ground nut cake.
7
lo*
0 ig
6 II
57
2 4
I *25
27 *3
decorticated, 6-7% oil
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated.
9
7 *
I 9
7 18
73
2 2
I *16
41*3
6-7% oil
Palm-kernel meal,
8
0
I 9
6 II
73
I 10
0-98
41 -3
1-2% oil
7
0
0 12
6 8
71
I 10
0 -98
16 *5
Feeding treacle
Brewers’ grains, dried ale
Brewers* grains, dried
5
0
0 8
4 12
51
I 10
0 *98
2*7
6
7
0 II
5 16
48
2 5
I *29
12 ‘5
porter
6
0
0 II
5 9
48 1
2 3
I *21
12*5
Dried sugar beet pulp. .
From £5 os. od. to £$ ys. 6d, per ton, ex-factory
(according to factory).
* At Bristol. § At Hull. fAt Liverpool.
I In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were
ciurent at the beginning of November. 1937, ^^^1 are, as a rule, considerably
lower than the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to
carriage and dealers' commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by
the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake
is offered locally at £ii per ton, then since its manurial value is £i is, per
ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is £9 igs. Dividing this
figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table,
the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. Sd. Dividing this again
by 22 *4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the
cost per lb. of starch equivalent is i •43<f. Similar calculations will
show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs
on the same local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer
can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices
quoM on his own markets. The figures given in the table under the
heading manurial value per ton are calculated on the basis of the
following unit prices N., 7s. ^d. ; PjO^, 2s, jd. ; KjO, 3s. Bd.
904
FARM VALUES OP FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stufEs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
equivalent
equivalent
Per cent.
Per cent.
Barley (imported)
.. 71
62
Maize
.. 78
7*6
Decorticated ground-nut cake , .
•• 73
41-3
„ cotton-seed cake . .
.. 68
34*7
(Add I os, per ton, in each instance, for carriage.)
Per
ton
£
8 12
7 7
8 13
8 7
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*22 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent o • 62 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The " food values,"
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
1 Starch
, equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
i Per cent.
Per cent.
£
Wheat
! 72
96
8 6
Oats . .
60
7-6
6 18
Barley
71
6*2
8 I
Potatoes
18
0*8
2 0
Swedes
7
0-7
0 16
Mangolds
7
0-4
t 0 16
Beans . .
. . 66
1 197
7 19
Good meadow hay . .
• • ! 37
4*6
4 5
Good oat straw
. . , 20
0*9
2 5
Good clover hay
.. 1 38
7-0
4 9
Vetch and oat silage
.. i 13
i»6
I 10
Barley straw
.1 23
0*7
2 II
Wheat straw
.. 1 13
01
I 9
Bean straw . .
. ; 23
1-7
2 12
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price 6i., post free yef.
905
CATTLE INDUSTRY (EMERGENCY PROVISIONS)
ACTS, 1934 TO 1936: NUMBER, WEIGHT & PRICES
OF CATTLE CERTIFIED FOR PAYMENTS
Previous issues of this Journal have contained information
regarding the cattle and carcasses of cattle certified for pay-
ments under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts,
1934 to 19361 from the inception of the Subsidy Scheme on
September i, 1934, to the end of February, 1937.* Subsidy
payments under those Acts came to an end on July 31, 1937,
and as from August i, 1937, subsidy payments have ‘been
made in accordance with the revised Scheme made under the
provisions of Part II of the Livestock Industry Act, 1937. The
particulars given in this article complete the information avail-
able regarding the emergency Scheme.
The total numbers of each class of animal certified for subsidy
in each of the five months March to July, 1937, are given in
Table I, and are compared with the numbers in the corres-
ponding months of 1936 : —
TABLE I
Month
Steers
Heifers
Cow-Heifers
Total
1937
1936
1937
1936
1937 ! >936
»937 i 1936
March . .
April
lifey
June
July ..
97 » i 24
90,646
92,017
74,229
64,980
99,721
95.833
91,130
81,685
65,807
50,272
42,150
41,222
42,999
59,392
48,062
41,645
37.433
47.729
58,199
6,356
6,394
6.350
6,584
6,506
6,051
5.463
5.393
6,148
5.990
153.75*
139,190
139.589
123,812
130,878
153.834
142,941
133.956
135.56*
129,996
Total (5 1
mon^)
418,996
434.176
*36,035
233,068
32,190
29,045
687,221
696,289
In the period of five months now under review the number
of cattle certified was 9,068 (1.3 per cent.) less than in the
corresponding period of 1936. As the great majority of fat
stock markets are held on the early da)^ of the week the rate
of marketing of fat cattle cannot be judged accurately from the
number of animals marketed in a calendar month. In Table II,
therefore, these figures have been adjusted so as to allow as
far as possible for the fact that a large number of markets are
held on Mondays and that the number of markets held decreases
♦ See footnote on p, 912.
9Q6
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36
day by day as the week proceeds. It would appear from
these adjusted figures that the rate of marketing of cattle eligible
for subsidy was lower in March, 1937, than in March, 1936,
by 2.9 per cent. ; in April by 1.2 per cent. ; in May by 2.5 per
cent. ; and in June by 4.1 per cent. ; but that in July, 1937, it
was higher by 3.1 per cent. The increase in July may have
been accounted for by the presentation of an unusually large
number of imported cattle, which, if presented in the following
month, might under the new subsidy scheme have qualified
for subsidy only at a reduced rate.
TABLE 11
1937
1936
March . .
• • I 39»494
143.732
April
• • 144.547
146.373
May
. . 137.042
140,519
June
121,550
1 26,686
July ..
. - 134.623
130,604
It is of interest to note that changes in the numbers of each
class of animal varied appreciably. The number of steers
decreased by 3.5 per cent, in the five months February to July,
1937* compared with the corresponding five months in 1936,
while the numbers of heifers and cow-heifers increased by
1.3 per cent, and 10.8 per cent, respectively. Cow-heifers,
however, accounted for only 4.7 per cent, of the total number of
animals certified.
A comparative statement of percentages of the different
classes of animals certified in each month is given in Table III :
TABLE III
Steers
Hei
ifers Cow-]
!
ieifers
1937
1936
1937
1936
1937
1936
March . .
April . .
May
June . .
July . .
0/
/o
63-2
65-1
65-9
600
49-6 1
”
0/
/O
64-8
67- 0
68- 0
6o‘i
503
%
32*7
30-3
29’5
34*7
45*4
i
%
31-4
293
28-1
35-5
45*2
0/
/o
41
4*6
4*6
5*3
50
%
3-8
3*7
3*9
4*4
4*5
Five months .. | 6i-o j 62 3
f :
:
34-3 ^ 33'5
4*7
4*2
1
live- Weight Certifications. Of the total of 687,221 animals
certified at Live-weight and Dead-weight Centres in the five
months March to July, 1937, 663,885 were certified at Live-
907
Cattle Industky (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934*36
weight Centres. Details of the numbers of each class of animal
celled at live-weight Centres in each of the agricultural
divisions into which the country is divided are given in
Table X (p. 912).
Table IV shows the numbers of animals certified at Live-
weight Certification Centres in England, Wales, Scotland,
Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom respectively in the
period under review compared with the corresponding period
in 1936: —
TABLE IV
1
j March- July
1937
1936
Number
Per
cent.
Number | cent.
1
England
445.398
67-1
438.312 64.7
Wales
22,958
3-4
25.139 ' 3-7
Scotland . .
151.199
22*8
160,462 1 23-7
Northern Ireland
1
44.330
6-7
53.390 1 7-9
United Kingdom
663,885 j
100
^ 77>303 j ^00
In the United Kingdom as a whole the number of animals
certified at Live-weight Centres in the period March' to July,
1937, declined by 2.0 per cent, as compared with the corre-
sponding months in 1936. The numbers certified in England
increased by 1.6 per cent., but in Wales they declined by 8.7
per cent. , in Scotland by 5.8 per cent. , and in Northern Ireland
by 17.0 per cent.
In England the largest percentage increase in numbers certi-
fied.was in the North-Eastern Agricultural Division where, in
the period imder review, there was an increase of 6.6 per cent. ,
as compared with the corresponding period of 1936. Increases
of from 2.7 to 3.8 per cent, were shown in the East Midland,
West Midland, and Northern Divisions, but there was a reduc-
tion of 8.5 per cent, in the South-Eastern Division, and smaller
reductions in the Eastern, South-Western and North-Western
Divisions.
In Wales the percentage decrease was about equal in the
Ncffthem and Soufiiem Divisions.
In Scotland fiiere was an increase of 3.7 per cent, in tihe
immbeis certified in the South-Eastern Division, but there were
900
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-:^
reductions in all the remaining Divisions, ranging from 3.9
per cent, in the North and North-West to 9.8 per cent, in tire
East Central Division.
Dead-weight Certificati<m8. During the period under
review 23,336 animals were certified at Dead-weight Centres,
as compared with 18,986 in the corresponding period of 1936,
an increase of nearly 23 per cent. The increase was mainly in
Scotland, where certifications rose by 84 per cent., but there
was also an increase of 8 per cent, in England and Wales.
Comparative particulars for each country are given in
Table V: —
TABLE V
England and
and Wales
Scotland
1 Great Britain
1937
1 ,
i 1936
1937
1936
1937
1936
March
3.545
i 3.040
1,148
612
4.693
3.652
April
• • • •
3.736
j 3.012
1.473
592
5.209
3.604
May
. .
3.105
i 3.206
1.489
761
' 4.594
3.967
June
2.671
! 2,827
1. 312
817
3.983
3.644
July
3.548
i 3.-249
1.309
870
4.857
4,119
Total for five months
16,605
1 15.334 j
6,731 1
3.652
23.336
1 18,986
Average Weight of Fat Cattle. The average live-weight
(after a deduction of 28 lb. had been made for subsidy pay-
ment purposes) at which fat cattle were marketed in the United
Kingdom as a whole in the five months March to July, 1937,
was 9 cwt. I qr. ii lb., which was i lb. heavier than in the
corresponding period of 1936. The average live-weight for
TABLE VI
Average weights over
five months
1 March to July
1
1937
1936
. cwt. qr. lb.
cwt. qr. lb.
England and Wales . , | 9 i lo
9 I 9
Scotland . . . . ! 9 2 26 |
9 3 3
Northern Ireland . . ; 8 0 24
8 0 13
United Kingdpm . , 9 ^ i ^
9 1 10
909
Catilb Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36
each of the five months was March, 1937, 9 cwt. 2 qr. 2 lb.;
April, 9 cwt. I qr. 23 lb. ; May, 9 cwt. i qr. 9 lb. ; June, 9 cwt.
o qr. 23 lb. ; and July, 9 cwt. 0 qr.. 22 lb. The weights for
March, April and May were slightly heavier than those in the
corresponding months a year earlier, the weight in June was
slightly less, while in July it was xmchanged. Table VI shows
the average weights for the period under review for each
country separately with similar averages for the corresponding
period of 1936.
The average dressed carcass weights of the animals certified
at Dead-weight Certification Centres in the five months March
to July, 1937, are given in Table VII and compared with the
corresponding period in 1936. It will be observed (hat in
Great Britain as a whole the average carcass weight was 15 lb.
heavier than in 1936, and that the increase was mainly at
Scottish Centres.
TABLE VII
Average weight over
five months, March
to July
1937
1936
lb.
lb.
England and Wales . .
614
610
Scotland
667
631
Great Britain
629
614
Average Prices of Fat Cattle. It will be seen from
Table VIII that the average price per live cwt. of certified
cattle showed a substantial improvement in each month of the
TABLE VIII
910
Catixb Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36
period March to July, 1937, as compared with the corres-
ponding period of 1936, and that over the whole of the United
Kingdom the average price for the five months was 42s. si. per
live cwt. as compared with 37s. li. in 1936.
Prices per cwt. dressed carcass weight improved similarly,
the average for the five months being 70s. loi. per cwt. as
compared with 63s. loi. in 1936. In Table IX average prices
per cwt. dressed carcass weight where certification took place
on a dead- weight basis are given for each month and compared
with the corresponding month a year earlier ; —
TABLE IX
1937
1936
s.
d.
s.
d.
March . , . . . . . . ,
63
1
61
4
April . . . . . . . . 1
66
II
61
2
May . .
72
4
62
II
June
75
4
65
8
July
77
10
67
3
Five months, March to July
70
10
63
10
TABUE: X. — Number of Cattle Certified for Payment under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts at
lavE-WEiGHT Certification Centres in each Month from March to July, 1937 .♦
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36
gz2
TABLE X ( continued ), — Number of Cattle Certified for Payment under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts at Live-i^’eight Certification Centres in each Month from March to July, 1937
Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for October is 131 (base, October 1911-13=100), or 6 points
lower than a month ago but 6 points above that for October,
1936. If allowance be made for payments under the Wheat
Act, 1932, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937, the revised
index for the month becomes 134. Prices of wheat, barley,
oats, pork pigs, eggs, butter, milk, cheese and potatoes were
higher although in some instances the relative indices declined,
owing to proportionately greater increases having occurred
during the base period. Quotations for fat cattle and sheep, hay
and wool moved downwards.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, (Corresponding
months of 1911-13 = 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
II4
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
112
II5
118
129
March
113
102
108
112
116
130
April
117
105
III
119
123
140
May
115
102
II 2
in
133
June
III
100
no
in
! 116
131
July
106
lOI
114
114
117
131
August
105
105
119
113
119
133
September . .
104
107
II9
120
127
137
October
100
107
114
113
125
131
November . .
lOI
109
II4
113
1^5
—
December , .
103
no
II3
114
126
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and fog the Cattle subsidy (b).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
in
119
124
^25
133
February . .
—
no
117
122
123
133
March
—
106
112
118
122
134
April
—
109
116
126
128
143
Jtoy
—
105
116
117
120
136
June
—
104
114
117
121
134
July
—
104
117
120
121
134
August
108
108
122
120
124
136
September . .
108
in
125
128
133
142
October
104
112
121
119
129
134
November . .
105
113
120
119
129
December . .
107
114
120
120
130
—
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (b) Commenced September, 1934,
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the months of July
914
Miscellaneous Notes
to October, 1937, October, 1936, and October, 1935; base,
the corresponding months of 1911-13=100.
Commodity
1937
1936
1935
Oct.
Sept.
Aug.
July
Oct.
Oct.
Wheat
124
114
II8
120
II3
80
Barley
148
147
147
127
II9
no
Oats
124
125
125
I 2 I
99
89
Fat cattle . .
III
115
II9
II4
95
92
,, sheep . .
134
138
I4I
145
131
121
Bacon pigs
124
124
120
II7
114
90
Pork
I3I
125
119
II5
119
99
Eggs
136
141
138
144
141
118
Poultry
133
130
132
130
115
H 7
Milk
I7I
202
175
175
171
171
Butter
• •
III
109
no
II 2
98
95
Cheese
• •
122
124
126
128
lOI
82
Potatoes
153
147
127
142
202
152
Hay
86
95
97
95
102
91
Wool
X4O
146
147
143
1Q2
89
Dairy cows
1
120
117
1
! 1^4
115
1
107
107
Store cattle
III
113 !
119
120
95
90
,, sheep
. .
129
138 j
142
139
132
120
» pigs . .
• •
164
153 !
141
133
150
124
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and to the
Cattle subsidy.
Wheat
134
132
124
19
Fat cattle . .
126
130
134
mSm
General Index
134
142
136
m
la
* Superseding figure previously published.
Grain. Wheat, at an average of 9s. 2 d. per cwt., was
higher on the month by yd. and the index advances by 10
points. (If the deficiency payment under the Wheat Act,
1932, is taken into account the index is 134.) Quotations for
barley at 12s. yd. per cwt. and those for oats at 8s. yd. per
cwt. showed a rise of ^d. and 2d. respectively; the relative
indices are, however, little altered. In October, 1936, wheat
averaged 8s. ^d., barley los. id. and oats 6s. lod. per cwt.
Livestock. Prices of fat cattle continued to decline and,
at 37s. 4^. per live cwt. for second quality, were lower than in
the preceding month by is. 2d., the index falling by 4 points
to III. The addition of the subsidy under the Livestock
Industry Act, 1937, brings the index to 126. Fat sheep at pfd.
per lb. for second quality, were reduced by \d. per lb., this
being reflected in a fall of 4 points in the index. Baconers
9x5
Miscellaneous Notes
again averaged i 25 . Sd. per score (20 lb.) and the index also is
unchanged; quotations for porkers, however, at 14s. 2d. per
score advanced by 'jd., the index appreciating by 6 points.
Dairy cows and store pigs were again dearer on the month
and the relative indices move upwards by 3 and ii points
respectively. Prices of store cattle and store sheep were little
changed but, owing to the movement of prices during the cor-
responding months of 1911-13, the index for the former falls
by 2 points and for the latter by 9 points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. During October the regional
contract price of liquid milk advanced by zd. per gal. but the
index is reduced by 31 points to 171, the seasonal increase
during the base period being greater. Butter at is.* 3i(i. per
lb. averaged |i. per lb. more than in the previous month but-
as this increase was almost counterbalanced by the rise in the
base price, the index appreciates by only 2 points. The up-
ward movement in the price of eggs continued, second quality
averaging i8s. ixd. per 120 compared with i6s. rod. in Septem-
ber; the base price, however, showed a proportionately larger
increase and the index recedes by 5 points. The price and
index of cheese at iis. per cwt. and 122 were little changed
and compare with £4 9s. (yd. and 124 of a month ago. Quota-
tions for fowls and ducks were unaltered while geese made
more money; a rise of 3 points is recorded in the combined
index for poultry.
Other Commodities. Potatoes at £5 los. per ton were
slightly higher in price and, due principally to a reverse move-
ment in the base price, the index appreciates by 6 points.
Quotations for both clover and meadow hay were lower and
the combined index shows a decline of 9 points. The price
of wool was again reduced, the index receding by 6 points.
Rural Housing Report
The Second Report* of the Rural Housing Sub-
Committee of the Central Housing Advisory Committee
recommends the grant of a general Exchequer subsidy to local
authorities for new houses built for the agricultural population
— a subsidy sufficient to enable a substantial proportion of the
new houses to be let at rents of not more than 3s. a week,
exclusive of rates. It also recommends that a similar subsidy,
payable annually, should be available to private persons to
♦ Second Report of the Rural Housing Sub-Committee of the Central
Housing Advisory Committee. Ministry of Health. Obtainable through
'a bookseller or from H.M. Stationery Office. Price qd, (by post lOi?*)*
916
Miscellaneous Notes
build cottages for agricultural workers as long as these cottages
are let at agricultural rents.
The report points out that the difficulty underlying the
provision of proper housing for farm workers is that these
workers are not able to pay the economic rent of a new
house, or to compete in this respect with industrial workers
or other persons in better economic circumstances. In conse-
quence, the latter tend to squeeze out the agriculturist in any
area where they form a substantial part of the population.
Several witnesses before the Committee referred to the serious
and increasing shortage of competent agricultural labour,
one of the main causes of which is the lack of suitable housing
accommodation.
The report recommends that new houses should be built
as far as possible in existing villages. The Committee con-
sider that with modern transport facilities the disadvantage to
the bread-winner of having to travel to his work is out-
weighed by the great advantage to his family of being near
school, shops, and other centres of social intercourse. Building
in villages rather than in isolated groups also facilitates the
best and most economical use of pubhc services like water
supply and sewage disposal.
The report recommends that the Housing (Rural Workers)
Acts, by which grants are made available to private persons
for the improvement of existing cottages for agricultural
workers, should be continued. It also contains several useful
recommendations on minor points designed to make these
Acts more easily workable. It is suggested that local authori-
ties should undertake surveys in their districts to discover what
cottages are suitable for reconditioning, and should then
endeavour to persuade the owners of such cottages to take
advantage of the facilities afforded by the Acts to cany out
the work.
Seed Potatoes
The following note has been communicated by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany : —
Potato growers who are considering the purchase of seed
for next year’s planting should obtain the leaflet on seed pota-
toes which the National Institute of Agricultural Botany issues
free of charge direct to farmers or through the County Agri-
cultural Autiiorities.
Despite the encouragement given to potato breeding by the
Minis^ of Agriculture and the Scottish and Irish Departments
917
Miscellaneous Notes
of Agriculture for many years, over go per cent, of tiie potato
acreage grown in Great Britain is still planted with varieties
that have been on the market for more than twenty years.
Allowing for the reluctance of the growers to discard those
varieties with whose qualities they are familiar, they could in
most instances grow some of the newer varieties with benefit.
Some of the old varieties are susceptible to wart disease and
possess other faults, such as poor shape and indifferent cooking
quality, while they are subject to second-growth. On the
other hand, the new varieties are immune from wart disease and
are only recommended after careful trial.
New Varieties. In the first-early class Arran Pilot is confi-
dently recommended as a substitute for Ninetyfold, Epicure,
Duke of York, and Sharpe's Express in many districts. It
is an early bulker, the tubers are of excellent kidney shape and
not prone to cracking or second-growth, the flesh and skin are
white, the eyes shallow and the cooking quality good. It is,
however, somewhat susceptible to virus diseases and it is
essential to obtain healthy seed. To maintain healthy stocks
in England, growers should obtain details of the work carried
out by the National Institute of Agricultural Botany at
Ormskirk on the production of reasonably virus-free seed in
Lancashire.
Boon Early is recommended as a substitute for Epicure. It is a blunt-
oval in shape, bulking several days earlier than any other variety in
commerce, and is an eminently suitable variety to grow for the opening
of the first-early trade in Great Britain.
The second-early or mid-season class is now filled with varieties that
also serve as maincrops or winter potatoes, e.g.. Majestic, King Edward
and Arran Banner. The search for improved substitutes for King Edward
and Majestic is still in progress.
Gladstone, a variety similar to King Edward in maturity, colour and
shape of tubers, has recently been grown with considerable success in
many districts. The quality is at least equal to that of King Edward.
Redskin is suggested as a substitute in districts where Kerr's Pink is
grown. The tubers are similar in shape to those of Kerr's Pink, though
file eyes are more shallow. Its cropping power and cooking quality are
good, and it has the advantage of maturing some three weeks earlier.
Unlike Kerr's Pink, it is not subject to second-growth.
Arran Signet produces a heavy crop of kidney tubers of excellent shape,
and matures about the same time as Majestic.
Dunbar Standard is a late maincrop that produces a heavy crop of
white kidney tubers of excellent quality.
Arran Cairn is another late maincrop that produces a very heavy crop
of white kidney tubers of good quality.
It is earnestly suggested that growers should plant at least
small quantities of some of the newer kinds so that they can test
for themselves the value of the recommendations made.
Miscellaneous Notes
Report by the Food Council on Costs and Profits of Retail
Milk Distribution in Great Britain
The Food Council have made a report to the President of
the Board of Trade on the subject of the costs and profits of
retail milk distribution in Great Britain. The Report has been
published at gd. net. and copies may be obtained direct from
H.M. Stationery Office, or through any bookseller, by post lod.
The Report discusses the description of services covered by
distributors’ margins, comments on the differences in costs as
between one business and another, both proprietary and co-
operative, and deals at some length with a consideration of
what margins are reasonable under existing conditions in the
trade, and the possibility of achieving more economical
distribution.
One of the conclusions reached by the Committee is that
important reductions in costs could be achieved by some
rationalization of distributive services.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS; ENGLAND
Cheshire x Mr. R. Garside, B.Sc.(Agric.), N.D.A., N.D.D., has been
appointed Assistant Lecturer in Agriculture.
Gloucester : Mr, J. R. Stubbs, N.D.A., has been appointed Instructor
in Agriculture, vice Mr. J. L. Congdon, N.D.A.
Hampshire ; Mr. J. F. Willerton, N.D.P., has been appointed Assistant
Instructor in Poul try > keeping, vice Mr. T. E. Whittle, N.D.P.
Oxfordshire : Miss K. Wright, N.D.D., has been appointed Assistant
Instructress in Dairying and Poultry-keeping, vice Miss J. M. Brown,
N.D.D.
Yorkshire : Mr, E. G. Hallsworth, B.Sc., has been appointed Assistant
Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry, vice Mr. C. E. Marshall,
M. Sc., Ph.D. ; Mr. R. Carrick, B.Sc., Ph.D., has been appointed
Assistant Lecturer in Agricultural Zoology ; Mr. T. E. Whittle,
N. D.P. , has been appointed an Instructor in Poultry Husbandry ;
Mr. W. S. English, N.D.H., has been appointed an Instructor in
Horticulture, vice Mr. R, Duncan, N.D.H. ; Mr. F. G. Smith, N.D.H.,
has been appointed an Instructor in Horticulture.
WALES<
Brecon and Radnor: Miss E. Jones, N.D.D., Instructress in Dairying
and Poultry-keeping, has resigned.
Carmarthen : Mr. E. O. James, B.Sc.(Agr.), has been appointed Instructor
in Agriculture, vice Mr. A. D. Thomas, Vice-Principal of Pibwrlwyd
Farm Institute, resigned.
Glamorgan : Mr. C. Kinsey, N.D.A., Technical Assistant, has been
appointed Instructor in Agriculture, vice Mr. E. O. James, B.Sc.(Agr,)
resigned.
919
FARM WORKERS’ MINIMUM RATES OF WAGES
Farm Workers* Minimum Rates of Wages. — A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London,
S.W.i, on October 25, 1937.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire. An Order fixing minimum and
overtime rates of wages to come into force on October 31, 1937
day following that on which the previous rates expired) and to continue
in operation until October 29, 1938. The minimum rates in the case
of male workers of 21 years of age and over are 34s. (instead of 32s. 6d.)
per week of 50 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Easter
* Monday and Whit-MOnday fall when the hours are 41 .* 48 hours in
winter except in the weeks in which Christmas Day and December 27,
I937» ^ 81^1 when the hours are 39}, with overtime throughout the period
at lojd. per hour on weekdays (instead of 9jcf.)» per hour on
Whit-Monday, Easter Monday, and Christmas Day (instead of io\d,)
and ii\d, per hour on December 27, 1937, P®r hour on
Sundays (instead of The minimum rates in the case of female
workers of 18 years of age and over are 6\d. per hour (instead of 6J^.)
with overtime at M. per hour on weekdays (instead of 7ji.)» 9^- per
hour on Whit-Monday, Easter Monday, and Christmas Day (instead of
8{d.) and gd. per hour on December 27, 1937, and g\d. per hour on
Sundays (instead of g\d.).
Cheshire, (i) An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages for
male workers and minimum rates for female workers to come into force
on November i, 1937 following that on which the previous
rates expired) and to continue in operation until October 31, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and
over are 35s. (instead of 345.) per week of 54 hours, with overtime
unchanged at gd. per hour. In the case of female workers of 18 years
of age and over the minimum rate is unchanged at 6d. per hour for all
time worked, provided that in the case of female workers engaged for
milking, such workers shall receive not less than 6d. per ** meal ” (i.e.,
each occasion on which the worker visits her place of employment for
the purpose of milking).
(2) An Order fixing a special rate of wage for male workers of 21 years
of age and over for overtime employment on the Hay and Corn Harvests
in 1938, such rate being lod. per hour for all employment on harvest
work on Sundays and in excess of 6J hours on Saturdays and 9^ hours
on any other day.
Lincolnshire [Holland). An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates
of wages to come into force on October 31, 1937 > following
that on which the previous rates expired) and to opeiate until further
notice. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 365. (unchanged) per week of 48 hours in winter, except
in the week in which Christmas Day falls, when the hours are 39J, and
50 hours in summer except in the weeks in which Easter Monday,
Whit-Monday and August Bank Holiday fall, when the hours are 41.
In the case of horsemen, cattlemen and shepherds of 21 years of age and
over inclusive weekly sums are fixed to cover all time worked in excess
of the number of hours mentioned above, except employment w^hich
is to be treated as overtime employment. The overtime rates in the
case of male workers of 21 years of age and over are unchanged at is. i^d.
per hour on Sundays and on Christmas Day, gd. per hour on Easter
920
Farm Workers' Minimum Rates of Wages
Monday, Whit-Monday and August Bank Holiday and io\d, per hour
for all other overtime employment..
The minimum rate for female workers of 15 years of age and over is
unchanged at bd, per hour with overtime at jd. per hour for all employ-
ment in excess of 5J hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly short
day, on Sundays and in excess of 8 hours on any other day.
Northamptonshire and Soke of Peterborough. An Order fixing minimum
and overtime rates of wages to come into force on October 3, 1937
(i.e., the day following that on which the previous rates expired) and
to continue in operation until October 29, 1938. The minimum rates
in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over are 345. (instead
of 32s. bd.) per week of 48 hours in winter except in the week in which
Christmas Day falls, when the hours are 39^ and 50 hours in summer,
except in the weeks in which Easter Monday and Whit-Monday fall,
when the hours are 41, with overtime unchanged at lod. per hour on
weekdays and 15. per hour on Sundays, Christmas Day, Easter Monday
and Whit-Monday. In the case of female workers of 18 years of age
and over the minimum rate is unchanged at b^d. per hour with overtime
at per hour on weekdays and gd. per hour on Sundays, Christmas
Day, Easter Monday and Whit-Monday.
Yorkshire (East Riding), (i) An Order fixing minimum and overtime
rates of wages to come into force on November 24, 1937 ^i.e., the day
following that on which the previous rates expired) and to continue
in operation until November 23, 1938. The minimum rate for all male
workers of 21 years of age and over is 355. bd. (instead of 345. bd.)
per week of 48 hours in winter, except in the week in which Christmas
Day falls when the hours are 39^, and 52^ hours in summer except in
the week in which Good Friday falls when the hours are 43, with, in
addition, in the case of workers living in, not more than 12 hours per
week on weekdays and three hours on Sunday spent on the care of and
attention to stock. The overtime rates for male workers of 21 years of
age and over are iid, per hour on weekdays and is. id. per hour on
Sundays, Good Friday and Christmas Day (instead of lod. and is.
respectively). The minimum rates of wages for female workers of
16 years of age and over remain unchanged at bd. per hour with overtime
at gd. per hour.
(2) An Order fixing differential rates of wages for overtime employ-
ment on the Corn Harvest of 1938, such rates are in the case of all male
workers of 21 years of age and over is. 3d. per hour, and in the case of
female workers of 16 years of age and over, iid. per hour (as in 1937) •
Yorkshire (North Riding). An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates
of wages to come into force on November 24, 1937 the day following
that on which the previous rates expired) and to continue in operation
until November 23, 1938. The minimum rate in the case of male
workers of 21 years of age and over (other than casual workers) is 35s.
(instead of 34s.) per week of 50 hours in winter and 52^ hours in summer,
except in the weeks in which Christmas Day and Good Friday fall when
the hours are to be 41, and 43 respectively, with payment for employ-
ment in connexion with the care of and attendance upon animals, where
the total hours exceed the number mentioned above, unchanged at 3d.
per hour for those workers who are boarded and lodged by their
employer, and bd. per hour for those who are not so boarded and lodged.
The overtime rates are lod. per hour on weekdays and is. per hour on
Sundays, Christmas Day and Good Friday (instead of 9d. on weekdays
and I id. on Sundays and Christmas Day). In the case of male casual
workers of 18 years of age and over the minimum rate is unchanged
921
Farm Workers' Minimum Rates of Wages
at per hour for all time worked, a casual worker being deemed to be
a worker of i8 years of age or over employed for not more than 14 days
by the same employer between May i and October i inclusive. For
female workers of 18 years of age and over the minimum rate is
michanged at td. per hour. For whole time female workers provision
is made for payment at not less than 22s. per week of 36 hours in the
weeks in which Christmas Day and Good Friday fall and 44 hours in
any other week, with overtime at <^d, per hour.
Carmarthen. An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages to
come into force on November 15, 1937 day following that on
which the previous rates expired) and to continue in operation until
November 14, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over are 33s. (instead of 325.) per week of 54 hours
with overtime unchanged at S\d. per hour. In the case of female
workers of 18 years of age and over the rates are unchanged at ^d. per
hour with overtime at 6 d. per hour.
Glamorgan. An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages for
male workers employed wholly or mainly in forestry (i.e., employment
in connexion witli preparing land, planting and maintaining forestry
areas and nursery work in connexion therewith) to come into force on
November 2, 1937 the day following that on which the previous
rates expired) and to continue in operation until November 1, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and
over are 40s. (instead of 39s.) per week of 48 hours in winter and 52 hours
in summer with overtime unchanged at iid. per hour.
A further meeting of the Agricultural Wages Board was held on
November 2, 1937, when the Board considered a notification from the
Merioneth and Montgomery Agricultural Wages Committee of its decision
to cancel the existing minimum and overtime rates of wages and to fix
fresh rates in substitution therefor to come into force on November 8, 1937,
and to continue in operation until April 30, 1938, and proceeded to make
an Order. The minimum rate in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over employed wholly or mainly as stockmen, teamsters, carters
or shepherds is 35s. per week of 58 hours (instead of 345. per week of
60 hours) ; and the minimum rate for other male workers of 21 years of
age and over is 31s. per week of 52 hours (instead of 30s. per week of
54 hours) with overtime in each case unchanged at gd. per hour. In the
case of female workers of 18 years of age and over tlie minimum rate
remains unchanged at $d. per hour for all time worked.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wa^es* — During the month ending
November 12, 1937, proceedings were taken against two employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
workers
involved
.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ d.
Shropshire
Pontesbury
500
060
32 10 0
I
Stafford-
Wolver-
shire
hampton
100
—
14 15 0
X
£6 0 0
060
1
47 5 0
1
2
92a
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
Foot-and-Moiidi IMseate. — No further outbreaks of foot-and-mouth
disease were confirmed in the Hastings (Sussex) and Scamblesby (Lincoln-
shire) Infected Areas, and these Areas were, in consequence, freed from
restrictions on October 26, in each case. The position on Nov. 23 is set
out below.
An outbreak of the disease at Thuming, Norfolk, on October 16 has
been followed by 67 further outbreaks in the eastern and south-eastern
counties of England, necessitating the declaration of ten separate Foot-
and-Mouth Disease Infected Areas, as follows : —
No. I. Norfolk and East Suffolk. — Infected Area surrounding the
Infected Places at Thurning, Salhouse and Reydon, Suffolk (26 cases have
been confirmed altogether in this area).
No. 2. Surrey. — Approximately 15 miles round the Infected Place
at Worplesdcn, Guildford.
No. 3. Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge and Essex. — Approximately 15 miles
round the Infected Places at Feltwell, Norfolk ; Stowmarket and Coney
Weston, Suffolk ; and Ramsey, Essex.
No. 4. Sussex Infected Area, — Approximately 15 miles round the
Infected Places at Beddingham and Herstmonceux.
No. 5. Kent. — An Infected Area of approximately 15 miles round the
Infected Places at Godmersham and Frittenden. (13 cases of disease
have occurred in this area.)
No. 6. Essex. — A semi-circle of 15 miles radius round the Infected
Place at West Tilbury.
No. 7. Lincoln (Lindsey). — Approximately 15 miles round the Infected
Place at Timby.
No. 8. Huntingdon. — Approximately 15 miles round the Infected Place
at Elton, Huntingdonshire. The Infected Area comprises parts of
Huntingdon, Soke of Peterborough, Isle of Ely, Lincoln (Holland),
Rutland and Northampton.
No. 9. Essex, Hertford and Middlesex. — Approximately 15 miles round
the Infected Place at Nazeing, Essex.
No. 10. West Sussex. — ^Approximately 15 miles round the Infected
Place at Petworth.
In view of the serious situation arising out of so many outbreaks of
the disease, the Ministry decided on November 9 to issue a “ Standstill **
Order applying to some of the eastern and south-eastern counties of
England. The Order prohibits the movement of animals out of the con-
trolled area, except to places in a Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Area
contiguous to the controlled area, but permits the movement of animals
into the area from a ** free '' area or within the controlled area or from the
controlled area to a contiguous Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Area,
provided that in all cases of movement licences authorizing such are
obtained from the appropriate Local Authority. With the exception of
markets and sales of animals intended for immediate slaughter, and of
farm sales, all markets, fairs, sales and exhibitions of animals in the
controlled area are prohibited. The controlled area comprises : The
Soke of Peterborough, the counties of Lincoln (parts of Lindsey, Kesteven
and Holland), Huntingdon, Cambridge, Isle of Ely, Norfolk, East and
West Suffolk, Essex, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, London, Surrey,
Kent and East and West Sussex, including any county or other boroughs
geographically situated therein but excluding any part of such counties
and boroughs which are for the time being comprised in any Foot-and-
Mouth Disease Infected Area for the purposes of the Foot-and-Mouth
Disease (Infected Areas Restrictions) Order of 1925.
923
WIRELESS TALKS, DECEMBER, 1987
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Milk Ration Indicator. Devised by E. David, B.Sc. (Hughes & Son,
The Griffin Press, Pontypool, 1937. Price 55. post free.)
Mr. David has succeeded in evolving a device of value as a simple and
reliable guide for the easy determination of the proportions in which
various foods for dairy cattle should be mixed together to produce a
balanced ration, and the quantities of the compounded mixture to be
used for each gallon of milk produced.
The device consists of a fixed buff disc on which is marked the carbo-
hydrate foods, a revolving grey disc showing the “ protein foods, and
a winged blue disc showing foods from the “ bran and " balanced
group of foods ; these are superimposed on a stiff piece of cardboard
(6 in. X 10 in.), on both sides of which is printed information concerning
the use of the indicator, and other useful notes on the feeding of cows.
The manner in which the desired foods should be mixed together is
ascertained by simple manipulation of the revolving discs. The device
is ingenious and simple to use.
Weed Plates, with Explanations. By Prof. Dr. E. Korsmo. Series I,
Plates i-xxx, and 79-page brochure (1934) » Series II, Plates xxxi-ix,
and 92-page brochure (1935). Leipzig C.i : Koehler & Volckmar
A.-G. & Co. Prices . Paper sheet form unmounted, 22 RM. per set ;
on leather paper with cloth edge and eyelets for hanging, 38 RM.
per set ; each with descriptive text-book in English, French, German
or Norwegian, as desired.)
It IS not unusual for inquiries to be made as to where good illustrations
of weeds can be obtained, and one can safely recommend this finely-
prepared and excellently-produced series of large coloured plates or wall
charts by such a widely-recognized authority as Dr. Korsmo, whose
work on weed control must be regarded as second to none. The
illustrations are in three series of 30 plates each, and include a total of
136 species of weeds, not all of which, however, are of interest to farmers
in Great Britain, though most of them are. The first two series have
already been published, and the set is to be completed by the third series,
which will be ready within the next few weeks. These plates illustrate
the seeds, seedlings and mature plants, with sections of flowers, etc., and
names of plants are given in Latin, English, German, French and
Norwegian. The explanatory brochures give a general account of each
weed illustrated — names in several languages, distribution, description,
etc., with references to the relative plates, but do not deal with control
measures. The publishers are Norsk Hydro-Elektrisk Kvaelstofaktiesel-
skab, Oslo, and the work is obtainable from Koehler and Volckmar A.-G.
& Co., Leipzig C.i. It may be added that anyone interested may see the
first two series of these plates in the Ministry's Library at 10 Whitehall
Place, London, S.W.i ; the third series will be available later.
The Hill Lands of Britain. By Professor R. G. Stapledon. Pp. 138 &
5 Maps. (London : Faber & Faber, Ltd. Price 6s.)
The work of Professor Stapledon needs no introduction to readers of
this Journal. His epoch-making work, The Land : Now and To-morrow ^
has secured an international reputation, and that very justly. It has,
indeed, been said that Professor Stapledon 's proposals for the reclamation
of our hill lands is the most important contribution to agricultural research
that has been made in the present century.
925
NcmoBs OF Books
In dealing with his subject. Professor Stapledon does not confine himself
entkely to the agricultural value of his suggestions. He considers their
social implications, both from the point of view of rural settlement and
amenity value to the urban population.
The present small book should be widely read by townsmen, who will
find it illuminating, perhaps more illuminating than the earlier books,
because it is a simple, brief treatise and not burdened with a large measure
of technicalities.
Professor Stapledon is an idealist, but he combines with his idealism a
very considerable measure of the qualities of a practical man. In the
past, too many idealists have promulgated policies without showing how
they could be carried out. Usually, these idealists have not taken suffi-
cient care in considering the administrative problems involved ; when
they come before practical men of afiairs and experience, these adminis-
trative problems are found to be insoluble. Professor Stapledon does
not fall into this pitfall, but shows how his wishes could be fulfilled and
how readily his ideas could be translated into reality.
Life on an English Manor: A Study of Peasant Conditions, 1150-1400.
By H. S. Bennett. Pp. xviii -f- 364. (Cambridge University I^ess.
1937 * Price 165.)
The pre-Raphaelites created about the circumstances of mediaeval life
an atmosphere of romance that still surrounds it for many people who are
not specialist historians, but to anyone acquainted with Dr. Coulton’s
Mediaval Village and other works, the re^istic picture presented by
H. S. Bennett will come as less of a shock. Here is information, carefully
and meticulously culled from all sorts of disparate sources, and equally
carefully moulded into completeness. The conditions of life of the
ordina^ man during these two-and-a-half centuries have been made clear.
Subjects such as housing, clothing and diet on a quantitative basis are
discussed, and a picture is drawn of the kind of house that was usual —
details of its size, the number of rooms it contained and the sparse
furniture that was in them, being provided. Some indication is even
provided of the number of garments that each person wore and what they
may be supposed to have had in reserve. The supply of food, its com-
ponents, the meals it went to make up, are stated, and though, in some
eyes, it is possible that the estimate of the quantity of cereals consumed
per capita may be unduly high, it would be unfortunate to make a
criticism of the conclusions arrived at, unless a careful examination of the
data presented, and any more that could be found, had been made.
Again, the ordinary man is shown in his social relations with his
neighbours, in his legal status as a member of the community, and in
relation to the church and to his lords and masters ; the methods of his
control are not omitted. His daily round of work and the methods by
which he gained his living enter into the picture. The few pleasures that
came his way form a chapter to themselves.
This is the kind of history we want, and the book should be widely read,
not only by those who are studying the development of our society, but
also by the ordinal citizen who should be fascinated by the complete
strangeness of the life led in our land so few short centuries ago.
The Cycle of Weathering. By B. B, Polynov, D.Sc. Translated from
the Russian by A. Muir. Pp. xii -f 220. (London : Thomas Murby
8 c Co. 1937.
Russian investigators have obtained a well-merited reputation in the
field of soil studies : it is to the Russian school that we owe the imjpetus
tliat has led to the recognition of these studies as a branch of pure ecumce.
9i6
Nonacs of Books
Professor Pol3niov, the author of this work, occupies a leading position
among soil investigators, and his views command special attention.
Dr. Muir's translation is to be welcomed, not only because it renders
accessible to English readers the latest ideas of a leader in pedology, but
also because Dr. Muir has worked under Professor Polynov and is therefore
in a position to give an authoritative version of his views.
The present work is concerned specially with the weathering processes
antecedent to the actual processes of soil development. It is therefore of
interest to geologists as well as to pedologists, since it deals with some of
the fundamental problems of dynamical geology. Much of the information
is already familiar to students of soils. The merit of the work lies rather
in the arrangement and synthesis of existing knowledge into an ordered
philosophy of the weathering cycle. The author distinguishes between
juvenile and vadose forms of the different elements, the former term being
applied to materials occurring in the deeper zones of the earth's crust of
weathering. The cycle is traced for the most important elements.
Perhaps the most important section of the book is that in which
Professor Pol)mov distinguishes the successive stages of weathering, from
the detrital, through the calcareous and siallitic, to the final phase in which
only sesquioxides remain as residual products. Subsidiary weathering
cycles are distinguished in which the parent materials are the products of
previous weathering. To those who have known the strong tendencies
of the Russian school towards the climatological standpoint in pedology,
it will be somewhat surprising to learn that climate is significant chiefly
as determining the rate of weathering, and that theoretically all stages
of weathering can occur in any climate.
The book is written in an eas}^ and lucid style, from which it is evident
that the translator is sufficiently master of the subject to avoid the incon-
veniences of literal translation.
Taschenbuch der Graser, Ihre Erkennung und Bestimmung
Bewertung und Verwendung. By Ernst Klapp. Pp. 199. (Berlin:
Paul Parey. 1937. Price Rm.5.80.)
Professor Klapp, of the University of Bonn, is well known for his
researches and publications on herbage plants and grassland problems.
In this volume he has compressed into a small space a considerable mass
of up-to-date information about European grasses, and produced a
handbook that can conveniently be carried in the field by the student or
used by the research worker to refresh his memory on numerous points.
The first portion of the book (pp. 9-77) deals with the features by which
the species may be recognized either when not in flower or at the flowering
stage, and identification keys are given for this purpose. On pp. 78-130
the species are illustrated by original pen drawings by the author
(Plates 9-45) and also by photographs in Plates 46-61. Chapter IX deals
with the distribution, habitats and agricultural uses of ninety-five grasses.
The rest of the book consists largely of tables giving information on the
habits, flowering periods and duration of grasses and their use in seeds
mixtures. References to literature follow.
Grasses are rather difficult to photograph and the photographs in this
little volume are not very satisfactory : they suffer from the compression
associated with a handbook ; they are too small, and often too many
are crowded on a single plate. A more serious matter is that neither the
pen drawings nor the photographs follow any definite scale of reduction
or enlargement, nor is the comparative natural size of the inflorescence
indicated. Illustrations of the seeds of grasses, drawn to scale, might
also have been given with advantage.
Readers must, of course, bear in mind that the evaluation of the species
927
Notices of Books
and their uses given in Chapter IX onwards are those ascertained under
Continental conditions and will not always apply to British conditions.
Subject to such considerations the book may be recommended to those
for whom it is intended.
Leguminous Forage Plants. By D. H. Robinson, Ph.D., B.Sc., N.D.A.
Pp. vi + 1 19, and 35 Figs. (London : Edward Arnold & Co. 1937.
Price 6s.)
Accurate botanical descriptions of leguminous forage plants with up-to-
date information about their agricultural uses were not to be found in
any convenient English volume. Dr. Robinson, who is head of the
Biology Department at Harper Adams Agricultural College, has written
this little book to fill the blank.
After describing the general botanical characteristics of these plants,
the true Clovers (Trifolium) are dealt with in Chapters II and HI, and the
Medicks (Medicago) in Chapter IV. The other leguminous crop plants
follow in the remaining chapters.
Under the heading of each species a description is given of its general
characters, seed and seedling, and a short account of its history in culti-
vation and general uses. Information is also supplied on seed production
and the chemical composition of the plant either in the form of a green
crop or as hay. The cultivated types of each species are described and
distinct strains or forms of these (if any) are mentioned. Some of the
less important species have been deliberately described in some detail,
and the soya bean is included. Although not a leguminous plant, Burnet
is described on account of its common association as an impurity
vnth sainfoin.
A few minor points should receive attention in future editions. In
treating the Field Pea, the varieties have not been sufficiently distin-
guished or described. There are considerable botanical and agricultural
differences between the Maple type and the Dun type which are not
mentioned. In the illustration of the Field Pea seed in F^. 35 it is not
made clear whether the Maple or Dun type is shown, nor is it clear which
species of Burnet is shown in Fig. 22. The common name Hop Clover is
best reserved for T. procumbens as on p. 40, and not used as an alternative
for Black Medick as on p. 56.
The volume is well printed and the illustrations, drawn by the author
from living specimens, are well done and give a good impression of the
habit of growth and foliage aspect of the plants. Particularly useful
features are the figures of the seedlings. The text de.scriptions are clear
and accurate, and written as far as possible without the use of technical
terms ; a short glossary of the latter is given at the end. The book can
be heartily recommended as a safe guide to agricultural students and to
all interested in these plants.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
By WauAM Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 10 January, 1938
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
The Minister’s Address to
The Agricultural Education Association
The Agricultural Education Association held its annual lun-
cheon at the Euston Hotel on December 8, 1937. The Right
Hon. W. S. Morrison, M.P., Minister of Agriculture, who is
this year President of the Association, was in the chair. The
following arc extracts from his reply to the toast of “ The
President ' ’ : —
“ I am very glad indeed to become the President of this
Association. We are realizing that in this industry of agricul-
ture the application of practical intelligence to its problems is
probably the most important thing wc have to accomplish.
The research which has taken place in recent years has been
most fruitful of results, but the difficulty has always been to
bring the laboratory into contact with the farmer.
“ The more the research worker and the education officer
can mix together and share their problems the better will be
the agricultural education in our country. For that reason
I welcome this association, which not only brings together
by its conferences and gatherings education officers all over
the country, but provides that intimate link between research
and education which enables, ultimately, the fruits of research
to reach the farm.
‘ ‘ Mr. Ramsbotham* has spoken of the problems of agricul-
tural education. We at the Ministry are well aware of the
structure which has been built up, and which will, I hope,
be capable of further development in the future; but I do
agree to the necessity of starting at tlie bottom with elementary
education and seeing that it is suitable for the great vocation
of agriculture.
♦ The Minister of Pensions also spoke at the luncheon.
A
929
Notes for the Month
“ No one can view without misgiving the fact that for the
past forty years there has been a steady drift to the towns. I
believe housing is a very important contributory factor. The
Minister of Health is putting forward proposals which I hope
will go some way towards giving the agricultural worker what
he must have if he is to remain in the country — a home where
he can get married.
“ Behind all the causes, however, and going to the root
of the matter, is a factor which, I believe, can only be reached
by education. We commonly talk of ‘ agricultural educa-
tion ’ as if its only function and purpose were confined to
passing on the results of research to farmers. There is some-
thing deeper and more profound in the duties which it can
perform and the benefits which it can confer on the country-
side.
“ I am sometimes a little unhappy at an expression wc
use, namely, ‘ giving education a rural bias.’ It sounds as
if we were weighting the scales of education for some commer-
cial or industrial purpose connected witli rural industry..
The truth is rather the reverse. Education has quite
unconsciously been biased for a generation in an urban direc-
tion, and what we ought to seek in rural education is to restore
the balance to make sure that we arc giving a balanced out-
look on life to the children who are entrusted to us.”
Malting Barley
The Malting Barley Conference organized at Rothamsted
with the help of the Institute of Brewing may almost now be
regarded as an annual event, for the fourth meeting, held at
Harpenden on November 24, was as well attended as ever,
and the proceedings were followed with the usual interest.
U. Roland Burke, Esq., President of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, was in the chair. The main object of
these meetings is to enable growers to examine a large
number of samples of home-grown barley that have been
graded by the Valuation Committee of the Institute of
Brewing. The samples cover the whole range of the trade,
from the best down to samples too poor to be classed as
malting material at all. Grading is by hand valuation, but
quantitative tests are made at Rothamsted for dry matter,
nitrogen content, looo-corn weight and colour. Seven^
grades are distinguished. Grades I, II and III are pale-
930
Notes for the Month
ale barleys, IV, V and VI are suitable for mild ale, while
VII is unfit for malting. The distribution of grades in the
various regions was as follows : —
Grade
! Nor-
i folk
1
Suf-
folk
Essex
Lines 1
and >
, Yorks
East
Mids.
Kent
West
South
Total
Per
cent.
I ..
0
4
B
11 ..
' 3
12
4
Wm
Ill ..
! <)
6
7
■1
IV ..
' 12
7
5
9
2
>
18
lb
70
30
V ..
10
i) I
1
9
4
0
7
9
46
20
VI ..
4
0
1
3
1
0
I
1
5
VII ..
0
0
1
0
1
0
I
1
4
2
Total
35
, 35
22
2b
20
14
35
44
231
—
Mean (iuAOE
4-2
1 2*8
3 --i
4*4
3-5
2*3
4-0
3-8
-
The agricultural history of these barleys is known, and
one of the aims of the Conference is to trace out relation-
ships between manner of cultivation and grading results.
For this reason it is most important that growers shall not
come to regard these meetings either as Grain Shows or as
County Competitions. Poor samples are wanted as well
as good ones in order to determine the factors at work. The
need for securing more representative samples was stressed
by several speakers, and this will no doubt be arranged for
in future.
Quality, while vital to the maltster, is by no means the
only consideration for farmers, who are primarily concerned
with value per acre. Yields are therefore recorded when-
ever obtainable. It is hoped that as data accumulate they
may throw some light on the relationship between 5H[eld and
quality. Are they compatible or antagonistic? It is true
that the success of the modem varieties lies in the fact that,
compared with the older sorts, they show high yield asso-
ciated with high quality, but within these varieties there is
some evidence that quality is sometimes obtained at the
expense of yield. Thus, autumn-sown barleys grade higher
but usually yield less than spring-sown. The same is true
of barley after com as compared with barley after sheep.
It is interesting to observe that the technical experts were
willing to admit that there was still room for precision in
respect of the prevailing methods of valuation, in the specifi-
d.2 931
Notes for the Month
cation of brewers’ requirements, and in the guidance of
plant breeders engaged in producing new varieties. The
Institute of Brewing itself is doing a great deal in this
connexion, as was pointed out by Dr. Bishop in his remarks
on the work at Birmingham.
A feature of the Conference that is always listened to with
great interest is Mr. H. M. Lancaster’s account of the year’s
barleys and his remarks on valuation. In his view, the span
in price between the best and the worst malting samples is
not a fair measure of their respective values as malting
material, the tendency being to over-value the best samples
and under- value the inferior ones. Actually this span in
price is much less in this season of scanty yields than usual,
and Mr. Lancaster showed that, owing to the brisk and
almost anxious demand for malting barley, the farmer’s
return per acre was likely to be considerably more in 1937
than two years ago. Several speakers dealt with the ques-
tion of low 3ueld. Mr. Lake, ex-President of the Brewers'
Society, was anxious about supplies for the months ahead
and urged farmers to maintain regular deliveries. The poor
crop was attributed to Gout Fly by Dr. Beaven, to poor seed
bed conditions by others, and to soil exhaustion following
the very heavy crop of sugar beet of 1936 by Mr. Rayns.
Possibly the protracted leaching in the exceptionally wet
winter and spring may have been a contributory cause.
Growers using combine harvesters received some encour-
agement. A preliminary test conducted by the Institute of
Brewing and reported by Mr. Lancaster showed that in 1936
barley harvested by the combine and dried on the farm gave
samples rather superior in quality to those harvested from
the same set of fields in the ordinary way. A number of very
good barleys on view at the Conference were harvested by
combine. Mr. W. D. Hollis, of the Leckford Estates,
secured some particularly heavy crops of excellent quality
by combine, and users agreed that the season was ideal for
combine work.
Examination of the records showed that combine harvest-
ing was frequently associated with the use of Ihe newer
high-analysis compound fertilizers, and in several instances
these granular products were being drilled with the seed in
one operation. This practice was favourably commented on
and appears to have advantages on the grounds of economy
in labour, in effect on yield, and even on the boldness (xf die
93a
Notes for the Month
samples. This development will be watched with interest
and deserves quantitative study.
A considerable divergence of views was expressed on
matters of soil cultivation. For example, one grower had
obtained good results this year by “ smearing his barley in ”
early in spring. Another had forced himself to wait till he
could draw his foot through the full depth of tilth without
dirtying his boots. The feeling of the meeting seemed to
incline more to the second view than to the first. None the
less, examination of the questionnaires revealed instances
in which the grower who appeared to have done everything
wrong as judged by accepted standards finally attained a
good quality sample.
Local Destructive Insects and Pests Orders
Under the Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877 to 1927,
the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries is empowered,
inter alia, to make Orders for the purpose of preventing the
introduction and spreading in Great Britain of insects, fungi
and pests destructive to agricultural or horticultural crops.
Orders have been made (e.g. , the Importation of Plants Orders
and the Sale of Diseased Plants Orders), which, in pursuance
of these Acts, are designed to prevent the introduction and
spread of insects and pests throughout the country.
Certain insects and pests, however, are of local, rather than
national importance, in the sense that, while neglect to deal
with them on one holding may endanger neighbouring hold-
ings, the risk of long-distance spread of infection is small. The
control of such insects and pests is therefore regarded primarily
as a local problem and it is the Ministry's policy to encourage
Local Authorities to take steps with the co-operation of growers
to secure the “ cleaning-up ” of infested orchards and crops.
The main purpose of Local Orders under the Destructive
Insects and Pests Acts is to give pow'er to Local Authorities to
use compulsion as a last recourse to secure treatment in cases
where a grower’s plantation constitutes a centre from which
the plantations of neighbouring growers are likely to become
infested, and where the grower concerned fails to adopt the
advice tendered to him as to methods of control of pests. Such
local Orders are only issued as the result of requests from, or
with the concurrence of, associations representative of growers
in the areas affected. Local Orders are now in force dealing
933
Notes for the Month
with the control of («) fruit ti*ee pests, (6) narcissus pests, and
(c) cabbage aphis.
(fl) Fruit Tree Pests. The usual form of Order provides
that, on a complaint being made by a grower that there is a
likelihood of the spread of certain pests from a neighbouring
plantation to his own, an officer appointed by the Local
Authority may inspect the plantation of which complaint is
made, and, if the complaint is found to be justified, the Local
Authority may, by Notice served on the Occupier, order the
treatment or destruction of the infective material. In practice,
it is seldom necessary for the Local Authority to serve, such a
notice, treatment usually being undertaken voluntarily by
the grower concerned. Fruit Tree Pests Orders are now in
operation in the following Counties : — Berkshire, Buckingham-
shire, Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely, Essex, Hampshire,
Huntingdonshire, Kent, the Holland division of Lincolnshire,
Middlesex, Norfolk, East and West Suffolk, and East and West
Sussex.
Reports received by the Ministry indicate that these orders
have done much to improve the general standard of orchard
hygiene in these areas, and that they are appreciated by pro-
gressive growers.
The Apple Capsid {Essex) Orders of 1932 and 1934 are
different in character from the other local Orders relating to
fruit tree pests. They were made at the request of the local
Authority at a time when it was believed that the Apple Capsid
did not exist in Essex; soon after the 1932 Order had been
made, however, the pest was foimd in two parishes. These
Orders require any person other than the private grower as
defined in the Orders, who receives any apple tree or goose-
berry or currant bushes for planting, or any scions, cuttings or
oth'er woody parts of apple trees or gooseberry or currant
bushes for propagation or for sale for propagation, to notify
the fact to the Local Authority. Officers appointed by the
Local Authority are empowered to enter any premises in the
district and examine any apple trees or gooseberry or currant
bushes, and the Local Authority, on being satisfied that the
Apple Capsid exists on any such trees and bushes, may require
the occupier to carry out any prescribed treatment.
In 1937 notices were served by the Local Authority on 45
occupiers, requiring them to treat their trees or bushes in the
prescribed marmer.
934
Notes for the Month
(6) Narcissus Pests. (») Bulb Diseases {Isles ofScilly) Orders
of 1923 and 1924. These Orders, which were made at the
request of the bulb growers of the Scilly Isles with the object
of preventing the introduction of eelworm and other pests or
diseases of bulbs, prohibit the entry into the Islands of Daffodil
and Narcissus bulbs, unless before shipment they have been
officially certified as healthy or to have been subjected to the
hot- water treatment; alternatively that they are licensed to be
sent to the Bulb Treating Station at St. Mary's for hot-water
treatment. The orders also contain certain provisions with
regard to the destruction or treatment of diseased Daffodil or
Narcissus bulbs in the Scilly Isles.
During 1937, 7 licences were issued by the Ministry authoriz-
ing the movement of Daffodil and Narcissus bulbs from
England to the Bulb Treating Station at St. Mary’s, and 9
consignments were examined by Inspectors of the Ministry
before shipment to the Scilly Isles and certified as healthy.
(«) Narcissus Pests {Cornwall) Order of 1935. This Order
was made at the request of the Cornwall County Council and
came into operation on February i, 1936. Under the Order,
officers appointed by the Local Authorities of the County of
Cornwall and the Boroughs of Penzance and Truro are em-
powered to examine Narcissus plants or bulbs in their respective
areas and to take action to prevent the spread of infestation
by Narcissus Flies or eelworm. Such action may be taken
without awaiting a complaint from a grower.
(»«) Narcissus Pests {Lincolnshire, Holland) Order of 1937.
This Order was made at the request of the County Council
for Lincolnshire (Holland) and came into operation on April i,
1937 - Under the Order, officers appointed by the Local
Authorities of the County of Lincoln (Parts of Holland) and
the Borough of Boston are given powers similar to those pro-
vided under the Cornwall Order, mentioned above, to prevent
the spread of infestation by Narcissus Flies, eelworm or Bulb
Scale Mite.
(The Counties of Lincoln (Holland) and Cornwall include
about 60 per cent, of the total acreage in England and Wales
under Daffodils and Narcissus;)
(c) Cabbage Aphis. Growers of brussels sprouts in the
important vegetable-growing area in Bedfordshire and adjoin-
ing counties have been very much troubled in recent years by
the spread of infestation by the Cabbage Aphis. The life
935
Notes for the Month
history of this pest has been investigated by workers at Cam-
bridge University in co-operation with officers of the Bedford-
shire County Council and a suitable method of treatment has
been found.
It was decided that, in view of the local incidence of Cabbage
Aphis, control could properly be effected by Orders similar
to those made for the control of Fniit Tree Pests and at the
request of the County Councils concerned, the Cabbage Aphis
{Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire) Order of
1936 was made on February 21, 1936, and came into operation
on March i, 1936.
The Order enables officers appointed by the Local Authori-
ties concerned to enter any premises situate within the area
defined in the Order, between February 15 and June 30 in any
year, and examine any brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale, turnips
or other Brassica crop. If any such crop is found to be
substantially infested with the Cabbage Aphis, the Local
Authority may serve a Notice on the Occupier of the premises
requiring him to treat the crop in a prescribed manner. The
Ministry is informed that, in 1937, Notices were served on
three occupiers in Huntingdonshire requiring the treatment of
affected crops. In other instances, growers voluntarily carried
out measures suggested by the appointed officers for prevent-
ing the spread of the pest.
The Cabbage Aphis {Hertfordshire) Order of iq’37, made
on January 4, 1937, and operative from February 15, 1937,
applied similar provisions to the adjacent area in North Hert-
fordshire in which brussels sprouts are extensively grown.
During 1937, 23 Notices were served under this Order requir-
ing the treatment of affected Brassica crops.
Articles on Farm Machinery
The increased use of mechanical methods on the farm has
frequently been reflected in this Journal by occasional
specialist articles, but it is believed that many readers would
wdcome a more regular contribution. Arrangements have
therefore been made for Mr. S. J. Wright, M.A.,
Director of the Institute for Research in Agricultural
Engineering, Oxford, to deal with this subject in a series of
articles covering briefly many matters of importance. These
articles will for the present appear in alternate months, and
ffie first of ffiem will be found on pf^es 987-991 of this issue.
936
AGRICULTURAL POLICY
Minister’s Statement to Deputations from the National
Farmers’ Union and the Milk Marketing Board
The National Farmers’ Union
On December 7 the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
received a deputation from the National Farmers’ Union on the
subject of agricultural policy, with special reference to the
White Paper on Milk Policy, issued in July last (Cmd. 5533).
In the course of a statement which he made on behalf of
the deputation Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, after referring
to the manner in which past experience had shown the need
for framing trade policy with due regard to the interests of
home agricultural production and the importance of domestic
trade to those engaged in productive industry, said that the
confidence of farmers had been shaken by what had hap-
pened to the applications submitted to the Import Duties
Advisory Committee in regard to meat and livestock, milk
products, and eggs and poultry: by the presumed abandon-
ment of the levy subsidy policy; by the absence from the
Government’s recent statements on milk and bacon pigs of
any reference to control of competing imports; by the
increase in production costs; and by some of the Trade
Agreements, negotiated and in prospect. The National
Farmers’ Union had never pinned its faith to one method of
protecting agricultural interests to the exclusion of all others,
nor had the Union asked that assistance should be given
when price levels were satisfactory, but they did ask that
means should be available to avert a repetition of those
slumps which in past years had had such catastrophic results.
Sir Reginald pointed out that there were other measures
which it was hoped might soon engage the attention of H.M.
Government, such as statutory provision to enable fee Agri-
cultural Mortgage Corporation to cater more adequately for
fee credit requirements of fee industry, both long-term and
short-term, and action to deal wife fee effect of fee Death
Duties in contributing to fee creation of a shortage of fee
capital required for fee equipment of the land. Both these
937
Agricultural Policy
laatters had a direct bearing upon the Government’s present
programme, inasmuch as its development must inevitably be
retarded if credit facilities were inadequate and if landowners
lacked the resources wherewith to supply necessary equip-
ment on their estates. Their bearing was particularly manifest
in the case of milk policy. The White Paper on that subject
had undoubtedly created serious anxiety amongst dairy
farmers throughout England and Wales by reason, mainly,
of (i) the absence of any reference to control of imports, (2)
the inadequate “ insurance " basis for manufacturing milk
prices, and (3) the steep " tapering ” of quality premiums.
The Minister in reply associated himself with the ei^phasis
laid by the Union on the interdependence of agriculture and
industry and the need for mutual understanding of each
other's requirements. As the Prime Minister had said at
Edinburgh recently, the prosperity of one was essential to
the prosperity of the other. Although the vast bulk of our
wealth was derived from our industrial and commercial
activities, there had been in recent years a growing apprecia-
tion of the vital importance of agriculture in our national
economy.
The Government’s broad objective, as had often been
stated, was to ensure that maximum supplies of foodstuffs
should be available within the purchasing power of the con-
sumer, consistent with reasonable remuneration for the
efficient producer. As the National Farmers’ Union recog-
nized, there was no single method by which that objective
could be secured. Conditions change from time to time;
plans must, therefore, be capable of adjustment. Where
tariffs were suitable they had been employed, but seeing that
the protective tariff that was generally applicable to manu-
facturing industry was not suitable for application to many
branches of agriculture, the Government had adopted a
variety of other methods of assistance. Use had been made
of subsidies and regulation of imports, together with various
measures intended to lower costs of production and to in-
crease efficiency both in production and marketing. In fact,
the range and variety of the measures that had been taken,
or were proposed, to improve the position of agriculture
constituted, when viewed as a whole, a programme of action
that might fairly be described as comprehensive, and pro-
vided both an earnest of future intention and an indication
of the importance which the Government attached to the
938
Agricultural Policy
agricultural industry and of their determination to promote
its welfare.
It was true that Ministers had on occasion contemplated that
some form of levy subsidy might afford the best means, in
the conditions then obtaining, of assisting agricultural indus-
tries, including those of meat and milk production, but the
conditions were exceptional. For one thing, prices were
abnormally low. For example, in July, 1935, the average
price per cwt. of imported butter was 96s. 6d., and of im-
ported cheese 54s. 4d.; in the previous year prices had
been even lower; to-day prices were appreciably higher.
No final decision to put into operation the system of levy
subsidy had been taken by Ministers in recent years, and
when it became necessary to formulate legislation providing
for assistance to the cattle industry, the Government had
decided that it would be preferable and more advantageous
to producers to adopt the system of direct Exchequer assis-
tance, not depending on the proceeds of duties, rather than
an earmarked levy.
So in the case of the milk industry, the Government had
reached the conclusion that in the changed circumstances and
under existing conditions the levy subsidy was not a suitable
means of giving assistance. Both in the general public
interest and in the real interest of the farmers, the Govern-
ment had preferred the method of direct Exchequer assis-
tance coupled with a price insurance plan as announced in
the White Paper.
It had been suggested that assistance in these forms had
not the same degree of permanence as a customs duty. But
it should be remembered that when the policy of protective
tariffs was adopted, the Government made it clear that it
was intended to use the tariff S3retem for bargaining purposes
with other countries. An import duty might, therefore, be
withdrawn at short notice for the purpose of a trade agree-
ment. The withdrawal of Exchequer subsidies and guaran-
tees, on the other hand, provided for agriculture under
statute, would require further legislation.
As regards the proposed Exchequer subsidies for quality
milks, the Government recognized that it was difficult at
this stage fo forecast accurately what would be the effect of
the quality premiums and Exchequer contributions proposed
in the White Paper. When the legislation to give effect to
these proposals was introduced, the Government would
939
Agricultural Policy
provide that a review should be undertaken by the proposed
Milk Commission during the third year of the Scheme, and
that the Commission might also, if they considered it exp>e-
dient, initiate such a review during the second year, i.e.,
before any reduction in the rate of Exchequer contribution
took effect. In either case the purpose of the review would
be to permit an assessment to be made of the extent and
method of application of the Exchequer assistance to be
thereafter made available, in the light of the progress made
in the production of clean and pure milk and of the needs
of the industry.
Referring to the proposal set out in the White Paper to
safeguard the industry by means of a price insurance plan
against the effect of any serious fall in the prices of butter
and cheese, the Minister said that this was an important
element in the security which it was the Government’s aim
to afford to the milk industry and it was desirable that the
plan should take some account of the seasonal variation in
the quantities of milk available and in the costs of produc-
tion. Accordingly, and having regard to the prevailing
level of prices, the Government’s proposals under this head-
ing, as they would be presented to Parliament in due course,
would provide that the price levels at which the Exchequer
payment would begin would be an average of. ii2s. in
summer and 120s. in winter per cwt. of butter and of
62s. (id. in summer and 67s. (id. in winter per cwt. of cheese
instead of loos. for butter and 565. for cheese all the year
round, as originally proposed. It was also proposed to fix
the standard gallonages of milk manufactured into butter and
cheese in Great Britain in respect of which the guarantee
would operate at 125 million gallons per annum in each
case. This figure approximated to the actual figures in
1935-36 and was in excess of the actual figures for 1936-37.
Furthermore the forthcoming legislation would provide for
an independent review both of the standard prices and of
the standard gallonages at three-yearly intervals.
Mr. Morrison expressed the view that these standard
prices and gallonages should meet the Union’s representa-
tions that the insurance plan should so operate, in tiie event
of a fall in prices, as to afford a reasonable measure of
support to pool returns and thus provide greater security
for the industry.
In response to an inquiry, the Minister said that, while
940
Agricultural Policy .
the Government regarded the price insurance plan as the
main safeguard of the industry against a serious fall in the
prices of butter and cheese, there would be provision, under
existing powers, or amended powers if that should be found
necessary, to enable the Government to impose quantitative
regulation of imports of butter, cheese, and other milk pro-
ducts in the event of imports being such as to lead to
instability in the market for those products in the United
Kingdom.
Replying to further questions, Mr. Morrison stated that
the Government were fully aware of the difficulties confront-
ing the poultry industry. Informal discussions were already
in progress with the chief foreign exporting countries with
a view to averting a repetition of the position that occurred
in the egg market a year ago, and he would give immediate
attention to the proposals for marketing reform which had
just been submitted to him by the industry. He also pro-
mised consideration of the question of agricultural credit
and of the other matters raised by the Deputation.
As regards bacon pigs, the industry had made considerable
headway with the aid of import regulation, which was still
in operation, and it was the Government’s desire that the
industry should develop on sound and progressive lines.
Following the announcement made in Parliament last July,
discussions with the Marketing Boards concerned were pro-
ceeding and it was hoped that detailed proposals would be
formulated at an early date. An announcement would be
made as soon as possible.
The Milk Marketing Board
Mr. Morrison also received a deputation from the Milk
Marketing Board which was headed by Mr. Thomas Baxter,
the Chairman. The Board had submitted a reasoned state-
ment upon the White Paper in which they accepted the
soundness of the principle of raising the standard of milk
production by quality premiums and recognized that such
a policy was in the public interest, but doubted whether the
desired objective could be reached in five years Uf)on the
basis proposed. The Board also questioned the adequacy
of the price insurance plan and sought enlightenment upon
a number of details in the White Paper policy.
The Minister said that he had given close attention to their
views. He agreed that it was difficult to estimate closely the
941
Agricultural Policy
effect of the assistance proposed, either in raising the stan-
dard of production or in stimulating increased consumption,
and he emphasized the value of the provision referred to
above for a review of the position in the third year, or
earlier if the Milk Commission thought it expedient. On
other points, the Minister made a similar reply to that given
to the National Farmers’ Union. He also promised that full
consideration would be given by the Government to the
Board’s representations with regard to the functions of the
proposed Milk Commission, to the Milk-in-Schools Scheme
!ind to the supply of milk for maternity and child welfare
centres.
942
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE IN GREAT BRITAIN
The following Memorandum* on Foot-and-Mouth Disease
deals with: (i) The Character and History of the Disease;
(2) The Policy and Procedure for Dealing with Outbreaks in
Great Britain; (3) Details of Outbreaks, October-November,
1937; (4) The Measures taken to Prevent the Introduction of
Infection from Abroad; (5) Research; and (6) The Export
Trade in Pedigree Stock in Relation to the Disease.
1. Character of the Disease. Foot-and-Mouth Disease is
caused by a virus which passes through all known filters, and
which cannot be seen even with the aid of the most powerful
microscope. It is not usually fatal to the animals attacked,
as the proportion of deaths does not normally exceed 3 per
cent, of affected cattle, with a rather higher figure amongst
sheep and pigs. With young unweaned animals, how-
ever, the mortality is frequently very high. Although the
disease is curable, it has secondary consequences which are
often serious, especially amongst dairy herds and breeding
stock. The real trouble with Foot-and-Mouth Disease is not
its deadliness but its extraordinary infectivity, against which
there is no known preventive agent. It is spread not only
direct from animal to animal but also through many inter-
mediate agencies, including human beings, vehicles, feeding
utensils, packing materials and even rodents and birds.
Every diseased animal is an active manufacturer of virus,
which can be carried by these means with great rapidity.
Movement, both human and animal, is now much more
extended than it used to be, and infection would constantly be
carried from one part of the country to another if affected
animals were kept alive for treatment. Unfortunately, a
diseased animal has only a very short immunity against
another attack, and although the actual losses by death might
not in themselves be disastrous, the total financial loss which
would be suffered by breeders and dairy farmers, if once
Foot-and-Mouth Disease were allowed to become endemic,
would be enormous, and all stock-owners would be faced
* Dated December 15, 1937.
943
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
with a constantly recurring menace, to say nothing of the
effect on the export of British pedigree stock, which is of such
high importance not only to breeders in this country, but to
the meat and wool trade of the world.
2. History of Disease in Great Britain. According to the
records, Foot-and-Mouth Disease first appeared in England
in 1839, and from that date until 1892 the country suffered
from considerable periods of severe infection. In 1862 the
disease broke out in the Royal Agricultural Society's show
yard at Battersea, and in 1863 animals were attacked in the
Smithfield Show. In 1871, 52,000 outbreaks were officially
reported and in this visitation, which continued into fhe fol-
lowing year, the number of animals attacked was estimated
at about three millions. From 1880-84, 27,445 outbreaks with
some 800,000 animals affected are recorded.
Notifiable from i 86 g. The disease was first made notifiable
by the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, 1869, but the powers
conferred thereby upon Local Authorities were permissive
and not obligatoiy, and for some years stock owners were
opposed to any compulsory measures for the suppression of
the disease. Agricultural opinion gradually grew, however,
in favour of drastic measures on the lines of those adopted
against cattle plague (rinderpest), including the adoption of
the slaughter policy by means of which that disease was finally
eradicated in 1877.
Slaughter Policy introduced in iSgz. It was not until 1892,
however, that the power to adopt a slaughter policy was con-
ferred upon the Board of Agriculture by the Contagious
Diseases (Animals) Act, 1892. The objects aimed at by legis-
lative action in Great Britain since that date have been : —
(а) to eradicate the disease wherever it appears by the application
of the power to slaughter, and
(б) to protect the country by every practicable means against the
introduction of infection from outside sources.
From 1892 until 1922 the number of outbreaks did not
exceed 95 in any one year. The year 1922 and the two following
years, however, witnessed a severe test of the slaughter policy
as a means of preventing the disease from again becoming
endemic, but success was eventually achieved. The outbreadcs
from 1922, the number of counties affected, the extent of
slaughter, and fhe annual cost of compensation for slaughtered
animals are as follows ; —
044
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease, 1922 to 1937,
Animals Slaughtered and Cost ae Compensation
Calendar
Year
Counties
affected
No. of
Out-
breaks
No. of animab slaughtered
Net cost of
Compensation
for Animals
Slaughtered
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Goats
Total
192a . .
46
1,140
24,071
21.831
9,821
49
55,772
£
647,627
1923 ••
43
1,929
69,256
26,170
33.304
55
128,785
1,898,211
1924 ••
52
1,440
42.737
28,362
17.548
79
88,726
1,123,194
1925 ••
26
260
8,512
8,440
2,978
33
19,963
233.784
1926 . .
31
204
5.773
11,671
2,547
II
20,002
172,464
1927 ..
23
143
4,624
3.496
1,813
7
9,940
120,467
1928 . .
21
13S
4.129
5.069
2,227
16
11,441
112,632
1929 ..
15
38
1.247
1,101
1,217
5
3,570
36,376
1930 ..
3
8
42
67
195
2
306
1,626
1931 .. ‘
19
97
3.*>98
5.563
1,384
4
10,649
96,454
1932 ..
1 11
25
629
1,608
416
—
2,653
16,521
1933 •• i
23
87
3.359
i 3.084
1.359
1 3
7,805 1
72.399
1934 -
79
2,724
; 5,173
2 . 37 «
: 27
, io,30z
63.367
1935 •.
.5b
2,900
i 7,000
2.543
1
1 12,444
71.697
1930
! M
07
2.504
1 1.737
1,072
3
5,316
52,480
J 937 to
j
Dec. 9
i
117
i 5.430
11,010
5,170
8
i 21,6 i8
1 71.2 74
1 i Total net cost of compensation . .
£4.^90,573
In view of the present organization and procedure for
dealing with this disease it is hoped that the experience of the
years 1922-24 will never be repeated. Omitting these excep-
tional years the total expenditure on compensation for
slaughtered animals during the years 1925 to 1937 (inclusive)
has been £1,221,541, or an average of £93,965 per annum.
Assuming the total value of the cattle, sheep and pigs in Great
Britain to be roughly £150,000,000, this is an equivalent to
the payment of an insurance premium of is. 3<i. per cent, per
annum to insure this country by means of the slaughter poUcy
against the risk of the disease becoming endemic.
The average annual number of animals slaughtered during
the same years (1925-1937) is 3,505 cattle, 5,001 sheep and
1,946 pigs. As a percentage of the total animal population of
Great Britain returned in June, 1937, these figures work out
at about 0.04 per cent of the cattle, 0.02 per cent, of the sheep,
and 0.05 per cent, of the pigs; or in other words 4 per 10,000
cattle, 2 per 10,000 sheep and 5 per 10,000 pigs have been
slaughtered annually on the average in pursuance of the
slaughter policy.
Regarded in the perspective of past history, the extent of
tile present outbreak (October-November, 1937) dealt with in
paragraph 7 of this Memorandum, although serious in view of
945
Foot-and-Mduth Disease in Great Britain
the extreme infectivity of the disease and the manner of its
introduction, is not comparable with those of 192a to 1926.
3. Procedure adopted in Outbreaks in Great Britain. The
procedure now adopted in dealing with outbreaks which is
described in paragraphs 3-6 of this Memorandum, has been
built up from past experience and embodies the principal
recommendations of two Departmental Committees appointed
in 1922 and 1924.
Vt^enever Foot-and-Mouth Disease is suspected to exist on
any premises in Great Britain, the owner or person in charge
is required by law immediately to notify the fact to the local
police, who are required at once to inform the Ministry by
telegram, and also the Local Authority concerned, whose duty
it is to cause a Notice to be served upon the occupier of the
premises, the effect of which is to apply to them the Rules to
be observed on an Infected Place to prevent the spread of
infection. A Veterinary Inspector is at once instructed by
the Ministry to make a diagnostic inquiry. Officers are on,
duty day and night ready to issue these instructions so that
there may be no delay in diagnosis. If the Inspector, after
examining the animal or carcass, suspects that disease exists
he is required to issue a certificate to that effect and notify
fee Local Authority, the local police and station-master,
whereupon fee movement of animals out of, into 'or within
an area lying within a radius of five miles of the premises
concerned is automatically prohibited pending a definite and
conclusive diagnosis by the Chief Veterinary Officer of the
Ministry, to whom fee Veterinary Inspector’s report is com-
municated by telephone. The 5-mile emergency area may
if necessary be extended to 15 miles or more.
4. The Slaughter Policy. The slaughter policy, which
is fee established policy in this country in dealing with this
disease, involves fee immediate slaughter, on confirmation of
fee existence of the disease, of all affected animals (cattle
sheep, swine or goats), and also those which are or
have been recently in contact wife fee affected animals
or otherwise directly exposed to infection. The object
of such slaughter is to destroy as quickly as possible
the manufacturers, and potential manufacturers, of fee
foot-and-moufe disease virus which is so easily and rapidly
^read from animal to animal and carried by numerous
agencies acting as mechanical carriers to fee stock of other
946
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
farms. The slaughter of the stock on an infected place is
normally completed within 24 hours of the report of the case
being received by the Ministry of Agriculture. Dogs, cats,
or poultry are not slaughtered, but those on infected premises
are confilied. Preliminary disinfection is proceeded with
immediately and a thorough disinfection of the whole premises
is carried out as soon as slaughter has been completed.
Infected premises are subject to special Rules referred to in
paragraph 3, including prohibition of movement of live animals
on or off the premises, and of entry of persons other than
attendants or veterinary inspectors, and disinfection of all
persons and vehicles entering and leaving. These Rules are
maintained for a period of about 9 weeks from the date of
slaughter, except that a partial re-stocking is permitted under
supervision for the final three weeks of that period.
Opinion of Departmental Committee, ig24-z5. Of the
slaughter policy, the Departmental Committee appointed in
1924 to investigate the widespread outbreaks of that period,
said in their Report [Cmd. 2350] (pages 10, 12 and 29) : —
“ The control of foot-and-mouth disease is clearly a matter of national
importance/’ # ♦ ♦ *
“ The manufacture of virus is on a much greater scale (when isolation
instead of slaughter of affected stock is adopted) and continues for a long
period, thus multiplying the risk of extension with the ultimate danger of an
uncontrollable spread and of the disease becoming endemic in this country.”
* * * • «
” The object of the slaughter policy is the destruction of virus and
its success depends almost entirely on rapidity of action in removing the
source from which virus is being produced. So long as the policy is pursued
with unrelenting energy and with the maximum celerity we are convinced
that it is at present the only policy unless disease is to become endemic.”
” The adoption of isolation as a policy would transfer the burden of
direct loss from the nation to the individual but it would undoubtedly
react on the nation.”
* « « «
” A policy of isolation would be equivalent in our view to the abandon-
ment of any hope 6f eradicating the disease from this country.”
m ^ *
” We are unshaken in our belief that until a preventive agent is
available, the slaughter policy should be continued.”
Compensation jot Slaughtered Animals. The statutory
authority for the payment of compensation is contained in
Section 15 of the Diseases of Animals Act, 1894, which lays
down that the basis of compensation for slaughtered animals
shall be as follows : —
(i) if tlie animal slaughtered was affected with foot-and-mouth disease
the compensation shall be the value of the animal immediately
before it became affected ;
947
:Poot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
(ii) in every other case the compensation shall be the value of the
animal immediately before it was slaughtered.
The value referred to in the Section is the actual value of the
animals whether fliey be Attested, Accredited, Pedigree or
ordinary stock.
Consequential Losses. The Act makes no provision for the
payment of compensation for consequential losses. The
Departmental Committee appointed to inquire into the exten-
sive outbreaks of 1923-24 considered the question of the basis
of compensation, but made no recommendation on the ques-
tion of consequential losses. The difficulties are obvious,
since such losses are suffered not only by the iarmers
occup5dng the infected farms, but also livestock auc-
tioneers, market authorities and other owners of stock
in infected areas whose ordinary transactions are considerably
curtailed, e.g., as regards store stock, markets are entirely
suspended for considerable periods.
5. Infected Area Restrictions. Concurrently with, and
a necessary concomitant of, the slaughter policy an Infected
Area is declared by an Order of the Minister immediately an
outbreak is confirmed, embracing a radius of 15 miles around
the infected premises. No movement of animals out of this
area is permitted and movements of animals into and Avithin
ffie area are controlled by licence, only necessary movements
being allowed. Markets within the area are limited to fat
stock and are permitted by licence and subject to veterinary
inspection, but only on premises more than 5 miles from any
infected place. All dogs within five miles of any infected
premises have to be kept under control and hunting in the
Area is prohibited. A warning Notice to stockowners
(Leaflet A.129/T.A.) is distributed widely in Infected Areas
indicating the precautions to be taken and requirements to
be observed to prevent the spread of infection.
The Infected Area restrictions are normally maintained in
the “ 15-mile ” area for 14 days, when the area is reduced to
one of 5 miles radius from the infected place or places, this
reduced area being maintained for a further period of 7 days.
Variations of this procedure may be necessary when outbreaks
are more complicated.
The Size of the Infected Area initially declared (a 15-mile
radius) has been criticized as being unnecessarily large in
dealing with a primary or single farm outbreak. On this
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
question the Departmental Committee of 1924-25 in paragraph
90 of its Report (Cmd. 2350) said; —
“ It has to be remembered that before the first symptoms of disease
were noticed, and any precautions taken, the animals were in a highly
infective state for about 48 hours. It is essential, therefore, that until all
inquiries as to origin and possible spread of disease before notification
have been completed all animals w’hich may reasonably be regarded as
having been exposed to contagion should be subject to some form of
control. We are unable, therefore, to recommend any reduction in the
size of the area to which restrictions are applied in the first instance.”
The wisdom of maintaining the 15-mile area has been abun-
dantly proved by experience. Not infrequently subsequent
outbreaks have occurred some miles from the first reported
case and some of these have been found to be of earlier origin
than the one first reported. Whilst a 15-mile radius has
included practically all such outbreaks, a smaller area would
not have been sufficient for the purpose.
Owner s Power to Prohibit Entry of Unauthorized Persons.
Another point of importance to owners in connexion with
Infected Areas is that any owner having animals on premises
in such an Area may, under Section 13 of the Diseases of
Animals Act, 1894, exhibit a Notice prohibiting the entry
of unauthorized persons into his buildings and lands with-
out his consent. Many stockowners exercise this power and
the Ministry is prepared to provide the Notices.
6. Standstill Orders. When outbreaks are more widely
spread, as at present, the above restrictions are supple-
mented by a temporary “ Standstill Order controlling the
movement of animals out of and within an Area surrounding
the actual infected Areas as an additional precaution with the
object of limiting the spread of infection.
7 . Special Features of Present Outbreak ( 1937 ). The
outstanding and most dangerous features of the present out-
break in the south-eastern counties have been its exceptional
virulence, as shown by the large number of animals initially
found affected, and showing recent lesions at the veterinary
inquiry, and the large number of entirely unconnected centres
of disease that appeared within a comparatively short period.
The present series began on October 16, at Thuming in
Norfolk, and in the course of the eight weeks since that date
to December 9 a total of 95 outbreaks were confirmed,
distributed amongst 15 counties, all except two being in the
south and east of England. The number confirmed each week,
and their location, are given in the following table. Of the 95
949
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
outbreaks, Norfolk has had ig, Suffolk i6 and Kent 15, East
Sussex, Huntingdonshire and Essex coming next with 12,
8, and 8 outbreaks respectively. The exhaustive inquiries
conducted into every outbreak show that some 59 centres and
possibly a few more were entirely unconnected with any pre-
vious outbreak or with each other. 25 of the centres involved
the declaration of either new Infected Areas or extensions of
existing Infected Areas.
Location of Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease,
October 16 to December 9, 1937
County
Outbreaks During Period
Total
Oct.
16-23
Oct.
24-30
Oct. 31-
Nov. 6
Nov.
7-13
Nov.
14-20
Nov.
21-27
Nov. 28-
Dec. 4
Dec.
5-9
Norfolk
2
8
6
2
1
—
—
19
Suffolk
—
—
4
0
3
—
—
—
16
Sussex (East)
—
—
1
I
4
2
4
12
(West)
Kent
—
—
—
—
1
—
1
2
—
5
3
5
1
—
I
15
Essex
—
—
I
1
2
2
1
T
8
Lindsey
—
—
—
I
2
I
—
—
4
Hunts
—
—
—
2
4
1
I
—
8
Soke of
Peterborough
„
i
I
1
2
Bucks
—
—
—
—
—
I
—
—
I
Surrey
i
—
—
—
—
—
)
—
I
Cheshire
—
—
—
—
—
i —
1
—
1
Dorset
—
—
—
—
—
—
I
—
]
Northumber-
land
I
T 1
2
Wilts
—
__
—
—
—
—
3 1
3
jjlQQIIII^I^^
B
8
Bi
19
17
B
8
B
95
Standstill Order [Controlled Area) for South-Eastern
Counties. The rapid increase in the. numbers of outbreaks
and the fact that the disease, although limited at that time
to the soutiiem and eastern counties, was occurring at so many
widely separated centres in those counties, created a situation
which in the Minister's opinion called for additional pre-
cautionary measures to safeguard other parts of the countiy
as far as possible, and on November 9 an Order was issued
imposing prohibition of movement of animals out of, and
controlling the movements of animals into, and within an area
termed a Controlled Area stretching from the Humber to the
Hampshire coast and comprising the counties of Lincoln
(parts of Lindsey, Kesteven and Holland), Soke of Peter-
borough, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Isle of Ely, Norfolk, East
and West Suffolk, Essex, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex,
950
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
London, Surrey, Kent and East and West Sussex (including
any county or other boroughs geographically situated there-
in), but excluding from the area any parts of such counties
and boroughs that were for the time being comprised within
any Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Area. In this Con-
trolled Area livestock markets were limited to licenced markets
of fat stock for immediate slaughter only and were subject
to veterinary inspection as in Infected Areas. The progressive
improvement in the eastern counties rendered it possible to
wiAdraw the Standstill Order as from December g, when the
Controlled Area was accordingly released.
Christmas Arrangements were made as follows : —
Smithfield Show. — A Special Order was made on November 22 authorizing
the Smithfield Show (December 6~io) at Islington (in the Controlled
Area). Animals were permitted to be moved to the Show from any free
area or from the Controlled Area but not from an Infected Area. Move-
ment from the Show was allowed only to a slaughterhouse either in
the Controlled Area or in any adjoining Infected Area but not to a free
area, and the animals were required to be slaughtered within 10 days.
On the release of the Controlled Area on December 9, however, these
restrictions on movement from the show were revoked.
Christmas Fat Stock Markets. — An Order was issued on November 28 : —
(а) permitting any animals sold at licensed fat stock markets in the
C>ontrolled Area to be moved back to the place of origin for
detention for 14 days during which period they w’ere permitted
to be again moved by licence to a slaughterhouse. The object
of this was to assist butchers who have insufficient accommo-
dation at their slaughterhouses at one time for the animals
they purchase for the Christmas trade ;
(б) extending the time limit for slaughter of animals moved under
licence to a slaughterhouse in the Controlled Area which is
normally 4 days, to 10 days.
Interference with Export Trade. The following lots of
animals intended for export were rendered ineligible for entry
to the London Quarantine Station in consequence of outbreaks
within 15 miles of the place of origin, and shipment had to be
abandoned : —
(а) nine cattle and 28 sheep for the quarantine period commencing
November ii ;
(б) one bull, 21 sheep and 2 pigs for the quarantine period com-
mencing November 30. Four of these sheep were on the
farm of H.M, The King at the Home Farm, Sandringham.
(See also paragraph ii of this Memorandum.)
8. Origin of Infection. Up to the summer of this year
the Continent of Europe had for some two years been freer
from foot-and-mouth disease than for a considerable period
previously. In June the disease was introduced into France
by animals imported from Northern Africa. It spread with
exceptional rapidity first in France and then to Belgium,
951
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
Holland. Germany and Switzerland. The following table of
outbreaks illustrates its progress in western Europe; —
1937
France
Belgium
Holland
Germany
June
789
—
—
2
July
2,727
10
2
7
August
9,327
319
394
7
September
21,970
4,090
11,444
! 264
October . .
32,808
14,098
(not yet
3,295
November
22,655
(to Nov. 15)
(not yet
received)
received)
11.739
The disease thus reached dimensions in these four countries
which has not been known for many years, and it is under-
stood that in some parts of the Continent drastic restrictions
have been imposed even on the freedom of movement of
human beings in an endeavour to arrest the progress of die
disease. Three factors connected with the Continental out-
breaks have great importance in relation to this country and
point clearly to the source from which infection was intro-
duced into England, namely: —
(1) the disease is of a particularly virulent character ;
(2) it reached the heaviest and most widespread infection at the
very moment of the autumn (September to November) mass-
migration of birds, from the Continent to the eastern and
southern counties of England ; and
(3) in the series of outbreaks that commenced in England in the
middle of October the disease has been found to be*of the same
type as that officially identified on the Continent. (Several
types of the disease are recognized by research workers — ^see
Paragraph 10 below.)
One of the most dangerous characteristics of foot-and-mouth
disease lies in the facility with which it can be conveyed long
distances by mechanical means, and although it is not known
whether birds are themselves naturally susceptible to
infection, there is little doubt that they can cany the virus
mechanically and deposit it on the pastures on first
alighting in England. There is, therefore, strong circumstantial
evidence pointing to the conclusion that the infection of this
country in October and November was due to migratory birds
acting as mechanical earners. No organized measures against
die risk of the introduction of infection by this means are,
however, considered practicable.
Odier dieories have been advanced on die possible source
of infection, including (a) hay and straw used as packing
feijr imported merchandise, (6) imported fruit or vegetables,
(c) d^ collection of virus on the tyres of motor cars brought
952
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
from the Continent, {d) imported vaccine, or (e) imported
animal products. No evidence has, however, been found
associating any of these suggested agents with the present out-
breaks. It is, moreover, a reasonable assumption that if such
agents had been responsible, they would have caused a wider
distribution of outbreaks throughout the country, whereas
the great majority of the present series have occurred in the
eastern and southern coastal counties.
9. General Measures to prevent Introduction of Infection
from Abroad. The most dangerous means by which foot-and-
mouth disease may be carried is through the agency of the live
animal, but the importation of live animals from all countries
infected with foot-and-mouth disease is definitely prohibited.
The other channels through which the virus has been or may
possibly be introduced include in addition to migrating birds ; —
(а) Carcasses or other animal products.
(б) Feeding stuffs.
(c) Hay and straw and packing materials.
(d) Vegetables and fruit.
(e) Movements of human beings.
(/) Motor vehicles.
(a) Carcasses (Meat) : Prohibition from Continent of Europe, — In
1926 the disease was definitel}' discovered in fresh pig carcasses imported
from Belgium and Holland in connexion with outbreaks in Lanarkshire.
As a consequence the importation of fresh carcasses from the Continent
of Europe was prohibited by the Importation of Carcasses (Prohibition)
Order of that year. The effect of this Order, which is still in operation,
has been appreciably to reduce the number of initial or pnmary invasions
of the disease. Following that Order investigations were conducted by the
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Re.search Committee which proved that the virus
could remain infective in the bone marrowrof chilled or frozen beef for 76 days.
Arrangements with South American Governments. — In view of the risks
proved to exist by the experiments of the Research Committee, representa-
tions were made to the Governments of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and
Chile, all of whom in consequence made Regulations prohibiting the
exportation to Great Britain of carcasses or parts of carcasses of animals
affected with foot-and-mouth disease or of animals forming part of the
same troop as the diseased animals. Special arrangements were made
by those Governments for the inspection of the animals before and after
slaughter. When foot-and-mouth disease is found in any troop of animals
in the export abattoirs the whole of the troop after slaughter is diverted
to other purposes than export to Great Britain. In order to reduce the
incidence of disease in the export abattoirs a system of inspection
on the farms before the animals are moved to the slaughterhouse was
organized. For several years after the inauguration of these arrangements
a veterinary inspector of the British Ministry of Agriculture was stationed
in South America to observe their operation, and in the autumn of 1936
a further visit was paid by one of the Ministry’s senior veterinary inspectors
to observe existing conditions and discuss the operation of the regulations
with the authorities.
The present situation can be summarized as follows : —
The Argentine , — ^The Argentine Government has decided to increase
953
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
its field staff in order to intensify insjxjction and to extend the farm
inspection of fat animals, not only of those about to be moved to the
export abattoirs, but also those about to be moved to markets,
with a view to reducing the circulation of animals affected with
foot-and-mouth disease. The field staff will be doubled.
Certain alterations at the large market at Buenos Aires will be
made with a view to the better control of any troops of animals found
diseased on arrival.
Patagonia. — This province, which exports lamb and mutton to this
country, has been for some years, and continues to be free from
foot-and-mouth disease. Apart from the staff of veterinary inspectors
sent during the season it is proposed to establish a permanent
Patagonian veterinary service, partly to deal with disease in the
territory and partly to deal with animals coming into the territory with
a view to the prevention of the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease.
Chile. — The importation of meat from Chile to this country is confined
to exports of lamb and mutton from the province of Magallanes
which adjoins the Argentine province of Patagonia. Like Patagonia,
the province of Magallanes has been free from foot-and-mouth disease
for a number of years, and the quarantine arrangements initiated
by the Argentine Government for the protection of Patagonian
territory will indirectl}'^ offer protection to the province of Magallanes.
Uruguay and Brazil. — No special comment is called for in connexion
with the import trade from these two countries. It is reported that
the existing regulations arc administered satisfactorily.
Further Preventive Orders. — Two further Orders of importance are in
force in Great Britain which aim at the prevention of the introduction to
animals in this country of infection by imported meat, viz. : —
(i) The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Boiltng of Animal Foodstuffs)
Order of 1932, which requires the boiling for one hour of all
animal feeding stuffs, including broken and waste kitchen refuse
and meat scraps, before being fed to animals.
(ii) The Importation of Meat (Wrapping Materials) Order of 1932,
which prescribes the use of a red striped wrapper for meat
imported from infected countries and prohibits the use of these
wrappers subsequently as containers for feeding stuffs or bedding
for animals or for fertilizers or horticultural products w^hich might
come into contact with animals on the farm. Further, it is re-
quired that all meat wrappers shall be kept apart from animals
until they have been boiled or otherwise effectively sterilized.
(6) Feeding Stuffs. — In addition to the inquiries made in each initial
case, a special inquiry was conducted in a series of outbreaks some years
ago when outbreaks were more numerous, into the character and origin
of the feeding stuffs used on the infected farms and the conclusion was
reached that the possibility of feeding stuffs being the origin of infection
in any general sense was extremely remote. Further, the process of
manufacture of linseed and cottonseed cakes in this country include the
subjection of the seeds to a temperature sufficient to kill the virus of foot-
and-mouth disease. Moreover, although Scotland is a large consumer of
artificial feeding stuffs unexplained outbreaks of the disease occur very
rarely in that country. It is considered therefore that the adoption
of any restrictive action either as regards feeding stuffs or the bags in
which they are imported could not be justified.
(c) Hay and Straw Packing Materials. — The importation of hay
and straw for use as fodder or litter for animals from infected countries
is already prohibited by the Foreign Hay and Straw Order of 19x2. These
materials may be used, however, as packing for imported goods. The
954
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
Departmental Committee in their Report issued in 1925 [Cmd. 2350]
stated that the imposition of a prohibition against the use of hay or
straw as packing, or to require its destruction at the port of disembarkation,
would involve an interference with our overseas trade in the many articles
habitually packed in hay and straw of such a far-reaching character as
could only be justified by an overwhelming case. In only three of the
initial outbreaks during the past 12 years has hay and straw packing
material of foreign origin been implicated, but even in those cases there
was no proof that this was the cause of the outbreaks. There is, therefore,
no case for prohibition. Adequate protection against this risk has,
however, been provided by the Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Packing Materials)
Orders of 1925 and 1926, which prohibit all such packing material, whether
of home or foreign origin, from being brought into contact with animals,
and require its destruction when its use as packing is finished.
(d) Imported Vegetables or Fruit. — Inquiries show that in only
five cases over a period of many years could imported vegetables possibly
have been involved in initial outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease, and
in four of these hotel refuse and .swill containing .scraps of foreign meat
were al.so u.sed, and it is equally possible that the latter might have been
the origin of the disease. In the remaining ca.se .some of the vegetables
were imported in sacks that might have been contaminated, but in that
case also other circumstances existed pointing to alternative methods of
infection. There is no evidence against imported fruit.
(£j) Movements of Human Beings. — The introduction of infection
from the Continent by human beings who may have been in direct contact
with the virus shortly before leaving for this country is a possible risk,
but no outbreak has been traced to such a .source. The Departmental
Committee of 1925 stated that “ whatever the danger of infection from
this source may be we do not consider that it would be practicable to
attempt to prescribe any disinfection of persons arriving from the
Continent. Such a measure would not be tolerated even if the facts in
support of its adoption were immeasurably stronger than they are.”
If) Motor Vehicles. — It has also been suggested that motor cars may
bring infection and should be disinfected on their arrival in or return to
this countr>\ Such a requirement would involve the provision of proper
depots and adequate facilities for the rapid treatment of many cars, w^Wle
anything less than a thorough washing would be valueless. Furthermore,
the control and supervision of cars while en route to the cleaning depots
and until the completion of the operation would be necessary. The
expense and interference with the normal course of traffic which would
be occasioned w’ould be serious, and there is no information available to
suggest that such a regulation would be justified by any risk involved.
10. Research. All research in connexion with foot-and-
mouth disease in this country is carried out by the Foot-and-
Mouth Disease Research Conunittee which was appointed by
the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1924 to “ initiate,
direct and conduct investigations into Foot-and-Mouth
Disease, either in this country or elsewhere with a view of dis-
covering means whereby the invasions of the disease may be
rendered less harmful to agriculture.” The Committee con-
sists of eminent scientists of the medical and veterinary pro-
fessions; Sir Joseph Arkwright is the Chairman. Much
additional knowledge has been gained by the work of this
955
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
Committee which has issued five Progress Reports. The
work of the Committee continues. In the future programme
of its work attention is to be given to the problem of immuniza-
tion — a problem complicated by the fact that there are several
types of virus and that immunity against one type does not
confer immunity against any of the others. The typing of
the virus in all initial outbreaks in this country is regularly
carried out. In the present series of outbreaks (Autumn,
1937) the viruses so far have all typed as “ O,” and informa-
tion has been received that the same type of virus has been
identified in the present endemic in France, Holland and
Germany. The Committee has also outlined a series of
experiments to ascertain whether birds are susceptible to the
disease or capable of mechanically transmitting the virus.
The question has been raised whether cattle in this country
could be protected against foot-and-mouth disease by inocula-
tion with a serum such as has been used in Germany. A
serum obtained from that country has been used experimentally
in Great Britain, but in view of the results obtained both in
the field and in the laboratory, it was decided not to proceed
furtiier with the experiments. The Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Research Committee reported this year that “ such serum
as is at present available cannot be relied upon to protect a
bovine from infection when intimately exposed to a highly
infective case of disease,” and the recent course of events on
the Continent (see paragraph 8 above) lends strong support
to that view.
11. The Export Trade in British Pedigree Stock in
Relation to Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease. The
regulations of many of the British Dominions and Colonies
relating to the importation of live stock require the previous
examination of imported animals and the provision of a cer-
tificate that certain diseases are absent. The export trade in
British pedigree stock, which is mutually valuable to breeders
of the best class of stock in Great Britain and to stock raisers in
the Dominions and Colonies overseas who wish to obtain the
best quality foundation stock, was seriously interrupted from
1921-1928 by the embargoes which many of the importing
Dominions and Colonies had found it necessary to impose
in order to prevent the risk of the introduction of foot-and-
mouth disease arising from the outbreaks of that disease in
Great Britain.
956
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
In order to remove this serious handicap to the trade as
far as practicable, the London Quarantine Station was estab-
lished in 1928 at the East India Dock, so that British pedigree
stock could be isolated under oilicial veterinary supervision for
a period immediately before shipment sufficient to cover the
maximum period of incubation of foot-and-mouth disease with
a sufficient margin, the object being to provide all reasonable
assurance that the animals shipped are free from foot-and-
mouth disease and from the risk of their conveying infection
to importing countries. In choosing the site for the establish-
ment of this station particular care was taken to select a place
so isolated as to eliminate any risk of the introduction from out-
side sources of any infection from ordinary causes.
Rigid conditions were laid down by the Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries in an Order entitled the Quarantine
Stations (Regulation) Order, 1928, and in certain rules for the
control of the station in order to ensure the healthy condition
of animals admitted to and shipped from the quarantine
station, and to prevent infection entering the station either by
persons, animals, or things.
The main features of this system of quarantine are : —
(a) no animals are (iiialified for admission into the station unless
they come from ])remises in Great Britain situate outside a
radius of 15 miles from any place on which foot-and-mouth
disease (or cattle plague or pleuro pneumonia) has been certified
to exist during the three preceding months, and unless the
animals to Ik* exported, and all other animals on the premises
from which they are brought, have been examined immediately
before movement intt) the quarantine station b)^ a Veterinary
Inspector appointed bv the Minister of Agriculture and
Fisheries and certified by him to be free from the above-
mentioned diseases ; and
(b) quarantine for not less than 14 days in the Station for the purpose
of covering the period of incubation of foot-and-mouth disease.
The Order also provides for the movement of the animals
direct from the quarantine station to a vessel for shipment, and
requires that the animals be accompanied by a certificate of a
Veterinary Inspector of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries to the effect that the animals were admitted to the
quarantine station in accordance with the Order, were detained
and isolated in the station under official veterinary super-
vision for the prescribed period of 14 days, and continued
during the whole of that period to be free from any of the above-
mentioned diseases. The Order further provides that fodder or
litter supplied for the use of the animals during the quarantine
period and subsequently during the voyage must be obtained
957
Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain
under permission given by the Ministry from districts
certified to have been free from foot-and-mouth disease for
at least three months.
It should be emphasized that Foot-and-Mouth Disease is
dealt wdth in Great Britain by the slaughter policy whenever
and wherever it appears, accompanied by efficient methods of
disinfection and drastic restrictions on the removal of animals
in infected areas, including entire prohibition of movement out
of such areas. It is not endemic in Great Britain, and has not
been present in an endemic form since the slaughter policy was
introduced. The possibility of the existence among exported
stock of what are known as “ carriers ” of infection, i.c.,
animals which have passed through the stages of the disease,
and which in a very small percentage of instances may in
consequence become “ carriers,” is thus entirely eliminated.
The London Quarantine Station is under the management of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. During the period
of its operation, i.e., since 1928, the number of animals that
have passed through the Station en route to the Dominions and
Colonies are as follows. In no instance has foot-and-mouth
disease been conveyed by any of these animals.
Total Number of Animals Exported through the London
Quarantine Station Annually since 1928
Country of '
Destination
! 1
1928 1 1929 1 1930
t
! 1
1 1931
i
1 1932
i
4933 , 1934
i
1935
4937
up to
14/12
Totals
Antigua . . ‘
—
—
>
—
—
—
4
Australia . .
—
253
225
91
49
103
138
119
474
210
4»392
Barbados . .
—
—
2
—
2
Canada . . ,
—
—
-
'
29
10
97
ij8
*107
3(>4
Cyprus
Gold Coast . .
Irish Free
—
2
—
—
—
—
—
2
—
—
8
—
—
—
8
State
Northern
174
54
112
38
37
25
2O
.4
28
518
Ireland . .
—
3
—
—
—
—
—
—
3
Nigeria
Palestine . .
Northern
—
>
!
—
—
—
— !
1 —
—
2
—
5
3
9
—
9
1
—
j
j
27
Rhodesia
Southern
—
20
i
—
—
—
—
j
1
—
20
Rhodesia
Union of
130
53
Jl
4
3
0
2
7
7
2S(>
South Africa
South-West
128
152
; 200
I
230
217
M7
192
349
465
408
2,458
Africa . . '
—
15
1 24
I
3
—
—
—
—
—
43
Trinidad . . .
—
7
—
3
—
—
2
—
—
12
Totals
333
<^43
627
380
315
295
372
565
788
760
5.078
958
MARKET ANEMONES FROM CORNWALL & DEVON
K. H. Johnstone, M.A., Ph.D.,
AND
A, D. R. Walbank, N.D.A.,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
About the year 1924, Canon Boscawen, of Ludgvan, experi-
mented and demonstrated that de Caen anemones could be
raised from seed, and that good crops of flowers could be
produced during the winter months in the mild climate of
West Cornwall. The commercial value of this crop was not
at first fully realized by flower growers, and at that time the
markets were well supplied with French anemones, which
continued to arrive in increasing quantities up to 1931. The
Horticultural Superintendent first demonstrated the possibili-
ties of this crop at the Gulval Experimental Station, and this
work was subsequently repeated at Elbridge in East Cornwall
and also in Devon by the County Staff.
In 1932 a duty of 9d. per lb. was imposed on the imports
of anemone flowers, and a great opportunity was thus afforded
for an expansion of the anemone area, which at that time
was less than 50 acres. In 1931 the Dutch had introduced
the anemone “ peas " or “ pips,” i.e., small corms that
are now almost universally used as planting stock. From
these a plant that will flower freely during the winter can be
produced without the difficulty and uncertainty that attends
raising plants from seed.
Anemone growing began in the Penzance area, and it has
spread out westward towards Lands End, north to St. Ives
and eastwards towards Helston, to form what is now the
major producing area in the county. The second important
area in Cornwall where anemones of fine quality are now
produced is the Valley of the Fal, where the deep fertile soils
provide the anemone plant with a good rooting medium and
anemones of excellent quality are produced.
In the Tamar Valley the soil on the steep hillsides is often
too shallow and too hot in the summer to provide the optimum
conditions for anemones, but they are grown, with success, on
both sides of the river. In South Devon anemones are success-
fully grown in the Kingsbridge and Dawlish areas and in
North Devon at Braunton and Barnstaple,
959
Market Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
Area Devoted to the Crop. As the number of anemone
growers exceeds i,ooo, it is difficult to obtain an accurate
record of the acreage devoted to the crop. The crop is
normally sold in non-returnable boxes of special types, and it is
possible to estimate the acreage from the number of boxes
sold, allowing for the use of 2,150 boxes to the acre (2,000 in
a dry year and 2,200 in a good year). The sales of anemone
peas provide confirmatory information. The manufacturers
have given statistics of the sales of anemone boxes-, and these
are summarized as follows : —
1933- 34. — 70,000 boxes were sold by one lirm. It is estimated that
180,000 boxes were used for the crop, sufficient for an area of 88 acres.
1934- 35. — Though the area had increased, growth wAs seriously
affected by the summer drought, and flower production was not up
to the average. 250,000 boxes were sold in Cornwall, sufficient for an
area of 126 acres,
1935- 36. — In this season box sales increased surprisingly (each
manufacturer reported a considerably increased sale over the previous
year) and the total boxes sold in Cornwall amounted to 646,000 or
sufficient for an area of 300 acres.
1936- 37. — The sales of boxes during the past season have exceeded
a million, of which it is estimated that 900,000 have been used for
anemones, sufiicient for an area of 409 acres.
Only go per cent, of the boxes sold are estimated to have
been used for anemones, since the boxes are used also for
polyandius and violets.
In Devon there were from 75 to 90 growers with an estimated
acreage of 25 acres in 1936-37.
The total acreage of anemones in 1936-37 is therefore esti-
mated to have been : —
Cornwall . . 409 acres
Devon . . . . 25 „
or a total of 434 acres. In other words an estimated pro-
gressive increase since 1931 from under 50 acres to over
430 acres.
Quality. Anemones have many attributes that make for
their popularity as cut flowers — their long lasting qualities,
attractive colour range, stiff stems with fte green collar of
bracts that obviates the need for additional foliage, and,
above all, their winter blooming habit. The demand, how-
ever, is only for anemones of first-class quality, and improve-
ment of this should be the constant endeavour of the growers.
When '* English ” anemones were first produced they com-
pared unfavourably with French anemones, particularly in
the shortness of their stems and limited colour range. Striking
improvements in length of stem, size and colour range of tiie
960
Phuto^atm Cijfjv) iji'it R A. M 6^ Co
Pe Caen Xncmonci.
1\> face page 0 (')O
. Masket Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
flowers have been • secured, while continuous supplies
through the winter can now be obtained. An important
factor in these iminrovements has been the close contact of
the County Horticultural Staffs and the Provincial Advisory
Centre (Seale Hayne College) with the industry, and the confi-
dence of the growers in the value of the educational and
experimental work, research and advice of these ofiipers.
A Market Bunch. The flowers in a market bunch should,
when fully grown, expand to 3 or 4 inches in diameter and
should have stems 12 to 15 inches in length to the base of
the bracts. The colours included in the bunch are perhaps
3 scarlet, 2 pink, i rosy magenta, i white (with red or blue
zone at the base), and 5 in shades of purple, blue and violet.
To secure a good range of colours the growers often pur-
chase corms of named scarlet varieties, of which His Excel-
lency and Hollandia are the best known. In addition ihe
Dutch corm raisers now claim to guarantee to supply a mixtiure
containing a certain percentage of reds — 30 per cent, being a
desirable proportion. This may yield too many reds at the
beginning and end of the season when the scarlet anemones
crop more profusely, but certainly results in a satisfactory
colour range throughout the season. Mauve and “ dirty ”
whites are not wanted and are being gradually eliminated.
During the seasons 1935-36 and 1936-37, newer named varie-
ties, e.g., Sylphide and Gertrude (single), bright rosy magenta
anemones, and the Admiral (double) have been widely intro-
duced. Research work on flower-colour in anemones has been
started at Seale Hayne College.
Lengfli of Stem. Soil conditions are of major importance,
and tiieir coimexion witii stem length has been closely studied
by the Advisory and Education Officers in the Province.
Preparation of the soil is a matter that must, and does,
receive tiie most careful attention of successful growers. For
example, where anemones with stems 15 to 20 inches long are
now being produced, preparation is begun the autumn before
planting anemones. On an intenavely cultivated holding,
fltis consists of deep ploughing, with subsoiling, if this has
not already been done, the addition of manure, followed by
repeated working, liming in late winter, and a furtiier applica-
tion of some form of manure into tiie surface layers in tiie
spring. The quantity of manure applied varies according to
the nature and previous cropping of the land.
B 9^1
Market Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
Correct spacing of the corms is essential; tiiis has also
been the subject of experimental work. It has been shown
that the corms must be sufficiently closely planted to form a
plant that covers the ground, making a thick stratum of
leaves through which the plant throws up its flower stems to
reach the light required for their expansion. A slight moulding
up of the rows in autumn also contributes to this result. On
fertile soils suitable for anemones a spacing of corms 4 in.
apart in rows 15-18 in. apart is now generally found to be best.
During the seasons 1935-37, experiments were carried out
with the object of stimulating greater length of stem, by
using Dutch lights to cover the growing plants. Although the
earlier results were unsatisfactory, more recent trials at Gulval
have proved promising.
Windbreaks have, however, proved useful and undoubtedly
promote the production of longer flower stems. Temporary
windbreaks, or rather wind filters, are now widely used and
at present the most satisfactory appear to be those made of
i-in. builders’ laths nailed vertically |-in. apart to a framework
4 ft. high. The number used round the beds to form rect-
angular enclosures depends on the degree of exposure of the
land and the preference of the grower.
Healthy Stock. Although the anemone plant is not subject
to diseases and pests of an alarming nature, it is peculiarly
sensitive to environmental conditions, and if these are un-
favourable they may have an immediate and disastrous effect
on the quality of the flowers produced. It is greatly to the
advantage of the industry that the health of the plants has
from the first been studied by the Advisory and Research
Officers at Seale Hayne College and by the County Staffs. A
survey of the pests and diseases affecting anemones and their
control was published in 1934.*
"Winter Browning’’ is the major failing afflicting the
anemone. Attacks were reported in 1926, 1930 and 1932,
and again in 1936-37, when the trouble was widespread.
Investigation has brought in the mycologist, ph3^iologist and
soil chemist. The conclusions now arrived at indicate that
the trouble is of a physiological nature, though secondary'
fungal infection may occur later. The andmone is very
susceptible to unsuitable soil conditions and unless these condi-
• Seale Hayne Agricultural College, Department of Plant Pathology,
Eleventh Annual Report, for the year ending September 30, I934-
Pamphlet No. 44.
9 ^
Market Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
tions closely approximate to the optimum, the health of the
plant rapidly deteriorates. In the first place, good drainage,
using raised beds if necessary, thorough cleaning and prepara-
tion before planting, and care in cultivation to avoid damage
of the roots, are essential. Secondly, a correctly balanced
soil must be secured, and this aspect has been closely studied
by the soil chemist. It has been established that acid soil
conditions are definitdy deleterious to anemones and a mini-
mum pH of 6.6 is necessaiy. In consequence, growers have
been eager to take advantage of the soil analysis service
available at Seale Hayne College.
The basal manures have also been the subject of research.
It is noteworthy that the best soils for anemones are fertile
loams, not spoilt by previous injudicious manuring, and sup-
plied with, when available, a generous basal dressing of some
bulky organic manure.
The falling off of available nitrogen during the winter, due
to leaching by rain, which is always heavy in the south-west,
and to the reduction of bacterial activity at the lower winter
temperature, results in conditions that indicate the probable
value of top dressings, which are still the subject of research.
At present the best results have generally been secured by a top
dressing of nitro-chalk applied in November or early
December, if and when the foliage takes on a yellowish tinge.
Finally, the importance of good water-holding capacity,
especially during the summer months, when the plants are
growing, has been established. Many Cornish soils are
deficient in humus and dry out too quickly; a few are too
heavy. Peat has been found to be valuable in this connexion
and is now added to the soil by some growers.
The Choice and Planting of Corms. The planting stock,
apart from seed, consists of corms graded according to their
circumference. The grades chiefly used are the 1-2 cm. size,
known as “ peas,” the 2-3 cm. size, often called ” beans,”
and the less-used i-i^ cm., known as ” dust.” Recently,
closer grading into sizes i-i^, ij-2| and 2-3 cm. has been
introduced. The importance of close grading is that the
correct time of planting depends on the size of corms used,
modifications being necessary under exceptional weather condi-
tions. The time of planting has been the subject of experi-
ment by the County Education Officers, by Seale Hayne
College, and by the growers themselves, and is now satis-
factorily established. Seed is sown in March or April, i-ij cm.
B 2 963
Market Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
corms at the end of April or May, 1-2 cm. corms at the «ad
of Mayor June, and 2-3 cm. corms in July. Details of cultiva-
tion, e.g., careful shallow hoeing, hand weeding, picking oS
early flowers, and general “ hygiene,” have been demon-
strated on the County plots and persistently advocated, and
are now well known to growers.
Results of trials on the County Council Demonstration Plots
are published annually, and a pamphlet. The Cultivation of
Anemones, by H. W. Abbiss, Horticultural Superintendent
to the Cornwall C.C., is also available.
Economic ConsideraticMas. Though the crop has been
grown by flie larger flower growers in West Cornwall, only
2 or 3 holdings are known where the crop occupies more than
10 acres. Possibly on 25 holdings the area may exceed 3
acres and on 50 it may exceed i acre. Most growers have
from J to J an acre. All classes, flower growers, farmers and
cottagers have become anemone growers. The number of
growers in Cornwall exceeds 1,000, while there are 75 to go
in Devon, where the largest area is about 2 acres.
To all growers the ammone crop is now an important one;
the small grower finds that he can produce them as well
as the owner of a large holding, since neither horses nor
expensive machines are required. This can be said of verj'
few crops to-day, and it is noteworthy that some of &e highest
quality anemones are grown on holdings having a total area
not exceeding 2 acres. In contrast to bulb flower crops the
captal outlay in establishing a field of anemones is relatively
low — an important fact for small growers, of whom there
are so many in Cornwall. Employers of labour find in
anemones a crop for which they can give continuous employ-
ment over a relatively long period; this is perhaps most
important of all to owners of holdings of 5-15 acres — owners
viho prefer to have a permanent staff. On the larger holdings,
a few acres of anemones fit very well into the general scheme,
and provide the grower an opportunity of keeping together
his casual labour for a relatively long period, often, indeed,
making all the difference in enabling him to keep a good staff
by tire offer of semi-permanent emplo3mient. The operations
calling for hand labour on this crop are fairly evenly spread
over a j)eriod from June to April, and, if a proportion of the
crop is grown from small corms or seed, labour can be
employed throughout the year. Money retains are obtaiind
Market Anemones from Cornwall and Devon
from anemone flowers during the winter months, when they
are particularly required to meet the weekly wage bills.
Initial Outlay. The number of pea corms required to plant
an acre of land varies from 80,000 t6 140,000. A reliable
mixture with a good colour range costs the grower £20 to £30
per acre according to the spacing. Where beds of separate
colours, such as scarlet or magenta, are grown, up to los; per
1,000 may be paid for the corms. When seed is used, 8-10 lb.
are required p)er acre, costing 30s. -32s. 6d. per lb.
The cost of windbreaks made from builders' laths is approxi-
mately 2s. 6d. for a 9 ft. length and these should last, with
small repairs, for at least 6 years.
In addition, there is the cost of manures, boxes, paper,
freight and salesmen’s commission, all items of expenditure
incurred by the grower.
Local Labour. The anemone crop requires much hand
labour. Moreover, to grow them successfully, it is not possible
to economise on labour. The labour employed is largely
female and is paid by the hour, piece-work being generally
considered unsatisfactory owing to the careful work required.
One grower with a holding of ii acres formerly employed
one man and a boy when growing farm crops only — ^now &at
he has 8 acres to anemones he employs 14 girls and 2 men
throughout the year, with additional casual labour. Growers
state that they can offer permanent emplo3nnent to 2 women
per acre.
Hand weeding is necessary and an acre would occupy 6
women for 3 days, so that in a season the hand weeding of
an acre may cost £20 or more. Picking, grading and tying
the flowers from an acre may cost £30. Further items may
bring the total labour bill to over £65 per acre, though in
many instances much of the work is done by the small holders
and members of the family. On the whole, the wage value of
fliis crop in Devon and Cornwall is approximately £30,000
a year.
Great developments have taken place, and the quantity of
anemones now marketed — some 13,000,000 bunches annually
— ^has made these flowers very popular in countless homes.
There is no relaxation of the effort to produce flowers of im-
proved quality, and continued research and experiment gives
every encouragement to the prospect of still greater improve-
ment in the quality of tiie blooms available for that most
exacting customer— the English purchaser.
965
LAND DRAINAGE: SOME REMEDUL WORKS
IN THE RIVER TRENT CATCHMENT AREA
A Report was recently issued by the Ministry on the opera-
tions and proceedings under the Land Drainage Act, 1930,
from the passing of that Act on August i, 1930, to March 31,
1937 (H.M. Stationery Office, Price is. bd.), and although that
Report afforded information as to the capital works now being
carried out by Catchment Boards in different parts of the
country, the cost of which will (according to the latest estimates)
exceed the sum of £7,000,000, it did not profess to draw any
conclusion as to the benefit likely to be conferred by those
works, many of which will obviously take some years to
complete.
It is the object of the paragraphs that follow to give an
account of certain specific works that are now being carried out
by the River Trent Catchment Board, and to throw some
light on the benefit that may be expected rapidly to follow
the completion of these works. Moreover, it is hoped to include
in future numbers of this Journal further notes of this charac-
ter, dealing with works being carried out in other catchment
areas, and indicative of the advantages that have been derived
from and may be expected from the considerable expenditure
now being incurred by Catchment Boards with the aid of
Government grants for the purpose of flood protection.
The area covered by these Notes forms parts of what is
usually known as the Doncaster Drainage District. This
district, of which the northern half lies in the Yorkshire Ouse
catchment area and the souffiem half in the Trent catchment
area, covers part of the South Yorkshire coalfield, and because
of this, is subject to subsidence on account of coal mining
operations. As a result of the investigations of a special Com-
mission which reported upon the district in 1928, and of the
subsequent Doncaster Drainage Act of 1929, a special Drainage
Board was constituted to administer the district. For various
reasons that need not be embarked upon here, flie Doncaster
Drainage Board had to be abolished by an Act of 1933, and
its special powers in relation to the coal mining industry were
transferred to the York^re Ouse and Trent Catdiment
966
Land Drainage— Trent Catchment Area
Boards, who became also responsible for maintaining the
main watercourses of the area.
The particular works under reference serve the major portion
of that part of the Doncaster Drainage District lying within
the Trent Catchment Area. The area, some 120,900 acres, is
indicated in the accompan5nng outline map (supplied through
the courtesy of the Trent Catchment Board), and as will be
seen from the contours, is, for the most part, low lying. Certain
of the lands are as low as 2 ft, O.D. and are therefore 16 -ft.
below the level of the Highest Spring Tides.
Reference should be made to the map in order that the
existing complicated system of drainage may be understood.
It may here be mentioned that the framework of this system
was laid down early in the 17th century by that famous Dutch
Engineer, Vermuyden. It will be seen that two drains, namely
the River Tome and the Hatfield Waist Drain, cross the area
from west to east and discharge into the Trent at Althorpe and
Keadby respectively, near the north-east corner of the area.
These two drains are intended to act as carriers for conve5dng
the water from the higher land, situated at the west of the area,
across the low lands to the Trent, storing the water at high
tide between flood embankments and discharging it during
low tide. There are in addition, two pumping stations known
as the Bull Hassocks (South Engine) Pumping Station and the
Dirtness (North Engine) Pumping Station, each provided with
an outfall drain discharging into the River Trent at Keadby.
The object of these stations is to lift the water from the lower
parts of the area to such a height that it may gravitate via
the outfall drains to the river at low tide.
The main defect of the present system is that during times
of flood the low tide level of the River Trent is seriously
elevated, rendering discharge from the four drains mentioned
difficult, and at times impossible. The storage capacity in the
drains being totally inadequate to deal with such a situation,
flooding of large areas occurs. Indeed, during the flood of 1932,
when the tidal gates did not open for five consecutive periods of
24 hours, very serious flooding occurred. This is not the only
defect of the present system, for, apart from this, the sizes of
the drains are inadequate in relation to the slope available; the
pumps cannot lower the water sufficiently even in normal
weather to give a correct water table; and many parts of the
area that have to rely on gravity only for discharge are heavily
waterlogged tiiroughout the year.
967
Land Drainage -Trbnt Catchment Area
The proposals of the Trent Catchment Board, estimated to
cost ;£250 ,ooo, upon which work has already started, seek to
remedy this lack of efficient drainage and to bring back into
active cultivation large areas of land that have become derelict.
These proposals, which are referred to generally as the
Keadby Pumping Scheme, may be grouped under three
separate sections. First, the erection of a large pumping
station at Keadby to discharge the water from the main drains
into the River Trent at times when the gravity flow is retarded
or held up completely by the elevated low-tide levels. The
piunps, six in number, to be installed at this station will be
capable of discharging 1,092 tons of water a minute or rather
more than two-thirds of the quantity discharged by the largest
land drainage pumps in this country installed a few years ago
at St. Germains by the Middle Level Drainage Commissioners.
Secondly, the enlargement, regrading and embanking of
the four drains previously mentioned; the diversion of
the River Tome from Altliorpe to Keadby; and the
provision of a catchwater drain to intercept the water flowing
off parts of the western slopes of the high land forming the
Isle of Axholme. Thirdly, the construction of three further
pumping stations wiffiin the area at points marked, Goodcop,
Tuimel Pits and Candy Farm; and the reorganization of the
existing pumped areas so as to render them more effective.
These three new pumping stations, together with the existing
stations at Dirtness and Bull Hassocks, will serve to pump the
water from the low-lying areas, a total of some 34,600 acres,
into the renovated main drains leading to Keadby, there to
gravitate or to be pumped into the River Trent according to
the conditions prevailing.
A fourth work, which, although not strictly part of the
Keadby Scheme is closely allied to it, is the provision of a
pumping station at Snow Sewer. This station, which will have a
pumping capacity of 152 tons per minute, v/ill serve an area of
some 8,550 acres, part of which is at present ineffectually
drained by the Bull Hassocks pumping station, and parts of
which depend upon gravity discharge ma an old Warping
drain (Snow Sewer). The water will be pumped up to a
sufficiently high level into the Warping drain so as to be able
to discharge by gravity at low tide into the Trent at Owston
Ferry. The benefits of these four sets of works will be two-
fold in that they will not only provide for protection from
floods but will enable also a si^cienfly low water-table to be
968
Land Drainage- -Trent Catchment Area
obtained at ail times, so directly improving some 43,150 acres of
waterlogged and derelict land, thereby bringing it into cul-
tivation, and indirectly improving a much larger area of higher
land.
Important works are being carried out or are in contempla-
tion in other parts of the Trent Catchment Area, and the
estimated cost of the present programme is £1,000,000, towards
which the Ministry is contributing a 30-per-cent, grant, this
being the first instalment of a Comprehensive Scheme estimated
to cost approximately £2,250,000. It may be possible in
some future article to give an account of the completed works
at Keadby, and of the Trent Catchment Board’s scheme as a
whole.
969
ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF POULTRY
INSTRUCTORS
As already briefly recorded in the Journal for last
November, the Fourteenth Annual Conference of Poultry
Instructors was held at the Middlesex Guildhall on October
20, 1937, under the chairmanship of Mr. P. A. Francis, O.B.E ,
the Ministry's Poultry Commissioner. The following is a
more comprehensive account of the proceedings.
Sir Donald Fergusson, K.C.B., Permanent Secretary to
the Ministry, in opening the proceedings, said that the Con-
ference provided a valuable opportunity for workers in
different parts of the country to share their knowledge and
experience for the common benefit and to keep abreast of
research developments. The responsibilities of the Poultry
Instructors were particularly heavy at the present time in
view of the serious difficulties that confronted the industry.
Disease was the fundamental problem, for once the health
and vitality of stocks had been raised to a satisfactory level,
poultry keepers would be far better able to face the tem-
porary difficulties created by the inevitable variations in the
cost of feeding stuffs. Consideration of a comprehensive
policy to deal with poultry diseases generally had, of course,
to await the report of the Poultry Technical Committee, but
in the meantime details of a scheme under the Agriculture
Act, 1937, were under examination, and it was hoped to
bring it into operation before very long. A valuable
begiiming in the campaign against poultry mortality had
been made possible by Section 24 of that Act, which enabled
facilities to be provided for owners of Accredited Poultry
Breeding Stations to obtain free veterinary services, such as
the inspection, testing and examination of live or dead
poultry. He hoped that a real advance towards the solution
of the enormous problem of poultry and animal disease
would be made in the next few years as a result of the new
veterinary service proposed under the Agriculture Act and
the inauguration of the general campaign against disease.
Poultry Instructors had a vital contribution to make towards
the reduction of the disastrous and increasing mortality of
stocks, for upon them largely depended the dissemination of
the principles of poultry hygiene.
970
Poultry Instructors' Conference
Mr. S, S. Monro, B.Sc. (McGUl), M.Sc. (Wisconsin),
Poultry Geneticist to the Canadian Dominion Experimental
Farm System, read a paper on “ The Value of Pedigree
Breeding for Egg Production.” He said that the history of
pedigree breeding revealed a rapid advance in performance
over a period of lo — 15 years, followed by a levelling off
and relative constancy for the last decade. The reason for
this phenomenon was that during the earlier period environ-
mental conditions had been considerably improved, whereas
in the last 10 years few changes in this direction had been
effected. Records also showed that the superiority of
individual breeders was almost invariably of a temporary
nature, for successes were sporadic and in no instance
repeated over a period of more than four years. The ex-
planation was to be sought in the possession by Ihe breeder
of a single outstanding prepotent male, the dissipation of
whose blood in subsequent generations reduced the produc-
tivity of the flock to the average level. Such prepotent
sires were extremely rare, and the individual breeder with
his limited resources could do little to establish a perman-
ently superior flock by employing selective breeding
methods, since degeneracy usually followed intensive line
breeding. The remedy lay in an organized scheme whereby
hundreds of unrelated males could be kept under surveil-
lance and their prepotency measured by their daughters'
productivity. The outstanding sires might be brought to a
central breeding station and there systematically mated to a
foundation flock of average females. By bringing in new
superior unrelated males from the hundreds under test each
year, and breeding to daughters of superior males of the
previous year at the central station, a flock of superior per-
manent egg-producing potentialities could be built up, from
which eventually the entire country could be restocked. The
scheme could be operated either by the co-operation of
private breeders or by the establishment of a national breed-
ing organization under a central administration large enough
for the progeny testing of 200-500 males each year. It was
only in this way that the fullest and most effective practical
use of pedigree breeding could be made.
Mr. D. H. Dinsdale, M.A., Adviser in Agricultural
Economics, King's College, Newcastle, read a paper entitled
" The Chief Factors Governing the Financial Returns from
Poultry Keeping Enterprises under present Conditions.”
971
Poultry Instructors’ Conference
The causes of the success or failure of individual enterprises
were heterogeneous, he pointed out, and hardly admitted of
effective generalization, but the main factors governing
financial results for the industry as a whole were the follow-
ing : the price of foodstuffs, the incidence of disease, the cost
of labour, and the selling prices of eggs and poultry products.
The food bill was estimated to be about 57 per cent, of the
total costs, so it followed that the rise of 35 per cent, in food
prices that had occurred in 1937 represented an increase of
20 per cent, on total costs — and, since selling prices had not
moved in the same ratio, the conclusion was clear. The
effect of the disastrous and increasing mortality of stocks
was obvious. Among poultry keepers generally, especially
general farmers, there was a failure to appreciate the value
of skilled labour, and a tendency to consider carpentry
qualifications as more important than a knowledge of
poultry husbandry. The interaction of such factors as the
employment of unskilled labour, the incidence of disease,
increased replacement costs and heavier feed bills was, of
course, cumulatively bad, while ignorance or unskilled
management was the over-riding factor. The mixed farm
flock was not usually separately accounted and thus might
continue indefinitely as an uneconomic unit.
Mr. F. Blakemore, M.R.C.V.S., D.V^.M., Advisory
Veterinary Officer at the Institute of Animal Pathology,
Cambridge, read a paper on “ Investigations in connexion
with Fowl Paralysis.” He referred to the tendency to
attribute to this disease all cases characterized by paralytic
symptoms, and said that for this reason it would be less
misleading to use the more scientific term. Neuro-lympho-
matosis, in place of the popular name — ^Fowl Paralysis.
Much research had been carried out with the object of
ascertaining the cause of Neuro-lymphomatosis, but the
lack of an accurate method of diagnosis of the disease
during life had been a great obstacle. The blood picture,
the complement fixation, the preciptin and the formogel
tests had proved unsatisfactory, while clinical methods were
valueless as a practical means of diagnosis. The problem
of the infectivity of the disease had been the subject of much
investigation. Cultures of the organs of affected fowls had
always failed to reveal bacteria, and so transmission of the
disease had been attempted by the inoculation of file
diseased tissue into healthy stock. Inconclusive results,
973
Poultry Instructors’ Conference
however, had been common because of die difficulty of
obtaining control fowls known to be free from the disease.
It had been established that the disease could be set up in
this way in a limited number of cases, but the nature of the
infective agent was unknown. Fowl Paralysis could
develop in fowls free from parasites as well as in those
heavily infested, so that intestinal parasitism could not be
held to be primarily responsible for its causation, cilthough
the possibility remained that parasites might predispose
fowls to the condition. Since Fowl Paralysis frequently
appeared on a farm after the introduction of fresh breeding
stock, and was often confined to one particular strain, there
was reason to suppose that a high susceptibility to the disease
might be inherited. The evidence of experiments supported
the view that the transference of infection through the egg
might be a very important factor in the spread of the disease.
The information obtained indicated the desirability of further
study of the possible transmission of the disease by the male,
and of the development of fowl paralysis in the progeny of
parents that show the symptoms of the condition. The
breeding experiments at Cambridge had shown that there
was a tendency for the disease to disappear as a result of
inbreeding, but much more confirmatory evidence was
necessary before this could be assumed to be a customary
occurrence.
Capt. E. T. Halman, M.A., of the Poultry Nutrition
Section of the Animal Nutrition Research Institute, Cam-
bridge, gave a paper on " Internal Egg Faults in Relation
to Education and Marketing.” He said that the primary
object of Egg Laying Trials was to give the poultry keeper
reliable information as to the la}dng potentialities of his
flocks, but their educational value in this respect was
obviously largely confined to newcomers to the trials. An
attempt had been made to extend the usefulness of the trials
by the institution of Cockerel Breeding Schemes, the objects
of which were to test the breeding potentialities of the high
producers, and to make available to breeders sires of high
quality. It was now suggested that the trials might usefully
be employed to obtain evidence of the nature and distribu-
tion of internal egg faults, for the development of the
National Mark Egg Scheme had shown that the internal
quality of the egg, which was of primary importance to the
consumer, could not be gauged by external appearance,
973
Poultry Instructors’ Conference
since English new-laid eggs were sometimes rejected owing
to the presence of internal faults. This suggestion, which
had already been adopted by some counties, should not
involve any considerable extra expenditure for labour and
record keeping. The satisfactory operation of the scheme
depended upon the observance of the following principles : —
(а) the entire output of eggs must pass through the packing station,
(б) each egg must be identified with the bird's number and date of
laying,
(c) the eggs must be consigned to the packing station in standardized
packages aad at regular intervals, and
((f) care must be taken to ensure good storage conditions at the Laying
Trial Ground while awaiting dispatch.
974
MARKETING NOTES
Milk Marketing Scheme. The wholesale price for liquid
milk (other than tuberculin-tested milk) in November, 1937,
was IS. td. per gal., id. per gal. more than in November,
1936. The wholesale price for tuberculin-tested milk in
November, 1937, was is. 8d. per gal.
Pool prices for November, 1937, are given below, with com-
parative figures for October, 1937, and November, 1936.
Pool Prices
Nov.
Oct.
Nov.
1937-
1937*
1936.
d.
d.
d.
Northern . .
• •
14
Hi
North-Western
• • i5i
14
Hi
Eastern
•• i5i
i4rl
Hi
East Midland
• •
Hi
Hi
West Midland
•• 15
Hi
Hi
North Wales
•• i5i
14
Hi
South Wales
14
Hi
Southern . .
• • i5i
Hi
14
Mid-Western
• • Mi
Hi
Hi
I'ar- Western
.. i4i
Hi
i3i
South-Eastern
• • i5i
Hi
i4i
Unweighted Average
•• 15-30
14-05
13-55
These prices are exclusive of any premiums for special
services and level deliveries, and also of the accredited
producers’ premium of id. per gal. and the tuberculin-tested
producers’ additional premium of id. per gal. The estimated
gallonage on which quality premiums have been earned
was 27,765,671.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at id. per
gal., compared with iji. per gal. in November, 1936. Sales
on wholesale contracts were as follows: —
Nov., 1937
(estimated)
Nov., 1936
Gal.
Gal.
Liquid
50>383.91 o
46*508,102
Manufacturing
12,079,869
i 8 i 13^»585
62.463.779
64,640,687
Percentage liquid sales
80-66
71*9
Percentage manufacturing sales ,
19-34
28*1
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
November was y.$2$d. per gal. compared with 5.78^. per gal.
for November, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured into
cheese on farms was 938,576 gal. compared with 2,077,424 gal.
in the previous month and 702,329 gal. in November, 1936.
975
Marketing Notes
Producer-Retailers' Records. The Milk Marketing Board at
their meeting on November 15, 1937, decided that they will not
regard it as a breach of the conditions of the Producer-Retailer’s
Licence if the “ daily record ” of the production, intake and
sale of milk is completed to the nearest gallon, and, therefore,
the column headed " Pints ” need not be completed.
The ” daily record ” is required for transactions from the
date on which the amendment to the Scheme came into force,
namely, October i, 1937, and is to enable the Board to carry
out the provisions of the Scheme as amended. The Board
have made it known that they have no intention of conducting
an investigation into the returns of producer-retailers made
before October i, by comparing them with the information in
the daily records now being kept.
The Board have also stated that during the period of the
existing Producer-Retailer’s Licence, it is not their intention
to prescribe the form of Rounds Book to be kept under Clause
9 (a) of the licence.
Bacon Marketing Scheme. Bacon Sales Quotas, 1938.
The Bacon Marketing Board have determined curers' sales
quotas for the period of six months, namely, January i to
June 30, 1938. Under this determination, the total quantity
of bacon produced from pigs or carcasses of pigs produced
in Great Britain, which may be sold by registered curers
during the above period, is 1,497,338 cwt. ' The amount of
each curer’s sales quota has been determined on the same basis
as was prescribed for the twelve months ending December 31,
1937 -
Pigs Marketing Sdieme. Annual Board Elections, 1938.
February 26, 1938, has been selected as the date for meetings to
be held for the election of district members of the Pigs Market-
ing Board for the South-Western, South-Eastern, Eastern and
East Midland districts. The General Meeting of registered
pig producers for the election of two special members of the
Board has been fixed for March 31, 1938.
Potato Marketing Scheme. Riddle Regulations. On
December 2, 1937, the Potato Marketing Board made new
riddle regulations to supersede those made on August 26,
1937, and to come into operation forthwith. The new mini-
mum riddle for the varieties King Edward, Red King,
976
Marketing Notes
Golden Wonder and Gladstone is if in., and for all other
varieties i| in.
Supplies and Prices of Early Potatoes in 1937. Home
Supplies. The area under early potatoes (both first and second
earlies) in Great Britain showed a slight reduction in 1937,
and amounted to 105,382 acres, as against 106,291 acres in
1936, and 112,186 acres in 1935 (according to the Potato
Marketing Board’s returns of holdings of one acre or more).
No official estimates of the yield of early potatoes are available
for the past season. Planting was delayed this year, owing
to weather conditions in the spring, which caused the home
crop to be somewhat backward. Home supplies, however,
exceeded expectations in June, and, with a steady demand,
price fluctuations were less pronounced than in former years.
Imported Supplies. Imports of early potatoes from the
Irish Free State and foreign countries were regulated under
the Potato (Import Regulation) Order, 1934, as in previous
seasons. The quota for February-May, 1937, was fixed at
72,000 tons, while for the period June-August imports were
limited to 30,000 tons, of which not more than 25,000 tons
were to be imported in June. Total imports under licence
during the whole season amounted to 59,200 tons, as com-
pared with 104,500 tons in 1936.
Imports from the Channel Islands, which showed a con-
siderable decrease in 1936, again declined this season,
unfavourable weatheu and a smaller acreage accounting for
the fall in shipments.
Imports from the Irish Free State and foreign countries
declined heavily, and total imports for the season were some
26 per cent, less than in 1936.
Imports from all sources from February to August in
1935 > 1936 and 1937 were as follows; —
1935
1936
^937
Tons
Tons
Tons
Irish Free State and Foreign Countries
90,400
104,500
59,200
Channel Islands
84,900
60,200
58,200
Other Empire Countries
1,300
1,700
5,800
Total
176,600
166,400
123,200
The Channel Islands’ share of our total importe was 47 per
cent, this season, compared with 36 per cent, in 1936, but
there was a marked decline in the proportion supplied by Spain
977
Marketing Notes
and the Canaries, which fell from 59 per cent, in 1936 to 32
percent, in the past season. The reduction in Spanish imports
is attributable to lateness of cropping in addition to the obvious
difficulties of shipment.
Prices: Prices of Spanish potatoes were considerably
higher than in 1936; the seasonal average wholesale price per
hundredweight showed an advance of 4s. over that of the
previous season.
Prices of the Jersey crop, which at first were at a higher
level than in 1936, declined later and the average price for
the month of June was lower than that recorded for June,
1936.
Prices of home-grown earlies were at about the same
average level as in 1936.
The following table shows the seasonal average wholesale
prices per hundredweight of first and second quality new
potatoes at large town markets in the past three seasons : —
Variety
1935
I93t»
1937
s. d.
5. d.
5. d.
Jersey (average prices in June)
19 3
21 0
18 9
Spanish . .
20 0
19 0
23 0 (Mataro)
English :
Duke of York
8 2
7 7
7 7
Epicure
6 2
5 9
5
Sharpe’s Express
9 0
6 9
6 10
Hops Marketing Scheme. Valuation of the 1937 crop
was completed by November 26, and trading began on
November 29, more than a month earlier than last year.
During the first 28 days’ trading, hops may be offered and
sold only to merchants nominated by brewers who have
entered into firm contracts with the Hops Marketing Board.
The Board have made a further payment to growers,
which, with the previous advance of £5 per pocket (i^ cwt.),
represents approximately two-thirds of the value of their
quota hops.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-grown Wheat— Cereal
Year, 1937-8. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Com-
mission by registered growers during the period August 1
to December 3, 1937, cover sales of 9,855,567 cwt. of mill-
able wheat as compared with 9,142,96^ cwt. in the corres-
ponding period (to December 4) in the last cereal year.
978
Marketing Notes
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936. Determin-
ation of Acreage for 1938 Crop. The Sugar Conunission
is required by Section 5(1) of the Sugar Industry (Reorgan-
ization) Act, 1936, to determine for each year a maximum
acreage in respect of which contracts may be entered into
by the British Sugar Corporation, Ltd., with the object of
ensuring that the quantity of sugar produced by the Corpor-
ation in each year from home-grown beet is as nearly as
may be equal to 560,000 tons of white sugar. The Commis-
sion has accordingly fixed a maximum of 405,000 acres for
contracts in respect of the 1938 beet crop. This figure has
been sub-divided as follows: — English factories, 390,000
acres; Cupar (Scotland) factory, 15,000 acres.
Production of Home-Grown Beet Sugar during 1937-38
Campaign. According to information furnished by the
British Sugar Corporation, Ltd., the total quantities of beet
sugar manufactured in Great Britain during November,
1937, and the corresponding month in 1936, were: —
White
Raw
Total
cwt .
cwt .
cwt .
1937
1,505,179
1,917,068
3,422,247
i 93 (>
1,712,794
1,698,168
3,410,962
The total quantities
of sugar produced to
the end of
November in each of
the two
manufacturing
campaigns
were : —
•
WhUe
Raw
Total
cwt .
cwt .
cwt .
1937-38
2,350.821
2,918,650
5.269,471
1936-37
3.135.017
2,857,866
5,992,883
National Mark Fruit Products Scheme. The extension
of the National Mark Fruit Products Scheme in 1937 to
Fruit Juices, Fruit Concentrates and Aerated Fruit Beverages,
in addition to the Fruit Juice Syrups Grades introduced last
year, has made it possible to assess more clearly the problems
that will have to be solved before any considerable demand
can be established.
As regards fruit juice syrups, both the domestic and milk
bar outlets have so far proved disappointing. An important
point in this connexion is to discover the price level at which
the demand can be improved, and also how lower price
levels can be achieved without abandoning high standards
979
Marketing Notes
o( quality. On the other hand, the introduction of fruit juice
syrups to the discovery of a demand from other manu-
^cturers (e.g., ice-cream makers) for fruit products of
guaranteed genuineness.
As to aerated fruit beverages, die National Union of
Mineral Water Manufacturers have shown an earnest desire
to develop the trade, but, here again, the major point await-
ing discovery is the price at which the public will become
enthusiastic buyers.
Fruit concentrate products are expected to appeal particu-
larly to manufacturers who require a fruit product, of un-
doubted genuineness, in convenient form.
The continual development of production technique gives
hope that fruit juices, such as apple juice, will eventually
become available at prices that, having regard to their
superior value, will lead to a big demand. Many of these
fruit products possess " sales points ” that await full exploi-
tation. For example, black currant juice is the richest known
natural source of vitamin C, In Holland attempts are being
made to encourage the use of Vitamin C made from temper-
ate fruit products for therapeutic purposes; in the past the
products usually recommended were from oranges or lemons.
It should be wholly unnecessary for those interested in the
therapeutic use of fruit products to rely on imported materials
in the future.
It is believed that the fructose sugars contained in fruit
are very readily assimilated for energy purposes, i.e., they
provide the stimulation given by alcohol without any accom-
pan}ting intoxication.
The establishment of a large trade in English fruit pro-
ducts is not going to be easy, particularly because citrus and
alcoholic beverages have a very long start in public esteem.
It is also becoming more and more difficult to introduce new
products without very large advertising appropriation. Even
wifli these difficulties in mind, however, the merits of the
product justify a faith that will be fruitful to the extent that
development is pushed with energy and good sense.
Livestock Indusi^ Act, 1937. Cattle Fund. The follow-
ing table gives particulars of payments made out of tiw fund
set up under &e Cattle Industty (Emergency Provisions)
Acts, 1934 to 1936, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937; —
Marketing Notes
Period
April to November. 1935 . .
April to November, 1936. .
April to November, 1937*
From commencement of
subsidy payments to
November 30, 1937
Payments
Animals
Average
Payment per
£
2.517.813
1.067,318
Animal
£ s. d.
272
2,600.930
1,117.405
267
2.537.742
1,064,879
2 7 8
12,417.244
5,232,484
276
♦ The payments during this period comprised ;^i,357,952 for 581,742
animals certified under the Emergency Provisions Acts, and
for 186,390 animals of quality standard, and ;^59o,787 for 296,747 animals
of ordinary standard certified under the 1937 Act.
Livestock Advisory Committee. Appointment of Welsh
Sub-Committee. In the December, 1937, issue of this Journal
(pp. 833-835) reference was made to the constitution
under the Livestock Industry Act of a Livestock Advisory
Committee, with Sub-Committees for England and Scotland,
for the purpose of giving advice and assistance to the Live-
stock Commission in the discharge of their functions. It was
stated that the Welsh Sub-Committee would be constituted
shortly.
The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries has now appointed"
the following to be members of the Welsh Sub-Committee : —
R. N. Jones, Esq. (Chairman).
A. Cassin, Esq.
R. Duncalfe, Esq^
Professor J. T. Share Jones, M.D. (V.h.c.), D.V.Sc., M.Sc.,
F.R.C.V.S.
D. Lewis, Esq.
F. A. Lloyd. Esq., F.A.l.
J. T. Richards, Esq.
Alderman W. Thomas, J.P,
T. Williams, Esq.
Under the Livestock Industry Act any matter falling to^ be
considered by the Livestock Advisory Committee that arises
in relation to Wales only will stand referred to the Welsh
Sub-Committee for consideration and the submission of a
report to the main Committee.
Additional Members of Main Committee. The Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries, the Secretary of State for Scotland
and the Secretary of State for the Home Department have
appointed the following to be additional members of the Live-
stock Advisory Committee: —
D. M. Brown, Esq,
Alderman W. Thomas, J.P.
JANUARY ON THE FARM.
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King's College. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Although the farmer’s calendar seldom begins its year in
the present month, yet it is a time to consider prospects. Hopes
and fears may alternate, but generally speaking liie farming
community accepts conditions with a calm optimism. It is
well it is so, as there are elements of speculatign and many
determining circumstances outside the control of the farmer.
The past year closed with some disappointing features. For
the milk producer, dairy stock and feeding stuffs are high in
price. Flockmasters find the mutton trade not too remunera-
tive owing to the high autumn values of sheep, and foot-and-
mouth disease has caused a great deal of concern to the
stocksman generally.
Many farmers have lost the whole of their stock on account
of the slaughter policy adopted by the Ministry. The losses
in terms of £ s. d. appear high, but are in fact very small
compared with the loss that would follow a general spread
of the disease. In countries where the slaughter policy is not
adopted, often because it would not be effective, the reduced
efficiency of the live stock is a very serious item.
On the other hand, autumn cultivations were well advanced
and we begin the New Year 1938 with cultural work well for-
ward on most farms. Winter wheat on the whole appears to
be looking well, and with moderately good weather until
sowing time, a good seedbed for spring-sown crops should be
readily obtained. The difficulty experienced last spring in
this respect is still fresh in the minds of arable farmers, as well
as the adverse effect of bad cultural conditions on the resultant
crop.
Seed Rates, Seedbed, and Varieties. A first essential
to a good crop is to obtain “ a plant,” while a second
important factor is the number of plants, or the " thick-
ness ” of the crop. Cultural conditions play a most important
part as affecting germination and plant establishment, while
ffie need for good seed of high germination, producing vigorous
seedlings, cannot be over emphasized.
982
January on the Farm
With cereals, size of grain and tillering properties must
be taken into account. At Cockle Park, 3 bus. of sandy
oats gave a thicker crop than 6 bus. of yielder oats, owing
to the greater grain and greater tillering powers of the
former. Tillering properties are a great advantage where
there is a risk of damage by wireworm or leather-jackets,
as there is a prospect of the crop filling in even if a considerable
percentage of the young plants has been destroyed. Non-
tillering varieties remain a thin plant with corresponding loss
of crop.
Barley as a winter-sown cereal is increasing in popularity
in many districts. Some excellent malting samples are grown
from winter-sown crops, but as barley frequently follows
roots there is a limit to the area that can be sown in the autumn.
Where spring sowing is practised there is no doubt great advan-
tage in sowing early, to allow a long growing season in order
to obtain mature grain. It should be borne in mind, how-
ever, that of all the cereal crops barley is most insistent on
good cultural conditions. It is better to wait until a good
seedbed can be obtained than risk a less satisfactory one,
simply to get the crop sown. It usually pays to wait until the
conditions are right, as good soil conditions not only affect the
early stages of growth of the plant, but the whole growing
period.
At Cockle Park the effect of cultivation on soil conditions
of temperature and moisture has been compared on two plots
for many years. One plot is kept well cultivated and a sur-
face mulch maintained to a depth of 3 in., while the other is
not tilled but kept clear of weeds. It is found from soil thermo-
meters that the temperature on the cultivated plot is much more
uniform at a depth of 12 in. than on the uncultivated
plot. There is frequently a variation of 4°C. more on the
latter plot between day and night temperature, while during
dry weather the rate of loss of soil moisture is much greater
on the uncultivated plot. Both these factors have an important
effect on plant growth.
By careful observation or weighing, information can be
obtained as to the most suitable seed rate for a particular soil
in any district. At Cockle Park it is found that 3J to 4 bus.
of barley give the biggest crop, while on the more kindly soil
of Tweedside less than 3 bus. will give a full plant.
No implement produces a mulch as fine as that obtained
after land has been exposed to frost. During the
983
January on the Farm
present month, no opportunity should be lost in pushing for-
ward with ploughing so as to get the benefit of any frosty spell
that may occur.
Land Fertility Scheme. Reports from many sources
indicate that merchants are fully booked up for a considerable
time for both basic slag and lime. Farmers have not been
slow to take advantage of the facilities offered to obtain supplies
of these fertilizers on favourable terms. It is most important,
however, to bear in mind that economic returns are most
liktely to be obtained when these fertilizers are applied
to soil where they are needed, and other necessary condi-
tions fulfilled. This is especially so with grass land.
Much experimental work in Ae North of England indicates
that even although chemical analysis may show a lime require-
ment on grass land no economic return is obtained from its
application. Even where a good response is obtained on
pasture land from either lime or phosphates it is necessary to
increase the grazing stock in keeping with the increased out-
put of grass, otherwise much of the increase is wasted.
Much of our grass land is already understocked and the expen-
diture of money on manures even at low cost on this type of
land cannot possibly leave an economic return without the pro-
vision of sufficient grazing stock.
It is encouraging to find that farmers are making good use
of the facilities offered by County Agricultural Staffs and
Advisory Officers for soil analysis. Unless farmers have had
previous experience of the result obtained on their particular
farms from lime and basic slag it is most desirable that they
^onld seek guidance from the County Organizers as to the
interpretation of the chemical analysis, and the type and
quantity of fertilizer to apply. Athough much experimental
work has been carried out and much valuable knowledge
accumulated there is still need for further work in connexion
with the manuring of grass land, especially with regard
to the different types of basic slag for different soil conditions.
All experienced graziers must know that it is not easy to
assess ffie value of a pasture merely from observation. At
Cockle Park farmers have frequently chosen plots as being
the best when accurate returns of live weight increase have
shown that other plots were better. WI^ much can be
judged horn careful observation it is safer to check by measure-
mmt whenever posable.
January on the Farm
Uvestock. January is not characterized by any major
feature in livestock management, except that on many low-
l5^nd farms lambing will commence. This is chiefly amongst
Down breeds, and on farms where suitable feed for the
nursing ewes can be provided.
The major fat stock shows during the past month have again
reminded us of the large number of breeds of cattle, sheep
and pigs, which wc maintain in such a small country, and
the question whether all are really necessary might rightly
be asked. No doubt much may be said in favour of a reduc-
tion in the number of separate breeds, especially of pigs, but
a more important question for the individual is perhaps “ have
I the breed or class of animal best suited to my circumstances ?"
There are perhaps three main considerations that effect the
returns from livestock operations : (i) Conditions as affecting
climate and quality and nature of food available ; (2) the type
of animal used for the conversion of food produced, and its
efficiency; and (3) the market demand and the price obtained
for the product. By manuring, cultivation, etc., the farmer
may, to some extent, alter the character of the first of these,
while the market demand may also be modified somewhat,
but the choice of breed and type of animal is more within
the farmer’s control, and this is of course an important matter
as affecting returns.
As to sheep stocks, the need for keeping animals suited to
the particular conditions is very well recognized. The large
Down and Long Wool Breeds would make poor use of hill
pasture, and as regards much of our poorer sheep grazing,
the most important factor is that the breed or cross should give
the best possible return for the class of food available.
Breeders can alter and have altered the characteristics of the
animals they produce. During the past thirty years the great
object seems to have been to obtain " quality.” Early
maturity, good feeding properties and breed type have been
stressed and in a large measure obtained. Increased variety
and quantity of available concentrated foods have been a
valuable help in obtaining greater live weight gain and early
maturity. It should, however, be borne in mind that there
are lai^e areas of land of relatively low productivity and that
produce food that has not high feeding value; for fliis class
of land the great need is for animals that will make good' use
of "die farm roughages without undue dependence on pur-
chased concentrates. Generally, the poorer the type of food pro-
985
January on the Farm
duced on the farm the more difficult it is to obtain an economic
return from purchased concentrated foods.
At the present time there seems to be a greater tendency for
breeders to look for stock that are best suited to the local condi-
tion. In the North of England, the place of the Scotch Black-
faced Sheep is being challenged by the Swaledale, which is
said to be hardier and to make better growth than the
Scotch type. During the last few years, many Swaledale rams
have been purchased for Scotch Blackfaced flocks, and Swale-
dale ewes have in a number of instances replaced the Scotch
ewe.
With cattle also farmers are obviously attempting to deter-
mine the breed or cross most suitable. In Northumberland
enterprising breeders and feeders are introducing various
breeds and crosses for comparison with their present stocks.
“ Quality ” is a very valuable characteristic, but constitution,
weight for age, and ability to utilize home-grown foods must
not be sacrificed.
986
AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY TOPICS
S. J. Wright, M.A.,
Director, Institute for Research in Agricultural Engineering,
Oxford.
Tractor Power in Ploughing. In a Conference paper read
in January last the writer and one of his colleagues suggested
that tractor users waste considerable sums of money annually
through not loading their tractors efficiently. In expressing
this opinion they had in mind, not the many light jobs in which
it is difficult to load even a small tractor to capacity, but the
heavier operations of autumn cultivation. Their argument
was based on the dynamometer measurements made in the
field on twenty tractors chosen at random, all of which were
engaged in heavy cultivating operations on commercial farms.
In only five instances was the power developed by a tractor
as much as 8o per cent, of its rated drawbar h.p., while on
average the tractors should have been capable of doing
nearly 40 per cent, more work than they actually were doing
in a given time. If there was any weak point in this argument
it lay in the fact that at the time very little evidence was
available in support of the assumption that the standard
rating (i.e., 75 per qpnt. of the maximum drawbar h.p.
developed in an official test) did in fact represent a measure
of what a given tractor should be able to accomplish under
practical conditions. Further evidence on this point, how-
ever, is now available in the recently published reports on the
first series of tests under the R.A.S.E. Tractor Testing
Scheme*, for several of the ten tractors concerned had already
undergone more formal engineering tests at Nebraska, U.S.A.
Comparison between the results recorded at Nebraska and
in the R.A.S.E. ploughing tests respectively shows clearly
that tractors in general should be able to develop at least their
full rated power under ordinary farm conditions — provided
only that their users load them properly. Unfortunately,
however, this conclusion as it stands is not of much direct value
to fanners because they rarely have means at tiieir disposal
for measuring either the power developed by their tractors
or the power required by ffieir implements. Of more
• See p. 1089.
987
Agricultural Machinery Topics
immediate interest, therefore, are the figures given in the
R.A.S.E. reports for the rates of ploughing accomplished
by the various tractors under two different sets of conditions :
heavy land with a mean resistance of 14 lb. per sq. in. of
furrow section over a ploughing depth of 5.5 in.; and light
land with a resistance of 7.5 lb. per sq. in. over a depth of
5 in. Making no allowance for time lost in turning, or in
stoppages other than those necessary for making the measure-
ments, the ten tractors ploughed an average of 0,044
acres per hour of the heavy land, and 0.083 acres per hour
of the light land for each h.p. developed. Some indication
of what these figures mean in ordinary tenqs is given in the
following Table, in which an attempt has been made to set
down, on the basis of the above test results, the rates of
ploughing that different classes of tractors ought to accomplish
on different types of land.
Ploughing
Acres per hour Ploughec
Different Types of Trac
(ploughing depth 5-6 ii
1
by
tor
Type of Land
Resistance :
lb. per sq. in.
Baby "
Row-
crop
Tractors
9~i2h.p.
; Small
j Wheel
1 Tractors
14-17 h.p.
Medium
Track-
laying
Tractors
18-20 h.p.
I^rge
Wheel
Tractors
24-28 h.p.
Very light (3
horses to 2
furrows)
4 to 6
1,12-1.49
I.74-2.II
2.23-2.48
2.98-3-47
Light (2 horse)
7 to 9
0.70-0.93
1.08-1.32
r-40-i;)5
1.86-2.17
Medium (2-3
horse)
10 to 12
0.51-0.68
0.79-0.96
1.02-1.13
1.35-1.58
Heavy(3-4
horse)
13 to 16
0 . 39 - 0 - 5 I
0.60-0.73
0.77-0.86
1.03-1.20
Very heavy
(4-5 horse)
17 to 20
0.30-0. 40
0.47-0-57
j
0.60-0,67
0.80-0.94
The above tentative classification of different types of land
has been based on local knowledge of horse-ploughing practice
on the land used for the R.A.S.E. tests, and on the fact that
measurements of ploughing resistance made from time to time
by the writer and his colleagues indicate extreme limits for
this counhy of rather under 5 lb. per sq. in. on a light sandy
soil on which two-furrow horse ploughs are commonly used
and rather over 20 lb. per sq. in. on a Worcestershire clay
bahed hard by a dry summer.
Agricultuhal Machinbry Topics
By 3-4 horse land is meant land on which three horses woitld
be used for ordinary stubble ploughing but on which four
would be needed for ploughing out a clover ley or for hand*
baked stubbles.
The writer has yet to hear of a farm on which any thing likp.
these hypothetical ploughing rates are achieved in practice,
but so many questions are involved in comparisons between
theory and practice that further discussion of the subject must
be postponed for a future occasion.
Lime and Chalk Grinding. The Land Fertility Scheme,
1937, has caused a renewed interest in lime and chalk grinding,
and information about machines for the purpose is therefore
of value. Practically all the smaller machines, i.e., those
that are suitable for farm or estate use, work on the hanuner-
mill principle, in which the material is beaten through steel
screens by hammers swinging from a fast moving rotor. Such
machines vary in power requirement from -6 to 25 h.p. ; in
output from 5 to 30 cwt. per hour, and in cost from £100 to
;^J300. Comparable figures for different machines are, how-
ever, very difficult to obtain, because both power require-
ment and output will vary enormously with the type of material
to be ground and the fineness of the final product. The three
materials ordinarily available for grinding are limestone, burnt
limestone and chalk, and of these burnt limestone is by far
the easiest to handle. Chalk is not difficult to grind when
it is dry, but, except perhaps in a dry summer, the chalk as
dug is likely to be too wet to pass through ffie machine. It
can be dried on a drying floor or by stacking under cover
for some months. Unbumt limestone is much harder them
either of the other materials, and by no means all the machines
on the market are strong enough to deal with it at all. Unless
direct information to the contrary is given, it should be assumed
that the output figures quoted by the makers refer to burnt
limestone, and that the output with fresh-dug material will be
at most half as much.
Fineness of grinding in a machine of the swinging hammer
type is controlled entirely by the size of screens fitted. The
size generally considered suitable for agricultural purposes
will contain about 10 meshes to the inch; and this should
produce a material of which only from 10 to 15 per cent, is
too coarse to be immediately available.
Relatively litfle lime or chalk grinding ha^ been done on
989
Agricultural Machinery Topics
farms during the last few years, and makers are consequently
rather out of touch with agricultural conditions and require-
ments. Most of them, however, will be prepared to carry out
a grinding test on material supplied to them by prospective
purchasers, and it is suggested that exact information should
always be obtained in this way before a decision is made.
Implements at Smithfield. In spite of the obvious limita-
tions of space the Smithfield Show continues to provide one'
of our most important implement exhibitions, mainly
because it is held at a time when both dealers and farmers
have some leisure to consider their future requirements.
Nowadays each successive show includes a. wider range of
tractor equipments, and a notable feature last month was
the modem tendency to equip tractors with directly-attached
cultivator units, most of which were provided with some
form of power lift. These units cover not only row-crop
equipment proper, but also rigid cultivators and similar
appliances for ordinary arable work. One advantage of
close-coupled implements is that some of the downward soil
reaction is transferred to the drive wheels or tracks of the
power unit and so tends to improve adhesion. Another
advantage is that, particularly when a power lift is fitted,
the outfit is more easily manoeuvred and a considerable
saving in turning time is effected. The same close-coupling
tendency is to be observed with 2-wheeled market-garden
tractors, although it is doubtful whether in such instances
the resulting transfer of weight is always to the benefit of
adhesion. This is because the torque-reaction of the drive
wheels of any vehicle tends to transfer weight from the front
to the rear, and the shorter the wheel base the more weight
is so transferred.
Another line of development in tractor equipment is tlie
provision of haymaking appliances wide enough to deal
satisfactorily with the 6- or 7-ft. swath left by a power
mower. Up to the present, haymaking behind wide cut
mowers has involved makeshift arrangements of ordinary
equipment which, particularly in a difficult season, have not
been very satisfactory. Incidentally, it has not been a very
easy problem for the implement maker to provide this
equipment. All the complicated motions necessary to deal
with the older 4-ft. 6-in. swath were worked out so long ago
that the very fact that they are complicated has probably
990
Agricultural Machinery Topics
been forgotten; and the design of wider equipment has in-
volved much more than a mere increase in width.
Finally, among machinery exhibits of special interest
there may be mentioned the ever-widening range of baling
appliances. Interest in baling is increasing for two reasons :
(i) because grass-drying propaganda has made farmers in
general more conscious of the seriousness of haymaking
losses: and (2) because users of combine harvesters are
becoming less and less inclined to sacrifice their straw. The
research side of hay baling in the field is by no means
complete, and nothing like a foolproof technique applicable
to all conditions has yet been worked out. Yet it is clear
that field baling works in very well with the use of high
speed motor or tractor sweeps, and also that, in some
instances at any rate, it gives rise to a higher-grade product.
As so often happens in modern agriculture, farmers have
got ahead of research, and in increasing numbers are work-
ing out the details of hay baling for themselves. Opinions
differ, sometimes from one locality to another, about the
relative merits of tightly packed “ wired ” bales and the
looser packed bundles tied with twine. This year a third
possibility is likely to arise through the introduction of a
machine that makes a self-tying wire-bound bale that will
probably be intermediate between bales produced by the
other two types.
Up to the present the cost of collecting straw behind a
combine has been rather more than the straw itself is worth,
and most combine users have left it to be ploughed in or
burnt. However, the straw adds considerably to the diffi-
culties of autumn ploughing, and is a worse nuisance than
ever when the corn has been undersown with seeds. A
consequence of this is that only a small rise in the value of
straw is necessary to start a straw-collecting movement in
which “ pick-up ” baling equipment figures prominently.
Machines of both the self-tying and the ram-baler t}q)e are
available: the latter having obvious advantages when the
straw is intended for sale off the farm.
991
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
Mineral Phosphate. Farmers who have been unable to
obtain their full requirements of basic slag must very soon
decide what they are going to do about possible alternative sup-
plies of phosphate for this season. Many of those whose decision
to purchase slag arose primarily from a desire to improve their
grass land under the Land Fertility Scheme may decide to wait
until the requisite supplies of basic slag are obtainable even
if this means waiting another year. After all, the Land Ferti-
lity Scheme is to remain in operation for at least three years,
i.e., until July, 1940, and can be extended for two further
years if necessary. On the other hand, the heavy demand
for slag under this grassland improvement scheme will no
doubt have left many regular users of slag with insufficient
supplies for their normal requirements. Such farmers will
have to choose between the purchase of some other type of
phosphatic fertilizer and the withholding of phosphate from
ffieir 1938 crops. It is to be hoped that most farmers will
look round for some suitable alternative source and that they
will not omit phosphate from their fertilizer mixtures unless
they have very good reason to believe that recent applications
have left a good reserve in their soils.
(a) On Arable. The natural alternative to ba^c slag,
especially on arable land, will usually be superphosphate, but
tile claims of ground mineral phosphate must not be entirely
overlooked, and these call for even closer consideration when
the phosphate is required for grass land.
Nearly a century ago Lawes experimented with mineral
phosphate as a fertilizer but found it much less effective than
superphosphate . The type of phosphate rock available to-day,
however, is much purer and usually more finely ground than
tile material used by Lawes. Experiments during the last
quarter of a century suggest that some crops have considerable
power of utilizing the phosphate in finely-ground mineral
phosphate, though soil and climatic conditions greatly affect
its value as a fertilizer. Lucerne, lupins, peas and cruciferous
crops such as mustard, turnips, swedes, cabbage and rape
992
Notes on Manuring
are said to have considerable power of utilizing mineral phoD*
phate, but clover, potatoes, carrots, tomatoes and cereal crop4
such as wheat, oats, barley and rye can apparently make little
or no direct use of this form of phosphate.
In general it is also found that mineral phosphate is less
effective in the early stages of growth than is superphosphate.
This point is of special importance where the phosphatic ferti-
lizer is required for spring application on arable crops.
There has not been any extensive scheme of experiments
on the use of ground mineral phosphate for arable crops in
this country, presumably because a somewhat quicker-acting
type of phosphate is generally preferred. The West of
Scotland Agricultural College carried out some forty trials on
swedes during the seasons 1926 to 1928, comparing ground
mineral phosphate with superphosphate and other forms of
phosphate. On the average of forty trials ground mineral
phosphate gave a slightly lower yield than did superphosphate.
Each form of phosphate supplied the same total amount of
Pg O5 as 6 cwt. per acre of superphosphate. The actual yields
were as follows : —
Yield of Swedes
Fertilizer per Acre
tons
cwt.
Superphosphate
21
19
High-soluble Slag . .
. . lb
10
Mineral Phosphate (120 mesh)
^5
18
„ „ (100 mesh)
•
^5
n
/
Hence on a crop that is said to have considerable power of
utilizing mineral phosphate this form of phosphate did not
prove quite as satisfactory as superphosphate though it was
almost as good as basic slag. In general it is probably true
to say that in dry districts or in dry seasons, and on soils well
supplied with lime, ground mineral phosphate must be
expected to act more slowly than superphosphate. In a
moist climate and on a soil retentive of moisture but not
well supplied with lime, ground mineral phosphate may
prove satisfactory for those crops mentioned above as being
able to make considerable use of this form of phosphate, but
it seems doubtful whether its use for crops such as potatoes,
sugar-beet or barley can be recommended in preference to
superphosphate under the conditions in which these crops are
usually grown.
Experiments by J. A. McMillan and the writer of these notes
c 993
Notes on Manuring
in the Cambridgeshire Fens did not justify its use in place of
superphosphate for mangolds or sugar-beet on fen peats.
(6) On Grass. Though mineral phosphate is not as uni-
versally effective as high-soluble basic slag, there are condi-
tions in which it will bring about considerable improvement
of grass. Numerous experiments have been made on the
hay crop comparing mineral phosphate with superphosphate
and witii high-soluble and low-soluble types of basic slag.
Results from different centres have not always shown very
close agreement, a fact that points to the influence of local
conditions on the relative effectiveness of these fertilizers.
Nevertheless, recent experiments conducted by Rothamsted
provide definite information as to some of the conditions
under which one may expect a response to mineral phosphate.
Hay Experiments — Average of Four Years*
Actual
Yield
without
Phosphate
Relative Yields (No phosphate = 100)
No
Phosphate
Low-Sol.
Slag
I Mineral
' Phosphate
High-Sol.
Slag
Super-
phosphate
Neutral Soils
(i) Essex . .
cwt. p.a,
19*4
100
109
; 105
132
128
(2) Gloucester
32*4
100
99
;
103
107
Acid Soils
(3) Northum-
berland
C-2
TOO
134
1
1
1 194
I7I
181
(4) Yorkshire
T 5-7
100
121
138
142
142
(5) Derby-
shire
31*3
TOO
109
‘ 1
i 114
IJ 3
120
(6) Shrop-
shire
1 34-3
TOO
102
1
j 105
103
lOI
* Kothamstcd Report for 1936.
The mineral phosphate and low-soluble slag had little effect
on yield of hay on the neutral soils even at the Essex centre,
where the crop was less than i ton per acre and showed a
marked response to other forms of phosphate. On acid soils.
however, the mineral phosphate was much better than low-
soluble slag, and on the average of the four years proved as
effective as high-soluble slag or superphosphate, though in
general superphosphate proved more effective in the first
season. In order to obtain conditions more like those on a
pasture field, two further experiments were included in the
above series. The same phosphate applications were used,
but the herbage was mown several times throughout each
season, i.e., the produce was a succession of young grass croi»
994
Notes on Manuring
instead of a hay crop. The relative effects of the different
forms of phosphate were similar to those where the produce
was cut for hay, and there is reason to believe therefore that
the effect of mineral phosphate on a pasture will be comparable
to its effect on the hay crop. In experiments just concluded
on grass land on heavy clay soil on the Cambridge University
Farm both superphosphate and high-soluble basic slag gave
striking increases in yield whereas ground mineral phosphate
was quite ineffective for 5 years after application. Here again
the soil was not acid, and the result is in agreement with those
obtained on neutral soils in the Rothamsted experiments.
The general position regarding the use of mineral phosphate
seems to be that it is most likely to prove effective on certain
types of acid soils, especially those of a heavy nature with a
plentiful supply of moisture. It does not seem to do very
well on fen peats and is rarely suitable for chalky soils or for
light soils in districts of low rainfall, where it is usually less
effective than either superphosphate or high-soluble basic slag.
Even where it is as effective as superphosphate in the long run,
it is rarely as quick acting, and so is less suitable where an
immediate effect is desired, e.g., the encouragement of seedling
growth.
Mineral phosphate, however, is a much cheaper source of
phosphate than superphosphate or even basic slag and hence
its use under suitable conditions of soil, crop and moisture
supply is worth consideration. There are many districts in
which conditions are .not entirely favourable to its action
either on grass or arable land, and before purchasing, therefore,
inquiries should be made, e.g., from the County Agricultural
Organizer, as to its suitability for the conditions in which it
is proposed to use it.
Though reference has been made to its greater effectiveness
on acid soils, there is of course a limit even on grass land to
the degree of acidity at which it can be satisfactorily used.
Observations at Cockle Park, Northumberland, suggest that
where lime is applied in conjunction with mineral phosphate,
the lime may retard the action of the phosphate. In such
instances it may be best to allow some time to elapse between
the application of these two materials, or, alternatively, use
some other form of phosphate. On very acid fields liming
will almost always be necessary, since no form of phosphate
can fulfil the function of lime either in the soil or in plant
nutrition.
Notes on Manuring
It must always be remembered' that, for whatever crop
the mineral phosphate is to be used, fineness of grinding is
important. It is now often possible to get mineral phosphate
ground more finely than the old standard of 8o per cent,
passing through a loo-mesh sieve, at little extra cost, and
there is reason to believe that this finer grinding may increase
the effectiveness of the fertilizer.
Soil Organic Matter and Quicklime. In the Jour. Roy.
Agric. Soc. for 1936, Sir John Russell drew attention to the
unfortunate persistence of the old idea that quicklime or burnt
lime destroys the organic matter in the soil. Judging by
recent inquiries from many quarters this idea is veiy wide-
spread and is still freely quoted. This is particularly
unfortunate at the present time. When a national effort is
being made to remedy the lime deficiency of our soils the
greatest care should be taken, (i) to see that the assistance
offered is not misused by the application of lime to land which
will not benefit by it, and (2) to consider the merits of the
various forms of lime only in the light of established fact.
The evidence usually quoted in support of the idea that
burnt lime destroys soil organic matter whilst carbonate of
lime does not was based on old-established Pennsylvanian
experiments, as interpreted by Frear in 1899, and Hopkins in
1910. The evidence from these trials was re-examined, how-
ever, by other investigators who, in a report published in 1924,
showed quite clearly that the interpretation of the evidence
was wrong, largely owing to the accidental presence of char-
coal on some of the plots. Not only was there no real evidence
of any harmful effect from burnt lime, but both burnt lime
and ground limestone were shown to have helped to conserve
the organic matter content of the soil.
In 1921 there was more nitrogen and organic matter on
the lime and limestone plots than on adjoining unlimed plots,
despite the fact that in the 40 years 1881 to 1921, the lime
plots received 40,000 lb. of burnt lime and the limestone plots
80,000 lb. of ground limestone per acre.
Sir John Russell states that “ further evidence that burnt
lime has no harmful effect on the nitrogen or organic matter
content of the soil is afforded by the Woburn experiments.
Unfortunately it is always diflScult for a correction to catch up
with a wrong statement. ’ ' In this case 13 years has apparently
not been long enough for the correction to catch up !
996
PRICES OF ARTIFICUL MANURES
Averag
e prices per ton (
2,240 lb.)
d
luring week ended Dec. 8
Cost
Bristol
Hull
L'pool
London
per
Unit?I
£
5.
i
5.
£
5 .
/
5.
5.
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N 15 i%) . . \ 1
8
oc
8
oc
8
OC
S
oc
10
4
,, ,, Granulated (N.i6%) I 1
8
oc
8
oc
8
OC
8
oc
10
0
Nitrate of Lime (N.13%) . , 1 1
7
7 e
7
V
7
7 e
7
70
1 r
4
Nitro-Chalk (N.r5i%) .. .,
Sulphate of Ammonia : — |
' *
7
10c
7
IOC
7
IOC
7
10c
9
9
Neutral (N.20* 6%) .. ..
1
7
gc
7
7
gc
7
gc
; 7
3
1 Calcium Cyanamidc (N.20‘6%) '
7
lid
7
lid \
7
lid
! 7
lid
1 ^
4
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . . \
2
18 1
2
^5 :
! 2
15
1
2
15
3
11
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5
4 '
5
I
! 5
0
5
I
1 3
5
,, ,, (Pot. 20%)
I 3
15
3
12
3
12
3
T 2
I 3
7
Muriate of Pota.sh (Pot 50%)
10 i
8
8
8
5
8
8
I 3
4
Sulphate ,, (IMt. 48%) . .
!io
2 j
10
0
9
17
10
0
4
2
Basic Slag (P.A. i5:f%)
1 2
lib
1 2
2
106
3
2
„ „ (VA. 14%)
§
i 2
86
i ^
06
2
06
2
06
3
3
i Grd. Rock Pliosphate (P.A. 26 —
1
I
S 7 i%)
3
7«
j 3
2rt
2
1 8a
2
12a
2
0
Superphosphate (S.P. \. 16%)
3
4
—
3
2/
3
og
3
9
(S.P.A. 133%)
3
1
! 2
^7
2
^ 9 /
2
16^
4
I
Bone Meal (N. 3i%, P.A. 2oi%)
Steamed Bone Mour (N. i%,
•—
1 ^
/
5
1 7
1
5^
7
2
—
P.A. 27.J-29i%) ..
5
5 *
! 5
10
u
oh
Li
15
-
Abbreviations : N. = Nitrogen ; P.A. = Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A. ~ Soluble Phosphoric Acid ; Pot. = Potash.
* Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser's nearest railway station
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
§ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r? Fineness 85% through .standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots. Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, I os. extra.
d Delivered in 5-ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of 1 ton and under
2 tons, 105. per ton extra and for lots of 4 cwt. and under 1 ton, 20s. extra.
e For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is 15. per ton extra, for lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons, 55, per ton extra, for lots of 1 ton and under 2 tons,
75. 6d. per ton extra, and for lots of under i ton, 205. extra.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes,
g Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails , southern rails, is. ^d. extra.
h Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge.
i Price shown is f.o.r. Newjjort, Mon.
These are calculated by regarding a ton as comprising 100 units ” (equal parts
of 22*4 lb.) so that a fertilizer, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such “ units ** in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is that of a ” unit ** of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146, The Valuation of Artificial Manures,*' obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
997
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A. Ph.D.,
Principal, Harper Adams Agricultural College.
Protein Requirement of the Pig. In previous Notes (July,
1936, November, 1936), we discussed the influence of the
protein supply in the food upon the growth-rate of the animal
and upon the proportion of lean to fat in its carcass. With
specific reference to the optimum protein supply for the pig
we arrived at the conclusion that this was attained with the
weaner if the ration contained 17-20 per cent, ofprotein, with
a steadily decreasing proportion as the pig grows, reaching
about 12 per cent, at 200 lb. liveweight. In support of these
conclusions the caiteful feeding experiments carried out at
Cambridge by Woodman and his colleagues were quoted.
These have now been amplified to provide the one further item
of evidence required to complete the proof, namely, that no
additional storage of protein, beyond that discernible or
measurable in terms of lean and fat, does actually take place
in the pig’s body when amounts of protein in excess of those
indicated above are fed.
In the current issue of the Journal of Agricultural Science
(Vol XXVII, p. 569) Woodman and his colleagues summarize
fee results of “ balance experiments ".wife pigs of both sexes
in which fee intake and outgo of proteins and minerals on
two different rations of widely-varying protein content have
been determined at different stages of fee pigs’ development
from weaning to slaughter. The protein content of the rations
varied in fee first stage (up to 90 lb. liveweight) from about
18 to 22 per cent. , and in fee last stage (over 150 lb. liveweight)
from about 14-18 per cent. Despite these considerable differ-
ences in fee protein supply there was practically no difference
in fee amounts of protein retained in fee bodies of fee pigs
on fee two levels of protein supply. Incidentally it may be
noted feat there was also no significant difference in fee rates
of liveweight increase, such little difference as was actually
recorded being in favour of fee lower protein supply.
Expressing protein in terms of nitrogen (protein -rbi), the
daily weight of nitrogen consumed in fee different periods of fee
experiments, during which fee average liveweights of fee pigs
998
Notes on Feeding
rose from 48 lb. to 189 lb., ranged from 28.09 gms. to
101.70 gms., whilst the amounts of nitrogen retained
in the body ranged only from 9.63 gms. to 16.61 gms.
During a period of 60 days in which the results were strictiy
comparable the normal-protein pigs retained 841 gms. of nitro-
gen and the high-protein pigs 845 gms., although the latter had
consumed 874 gms. of nitrogen (i.e., 5,463 gms. or I2i lb.,
protein) more than the former. That this excess was largely
broken up and its nitrogen excreted through the urine is
indicated by the fact that the urine of the high-protein pigs
contained 769 gms. more nitrogen than that from the normal-
protein pigs.
Other items of interest from this report are (i) that young
pigs digested their food as efficiently as at later stages of
growth, {2) the extra protein in the high-protein rations had
little or no effect upon digestibility, (3) the gilts showed a
consistently higher rate of nitrogen (protein) storage than their
brother hogs, even when the gilt received less protein than the
hog with which it was compared (this confirms and explains
the previous observations from practical feeding tri^s at
Cambridge and elsewhere that gilts tend to give rather leaner
carcasses than hogs); (4) the daily retention of nitrogen
(protein) by the bacon pig remains very much the same
throughout the whole period of growth from weaning to 200 lb.
liveweight (and, therefore, the protein percentage in the food
can be steadily reduced as the weight of food consumed in-
creases) ; (5) the actual weights of protein, lime, and phosphoric
acid required by the pig do not fall off appreciably during
growth, and some supplement of lime is probably desirable even
in the last stages of the feeding period.
Water Consumption by Suckling Sows. In the same issue
of the Journal of Agricultural Science (p. 638), Gamer and
Sanders give an account of measurements made at Cambridge
of the amounts of water consumed from drinking troughs by
thirty-seven suckling sows of Large White breed tethered on
grass pasture. The subject is one of obvious importance, on
which, however, only scanty and conflicting data are available.
The average of all the sows tested at Cambridge was about
43 lb. per day, but, as was to be expected, the variation
between sows, and of particular sows from day to day, was
very wide. The consumption was practically unaffected by
999
Notes on Feeding
weather, and was nearly the same in summer and winter. No
relation could be traced between water consumption and
number or weight of litter, but there seemed to be a tendency
towards a slight decrease in water consumption after about
the fourth week of lactation.
It must be remembered that in addition to the 43 lb. of
water drunk the sows would also derive a certain amount of
water from the grass consumed, and this might be roughly
estimated at another 10 lb. daily for the summer, and 5 lb.
for the winter period. A still further addition must be made
for the water in the " dry ” food, and that produced from the
oxidation of fat in the sow’s body during the suckling period.
Making allowance for these minor supplies of water. Garner
and Sanders arrive at a figure of 55 lb. as their estimate of the
total daily water supply from all sources for the average sow.
This would seem to fit in fairly well with the experience that
animals of all kinds when free to take water ad lib. generally
consume roughly 3-3J lb. of water per i lb. of dry matter.
An adult suckling sow fed entirely on meal foods will eat any-
thing from 14 lb. upwards of meal, with an average of about
16 lb. At 16 lb. the expected water consumption on the above
basis would thus be about 45-50 lb. or a trifle less if allowance
be made for the water in the meal.
Protein Minimum for Laying Hens. In vi^w of the trend
of British experimental work in recent years to indicate that
past estimates of the protein requirement of the laying hen
have been rather exaggerated it is interesting to note that con-
firmatory evidence has been supplied by recently-published
German experiments.
In the current number of Archiv fuer Gefluegelkimde (Vol.
II, p.329) Fangauf and Haensel give an account of an experi-
ment carried out at the Steenbek Poultry Experimental Station
with four groups of Brown Leghorns on rations providing
four different levels of protein supply. A fixed grain allowance
of 25 grm. oats and 25 grm. wheat per head daily was given
to each group, and 20 grm. per head of potatoes. Along with
this a basal mash was supplied consisting of equal parts (by
weight) of wheat bran, rye meal, dried sugar-beet ^ces, and
rice meal. To this mash was added fish meal at the rate of
12 grm. per head daily for Group I, 10 grm. for Group 2, 8
grm. for Group 3, and 6 grm. for Group 4. On the basis
of the average amount of mash eaten daily these amounts
lOOD
Notes on Feeding
of fish meal represented 30 per cent., 25.2 per cent., 19.5 per
cent, and 13.8 per cent, respectively of the mash. In com-
paring these proportions with those commonly used in British
practice it must be noted that the basal mash to which die
fish meal was added was much lower in protein than ours. The
total daily supplies of digestible protein (taking basal mash
at 40 grm. per day) worked out as follows : —
In Grain,
Potatoes and
Basal Mash
In Fish
Meal
Total
grm.
grm.
gfm.
Group I
.. 7*6
6*0
13-6
,, 2 . .
.. 7*6
5-0
12*6
3 • •
.. 7-6
4-0
H'6
.. 4 • •
.. 7-6
3*0
10*6
The birds were kept semi-intensively, with access to very
good grass runs, but as the experiment ran from November
to May the amount of food picked up outside was probably
very small. On many days in the first five months the birds
were entirely confined to the house by inclement weather.
The mash (dry) was always available in automatic feeders,
and part of it given each morning made into wet mash with
the 20 grm. of potatoes. The average mash consumption
for the period of the experiment was practically the same for
each group, ranging only from 39.6 grm. (Group 2) to 43.5
grm. (Group 4).
The average results in egg production for the period of 209
days from November f , 1935, to May 31, 1936, are summarized
below ; —
Group I Group z
Ko. of eggs per bird .. 91-8 99*4
Average weight of egg, gmi. 58-4 58-7
Total weight of eggs, grm. . . 5,361 5,833
Group 3 Group 4
909 90‘i
57-9 58-1
5.220 5,279
It will be noted that, apart from Group 2, which for some
reason can hardly have been quite comparable with the others,
the results throughout the Groups are strikingly uniform.
There was also practically no difference in the changes of
average liveweight, which rose from start to finish by about
200-220 grm. in each Group. No mention is made in the
report of any deaths in the Groups.
Hatching results from several hundred eggs from each Group
gave average hatchabilities of 55.4, 67.5, 71.9 and 57.9 per
cent, of fertile eggs in the four groups. The low value
1001
Notes on Feeding
recorded for Group i, as compared with Groups 2 and 3, is
in accord with many previous observations of low hatchabUity
where relatively high proportions of fish meal have been fed,
but some other explanation must clearly be found for die
similarly low value for the eggs from the fourth Group.
The results obtained in this experiment are in good agree-
ment with those obtained by Macdonald at the National
Institute of Poultry Husbandry in more precise measurements,
to which reference has been previously made in these Notes
(October, 1937, p. 689). In the latter an average daily supply
of about 13 grm. of digestible protein — all of vegetable origin
and therefore of comparatively low biological value — proved
adequate to cover the needs of the birds for maintenance
and relatively high production. With the mixture of vegetable
and animal proteins used in the German experiments it is not
surprising that an even lower level of protein supply should
have proved adequate.
1002
PRIGBS OF FEEDING STUFFS
Manu-
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
equiv.
per
100 lb.
per
per
Pro.
Description
per
value
value
unit
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
starch
starch
equiv.
ton
ton
equiv
equiv.
i
5.
£
s.
5 .
d.
%
Wheat, British
8 18
0
9
8
9
72
2
4
1*25
9-6
Barley, British Feeding
9 0§
0
8
8
12
71
2
5
1*29
6-2
„ Canadian No. 3
Western
8 8
0
8
8
0
71
2
3
I' 2 I
6*2
„ Argentine
8 I2§
0
8
8
4
7 ^
2
4
1-25
6*2
, , Persian
8 3 §
0
8
7
15
71
2
2
i-i6
6'2
,, Russian
8 lot
0
8
8
2
71
2
3
1*21
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
9 0
0
9
8
II
60
2
10
1-52
7'6
,, „ black and
grey
8 13
0
9
8
4
60
2
9
1-47
7-6
,, Scotch, white . .
„ Canadian —
9 13
0
9
9
4
60
3
I
1-65
7-6
,, No. 2 Western
10 3*
0
9
9
14
60
3
3
T -74
7*6
,, No. 3 Western
9 I 2 t
0
9
9
3
60
3
I
1*65
7*6
,, Mixed feed
8 12
0
9
8
3
60
2
9
1*47
7-6
,, Argentine
6 17*
0
9
6
8
60
2
2
I *16
7-6
Maize, Argentine
7 ^
0
7
6
15
78
I
9
0 94
7*6
,, Danubian
,, South African —
6 i8t
0
7
6
II
78
I
8
0 89
7*6
No. 2 White
6 i8t
0
7
6
11
78
I
8
0*89
7-6
No. 4 Yellow
0 i8t
0
7
6
II
78
I
8
0*89
7-6
Beans, English, Winter
7 I 5 §
0
18
6
17
66
2
I
I-I2
19-7
Peas, Japanese
2 1 of
0
15
20
5
6q
5
10
3*12
i8-i
,, English, blue
II 0§
0
^5
10
5
69
3
0
i*6i
i8* I
Milling Offals —
Bran, British
8 2
0
17
7
5
43
3
4
I '79
9'9
„ Broad
8 7
0
^7
7
10
43
3
6
1*87
10*0
Middlings, fine, I
imported
S to
0
13
7
17
69
2
3
1*21
12*1
WeatingsJ . .
8 10
0
15
7
15
5 t>
2
9
T -47
10*7
„ Superfine^
8 17
0
13
8
4
69
2
5
1*29
12- I
Pollards, imported
8 0
0
15
7
5
50
2
II
1-56
11*0
Meal, barley . .
9 10
0
8
9
*>
71
2
7
1-38
6*2
,, „ grade 11
« 15
0
8
8
7
71
■>
4
1-25
6-2
„ maize
0
7
7
5
7 «
I
10
0*98
7*6
„ ,, South African
7 5
0
7
6
18
78
I
9
0-94
7-6
„ „ germ
7 10
0
11
6
19
84
I
8
0-89
10*3
„ locust bean
7 15
0
6
7
9
7 i
2
I
1*12
3*6
„ bean
9 7
0
18
8
9
66
2
7
1*38
19*7
„ fish (white)
,, soya bean
15 0
2
5
12
15
59
4
4
2*32
53*0
38*3
(extracted) {
9 12
I
II
8
I
64
2
6
1*34
Maize, cooked, flaked
Linseed cake —
8 0
0
7
7
13
84
1
10
0-98
9-2
English, 12% oil . .
10 12
I
I
9
II
74
2
7
1-38
24*6
.. 9% „ ••
10 0
I
1
8
19
74
2
5
I ‘29
24*6
^ 8% „ ..
Cottonseed cake —
9 15
I
I
8
14
74
2
4
I '25
24*6
English, Egyptian
seed, 44% oil
5 10
0
19
4
11
42
2
2
I -16
17*3
1003
PRICED OF FEEDING STUFFS {continuid)
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
i
i
L
5 . d.
(L
0 /
.0
Cottonseed cake,
Egyptian 4^% oil . .
5 2
0 19
4 3
42
1 0
I *07
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
decorticated, 7% oil
8 5 t
I 9
6 16
68
2 0
1-07
34*7
Cottonseed meal,
decorticated, 7% oil
8 5 t
I 9
6 16
70
I II
1*03
36-8
Coconut cake, 5% oil
7 “t
0 18
6 14
77
I 9
0*94
16-4
Ground nut cake, 6-7%
oil
Ground nut cake.
7 5 *
0 19
6 6
57
2 3
1 1*21
27*3
decorticated 6-7% oil
9 2*
1 9
7 13
73
2 1
1 12
41*3
imported decorticated.
I
6-7% oil
7 L 5
1 9
6 6
73
1 9
0 •
41*3
Palm Kernel meal
1-2% oil
6 17
0 13
6 4
71
I 9
0-04
i6*5
Feeding treacle
Brewers’ grains, dried ale
Brewers* grains, dried
5 0
0 8
4 12
51
I 10
0 • 98
2*7
6 7
0 II
5 16
48
2 5
1*29
12*5
porter
6 0
0 II
5 9
48
2 3
1-21 1
12*5
Dried sugar-beet pulp
From 2s.
6<f. to 125 . 6r/. per ton,
(according to factory).
ex-factory
♦ At Bristol. § At Hull. t At Liverpool.
J In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken plaqe in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were
current at the beginning of December, 1937, and are, as a rule, considerably
lower than the prices at local country markets, the difference being due to
carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market by
the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake
is offered locally at £11 per ton, then since its manurial value is ;^i 15 . per
ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is igs. Dividing this
figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given in the table,
the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8d, Dividing this again
by 22 *4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one unit, the
cost per lb. of starch equivalent is i ’43^. Similar calculations will
show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding stuffs
on the same local market. From the results of such calculations a buyer
can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at the prices
quot^ on his own markets. The figures given in the table under the
heading manurial value per ton are calculated on the basis of the
following unit prices N., 7$, sd, ; P* 0 ^, 2s, ^d , ; Kp, 3s.
1004
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Barley (imported)
.. 71
6-2
8 8
Maize
. . 78
7*6
7 2
Decorticated ground-nut cake
. • 73
41-3
8 8
„ cotton-seed cake
. . 68
34-7
8 5
, (Add I os. per ton.
in each instance.
for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2-16 shillings, and
I>er unit protein equivalent o • 64 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,"
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Wheat
72
9-6
8 2
Oats
60
7-6
6 14
Barley
71
6-2
7 17
Potatoes . . . . • . .
18
0*8
I 19
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds . . . . . .
i 7 ’
0*4
0 15
Beans . . . . . . . .
66
19-7
7 15
Good meadow hay . . . .
37 !
4*6
4 3
Good oat straw . . . . i
20
0-9
2 4
Good clover hay . . . .
38
7-0
4 7
Vetch and oat silage . . ,
. 13
1 *6
I 9
Barley straw . . . .
23
0*7
2 10
Wheat straw . . . .
13
o- 1
I 8
Bean straw . .
23
1*7
2 II
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price 6 d,, post free jd.
1005
COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURE FOR ENGLAND
The 49th Meeting of the Council was held at the Middlesex
Guildhall, Westminster, on Thursday, December 9, 1937,
Mr. Robert Bruford, J.P. (Somerset), in the chair. The
Minister of Agriculture, the Right Hon. W. S. Morrison,
M.C., K.C., M.P., the Parliamentary Secretary, the Earl of
Feversham, and the Permanent Secretary, Sir Donald
Fergusson, K.C.B., attended on behalf of the Ministry.
PubKcity. Mr. T. C. Ward (Salop) asked, on a point of
order, whether it was the correct procedure for the Standing
Committee’s Reports to be sent to the London and Provincial
Press for publicity before the meeting. The Chairman pro-
mised that the Standing Committee would consider the point.
Parliamentary Secretary’s Address. Lord Feversham said
that he came to the Council Meeting for the first time with
some difl&dence as an understudy. The Minister was engaged in
piloting the Sea Fish Industry Bill through its committee
stages and had asked him to take over until he could come
to the Meeting. Speaking as a farmer himself, he did not
need to be reminded of the value of the experience and wis-
dom of older hands in the industry, and he would attend very
closely to the discussions on the various items on the Agenda
which showed a scope comprehensive of the whole field of
agriculture. The true significance of the Council was
apparent when one considered that thefe were approximately
374.000 agricultural holdings in England and Wales, with
630.000 agricultural labourers and an annual output of
agricultural produce of £208,000,000. The agricultural
politician to-day had to exercise to the full the British genius
for compromise. On the one hand, he had to deal with the
farmers’ natural desire for the largest share in the home
market at the most remunerative prices, and, on the other,
to consider urban consumers, who were far more numerous,
and who were primarily interested in obtaining the largest
possible supply of food at the lowest prices. Agricultural
policy’s main concern for the last few years had been the
question of prices; in particular, the need to maintain steady
prices rather than to allow violent fluctuations which pleased
nobody. To meet that need, individual commodities had to
be taken separately and one or other of the methods of
1006
Council of Agriculture
tariffs, levies, quotas, and marketing schemes, or a com-
bination of them, used as appeared to be best. He believed
that by the use of those methods a large number of farmers
had been rescued from the depression, and he hoped that,
in the main, the emergency had passed. He did not suggest
that no more remained to be done, but the point had been
reached at which more permanent foundations could be laid.
Some steps in that direction had been taken during the last
Session of Parliament in regard to Sugar-beet, the Livestock
Industry, and the Agriculture Act. The last-named Act
reached to the land itself and would assist in improving the
fertility of the soil. Drainage and the lime and slag scheme
under that Act were subjects coming up on the Agenda
through Reports of the Standing Committee. There were
other items of considerable importance, and he would have
very great pleasure in taking part where he could in the
discussions.
Sir Arthur Hazlerigg expressed the pleasure of the Council
in seeing Lord Feversham present, and moved a hearty vote
of thanks to him for his interesting address, which was carried.
Lime and Basic Slag Subsidy Scheme. Mr. Clement
Smith (East Suffolk) moved the adoption of the Standing
Committee’s Report {see Appendix !.). It was adopted
without discussion.
Clearing of Watercourses. Mr. R. L. Walker (Yorks,
W.R.) moved the adoption of the Standing Committee’s
Report {see Appendix III.). Mr. A. Matthews (Hereford)
suggested that the period for approved schemes for grant
under the Agriculture Act should be extended to the whole
year and not limited as at present to the period October 15
to April 30. This was supported by Mr. T. P. Gilbert
(Kesteven) and Professor A. W. Ashby, while Mr. A. Pearce
said that it was both inhuman and false economy to confine
the work to the winter months. He was sorry that the
ditches were not left and the activity taken into the middle
of the field. There was land to-day derelict because it
wanted pipe draining; it could be done on land he knew at
£17 an acre ; a substantial grant towards that purpose would
do much good. The cost made it prohibitive to many land-
lords and tenants at the present time. He suggested that the
1007
Council of Agriculture
Report should be referred back to the Committee for re-
consideration from that aspect.
Mr. George Dallas said there appeared to be misapprehen-
sion about the Report. It was mainly a summary of the
existing law; not one of the proposals of the Standing Com-
mittee. There was a good deal to be said in favour of the
work being done in the summer, but he had himself made
representations to the Department on that point and had
discussed it with those responsible. The strongest reason in
favour of the present limited period was that agricultmral
labour was becoming increasingly scarce and to do large
schemes of drainage in the summer would mean their execu-
tion at the very time when the farmer required the maximum
amount of labour for farm work. He himself, however,
thought there should be some elasticity in the time allowed.
Mr. John Beard said that, so far as the proposals were to
give work to men who would otherwise be workless, it
became, when given in the winter, a greater punishment.
The job, he thought, should be done without any reference
to the condition of employment in the country, and at the
time of year when those who had to undertake it could best
do it: that might be different in different localities.
Mr. R. L. Walker said he quite appreciated the points
raised, but he would like the Report taken entirely apart
from any question such as would be raised by an unemploy-
ment scheme. Any experienced man kne<v that there were
times in winter when useful drainage work should be done.
In the River Ouse Catchment Area, the Board of which he
was Chairman, there were hundreds of men working all day
on rivers and banks in winter, and his idea was that the
Ministry would take a reasonable view where it was found
impossible to finish a scheme in the given period. The
Council would realize that there were many thousands of
acres where pipe drainage was of no use at all. As a matter
of fact, there were many fields where pipe drains that had
ceased their functions would work again as soon as the open
drains were cleared. It would thus often be found that it
was not necessary to spend large sums on field drainage until
the larger problem had been tackled and the drains cleared.
Mr. F. J. Jenkinson (Kesteven) said that in his county a
great deal of drainage work for agricultural land was still
required. They had been trying to formulate schemes and
get them carried out on the 33^ per cent, basj^j^ but his
1008
Council of Agriculture
Council found it impossible to count on getting the money
for their share of the cost. They were afraid that the cost
would fall on the County Council. He thought it would be
a great help if all grants were 50 per cent. He would be
interested to know whether many schemes had been formu-
lated and carried into effect on the 33^ per cent, basis. Sir
Donald Fergusson, for the Ministry, said he could con-
firm what Mr. Dallas and Mr. Walker had indicated as to
the reason for the grants; they were made in connexion with the
improvement of the fertility and productivity of the soil,
and not for the relief of unemployment. The Ministry had
to consider the effect of such proposals on the ordinary
employment on farms, and had framed the scheme of
subsidies with conditions that caused as little interference as
possible with ordinary farm operations. As regards the
number of schemes, up to the end of November, 133 applica-
tions had been received, involving a total estimated cost of
£184,000. He could not at the moment divide these figures
into 50 per cent, grant applications and 33^ per cent. The Act
allowed the grants to be given for three years, with a possibi-
lity of extension to five years. As regards field drainage, the
Council would remember that the Minister, at the last Council
Meeting, had expressed the view that the next logical step in
giving assistance to drainage works would be arterial drain-
age, and that he had expressed the hope that the time would
come when that matter could be further considered.
In reply to a question by a member as to whether it was
a fact that not a smgle agricultural labourer would be
employed at any time of the year in putting in new
machinery, Mr. Walker said that many men were taken from
the land for this purpose, to put in foundations and so forth.
He was sure that the present scheme was on the right track,
and he would only repeat that he knew the Ministry would
be reasonable in the interpretation of the period.
The Report was put to the Meeting and adopted.
Rural Housing. Mr. Dallas moved the adoption of the
Standing Committee’s Report on Rural Housing {see Appen-
dix IV.).
Mr. W. B. Pinching (Middx.) expressed the view Aat rural
housing could not properly be dealt with by the Ministry of
Health. Over and over again. Parliament had passed Acts
and there had been subsidies and propositions for improving
1009
Council of Agriculture
rural housing, and these had failed. People had been, and
were being, driven off the land because of the shortage of
houses. Mr. Charles Roberts (Cumb.) said he would
emphasize one feature of the Report. He spoke as Chairman
of a R.D.C. which were looking with great interest and with
gratitude to the Bill that the Minister of Health proposed.
They hoped it would give them houses to let to farm workers
at not more than 4s. a week (including rates). They were
clearing away small slum houses in rural districts just as
much as in the towns, and they were dealing with over-
crowding. They could not build a three-bedroomed house
for less than £400, and taking in all the subsidies — the
£2 los., the ;^8 maximum, the £1 per house from the County
Council and the £3 15s. as a maximum from ‘the general
district rate — and with a reasonable allowance for repairs
and rates at 10s. or iis., it was not possible for them to be
built to replace slum clearance or overcrowding at less than
7s. or ys. 6 d. a week. One did not get any thanks for turning
a man from an inferior slum house at a rent of 2s. 6 d. or 35.
a week and offering him one at ys. 6 d. If R.D.C. ’s rebuilt
houses to replace slum houses or overcrowding, the cost
would be ys. 6 d., but if they proceeded under the new Act,
it would be 4s. There should be an additional subsidy for
the former to bring them down to the latter figure.
Lord Hastings (Norfolk) referred to a proposal made to
the Ministry of Health Sub-Committee by the Central Land
Association, that the assistance which might be given to
rural housing would be to permit agricultural holders to in-
clude in their maintenance claim for assessment of taxation,
the cost of building new houses. Such a scheme would have
the advantage of not being a standing charge on the
Exchequer for any great length of time, and would not be in
the nature of direct subsidy. The maintenance claim at
present admitted allowances for reconditioning, but not for
new houses. One objection to the proposal was that the
higher the taxation that an individual paid, the larger would
be the subsidy, but inasmuch as this would help only the
surtax payer, the larger landowner who would be paying
out of his pocket to build, that objection was not really a
very serious one. Houses were required, and he thought that
this suggestion should be considered. The Housing Sub-
Committee had recommended the proposal to the appro-
priate Department for consideration, and he asked the
XOXQ
Council of Agriculture
Pennanent Secretary of the Ministry to look into it, and, if
desired, to press it on the Chancellor of the Exchequer with
the aid of the Ministry of Health.
Mr. T. Lovell referred to the " tied ” cottage attached to
an isolated farm, and said he had been one of the victims of
bad rural housing. As an agricultural worker, he had had
sickness through ill-housing so that he had to take his wife
and family out of the house with no ready alternative avail-
able. It was the isolated cottage that was neglected most
because when the Councils built new cottages they considered
only villages. Mr. W. W. Sampson (Dorset) congratulated
the Standing Committee on its excellent Report, and, as
Chairman of a R.D.C. with 36 parishes, where the proceeds
of a id. rate were under £200, he wanted to see a guarantee
that, if labourers’ cottages were pulled down, others would
be built for the purpose of housing purely agricultural
workers. Some of these had had to offer up to 8 s. 6 d.,
including rates, out of their meagre wages, for cottages. He
considered that even if isolated cottages were put into fairly
habitable condition, the worker would not, to-day, get his
wife to go and live in one of them. Cottages should be
centred in the village, where there was some life, and buses
going to town.
Mr. W. R. Smith considered this one of the most serious
questions. He regretted any over-emphasis there might be
on reconditioning rather than on new building. Many houses
were not fit for reconditioning; there were no damp courses
and an excessive amount had to be spent to put them in
order. He agreed about the undesirability of isolated
cottages, and the continuance of the “ tied ” cottage. The
neglect of Local Authorities had been positively appalling.
He called to mind one instance in Norfolk, where his own
Chairman had deplored the fact that certain houses were
tumbling down, and, if the people living in them did not
vacate, they would shortly fall about their heads. He
recently saw a R.D.C. with 36 villages in which only 14
houses had been built in one year, though there were 506
persons known to be living in 73 overcrowded dwellings, and
where the maternal mortality was 6.72 per 1,000 against an
average for the country of 3.65. The M.O.H. of Nottingham
said that 90 out of every 100 houses were defective. He put
it to the Council that the evidence showed that Local
Authorities were not doing their duty in this matter. The
lOlI
Council of Agriculture
amenity question in rural life was an increasingly important
one, and unless it were attended to, labour would not be
retained on the countryside. He advocated national control
under a national authority, in the same way as animal dis-
eases were to be nationally controlled.
Lord Cranworth (East Suffolk) did not agree with the last
speaker that the reconditioning of cottages had been over-
done. Where possible, they should be reconditioned and
where there were no damp courses these should be put in.
Moreover, the cost of building had risen very much; in his
county it had gone up 30 per cent. He wondered whether it
had been considered that the subsidy should on this account
be increased. Mr. T. C. Ward said that if the grants had not
been withdrawn in earlier years, there would ha'^e been more
cottages available now. He held that the position of cottages
now to be built was of first importance. In the past, sites
had been used because they were on poor land, down old
cartways and so forth. In future, the position would be of
real importance, and the R.D.C.’s should have control, just
as they have over water and sewage arrangements, and
should say where houses shall be put: water should be in
ample volume and easy of access. Professor Ashby sup-
ported the Report, and drew special attention to paragraph 8,
which stressed the imp)ortance of the activity of R.D.C.'s.
" Private enterprise ” meant owners of land and anybody
whose business it was to supply houses for farm workers,
which naturally included agricultural workers themselves. If
there were to be a development of 'private enterprise, the
control should be under a recognized housing and sanitary
authority. Professor Ashby then outlined certain special
conditions which he thought necessary to apply to houses
built or reconditioned by a subsidy to agricultural workers
themselves, and which were subsequently let to persons other
than agricultural workers. He added that no more cottages
should be built by " private enterprise ” for the running of
a farm. The maximum number should be supplied with the
best sanitation, access to amenities, etc., under public owner-
ship. Lady Mabel Smith said that the inside of reconditioned
houses ought to be at least as carefully considered as their
outside appearance. There were hundreds or even thousands
of rural cottages in England to-day where such things as
good water and proper drainage were impossible. There was
a form of overcrowding in rural houses which she would
10X2
Council of Agriculture
call “ moral overcrowding," where growing children were
forced to sleep in the same rooms as their parents. R.D.C.'s
sometimes required a lot of moving, and in other instances
where R.D.C.’s had been willing to get on with the work,
they had been pulled back. She spoke also in favour of the
extension of time from 5 to 10 years, and in favour of new
houses rather than externally reconditioned ones. Mr. C. H.
Roberts supported the remarks of Lord Cranworth as to
reconditioning. Plans for reconditioning had to be got out
and passed by the R.D.C. and the sanitary authorities, and
there were hundreds of houses that could be reconditioned.
It was far better to keep the old type of house than to build
new ones.
Lord Feversham expressed the Department’s sympathy
with the great need for the improvement of rural housing
conditions. He added that the Council would understand
that, while details of proposed new legislation were under
consideration by the Government, he could not discuss them
in any authoritative kind of way. He would, however, assure
the Council that their views would be conveyed to the Minister
of Health, and further, that his Minister would no doubt
wish to make special representations himself to the Minister
of Health on certain points arising out of the discussion. He
said also that it had always been a principle of the Housing
Acts that all subsidies available to Local Authorities were
available on equal terms to Housing Associations undertaking
the erection of houses by arrangement with the Local
Authorities.
Mr. George Dallas, in winding up the debate, said that the
country had spent millions of pounds in subsidies for
housing, to which the agricultural community, farmers,
labourers and landlords had made their contributions; and
the subsidies had gone largely to the urban section of the
population. He believed in fair play for everybody, and it
was now time that the rural districts should receive their
share whilst the urban people paid. He promised that the
Standing Committee would look into the point raised by
Lord Hastings. That made by Mr. Sampson was also im-
portant, that whatever subsidies be given they should be
substantial and ample, because it was no use trying to load
a R.D.C. with a burden it could not carry. He thought it
would be a great tragedy to extend the system of " tied ’’
cottages. The point raised by Mr. Walter Smith, of national
1013
Council of Agriculture
control, was, he thought, very imporhint; it might be
necessary to set up a national committee to see that tiie job
was thoroughly carried out, and some compulsion might be
necessary with the slower moving counties. The Report was
put to the Meeting and agreed.
Transfer of Veterinary Functions. Mr. C. H. Roberts
moved the adoption of the Standing Committee’s Report on
the proposed Transfer of certain Veterinary Functions from
Local Authorities to the Ministry of Agriculture under the
Agriculture Act, 1937.
Sir Merrik Burrell (West Sussex) moved the addition of an
addendum as follows: —
The Standing Committee notes, however, that no mention is made
in the proposals of the Ministry as to the transfer to the new National
Veterinary organization of the Clerical Staff employed hitherto on
veterinary work by the Local Authorities. Some of the members of
such staffs have been employed for several years on this specialized
work, and have become very expert in it, and the more specialized
they have become the more difficult will it be for Local Authorities
to absorb them into work of a different nature. Over and above the
obvious unfairness and hardship caused by throwing these men out of
work by a change of policy, it is quite certain that the new National
Service will need their experience and expert knowledge if it is to
function satisfactorily. The Standing Committee hopes, therefore,
that the Minister will be able to assure the Council that this omission
is only accidental in the draft proposals and not a real one.
He said that, as Chairman of the Agricultural Committee
of the County Councils Association, he would be placed in a
very difficult position if, when the arrangements were com-
pleted, it was found that certain of the Local Authorities'
servants were going to have a hard deal. He hoped that
“ red tape ” would not be allowed to cause difficulty. If the
Council now added this paragraph, it might prove helpful
to the Ministry in their task of making the arrangements.
Sir Arthur Hazlerigg seconded the proposal. Mr. Roberts
advised the Council to accept it. Sir Donald Fergusson said
it would not be fair to the Council to let it go out that the
addendum was almost an agreed matter. There had been
the most friendly collaboration between the Ministry and the
Associations of Local Authorities over the very complex and
difficult problem involved in taking over of the Veterinary
Services. Sir Merrik Burrell and other gentlemen associated
wiffi him had given most valuable help. On this particular
point of clerical staffs, the experience in Government Depart-
ments, and no doubt in Local Authorities’ offices, was that
1014
Council of Agriculture
clerical officers who had acquired proficiency in one branch
would be very well qualified for clerical duties in another
branch. In any event, the number of clerical officers in-
volved was very small. In certain instances, it might be
convenient to Local Authorities that an officer or officers
should be taken over by the Ministry, but he did not think
there should be any difficulty in Local Authorities absorbing
them in their establishments in other activities. Apart from
that, however, it was not a matter for one Government
Department as it would be contrary to the policy of the
Government to take over officers who could be absorbed in
other ways. Mr. W. R. Smith said he hoped that the
Ministry would not have too rigid a mind on this matter;
there had been precedents where clerical and other help had
been brought in from outside. Sir Merrik Burrell's addendum
was then put to the Meeting, and added to the Report, which
was carried unanimously.
Wheat Act Resolution. Mr. W. J. Cumber (Berks.)
moved the adoption of the Standing Committee’s Report on
the Wheat Act Resolution referred to it from the last meeting
of the Council (see Appendix II.). Mr. H. W. Thomas
(Hants.) said he was disappointed that the Committee had
not seen fit to recommend a higher standard price, as it was
important to this country to produce more wheat; no one crop
led to good farming more than wheat did. There were
thousands of acres capable of growing wheat under certain
conditions. Mr. A. Symonds (West Suffolk) proposed that
the Report be referred back to the Committee on the grounds
that the wheat crop should be increased. Mr. R. F. Aubrey
(Hunts.) asked what encouragement agriculturists got from
the Report. He referred to certain statements in it, adding
that the Report failed to suggest that an economic return
should be guaranteed to the producer. Mr. W. W. Sampson
supported the reference back to the Committee, on the ground
that more wheat would prevent a further increase of the sub-
sidy in respect of milk. The 45s. was right for the time at
which it was fixed, but everything had since gone up in price
and wages were increasing; there would have to be a proper
guaranteed price in time, with guaranteed wages, and a
guarantee that the farmers’ returns would be made full use
of. Englishmen did not like control, but they would have to
put up with it. Lord Cranworth stated that he moved in the
1015
Council of Agriculture
House of Lords that the standard price of wheat should be
increased to 55s. He thought that moderate when one con-
sidered that the standard price in France was the equivalent
of 60s. He could, therefore, quite fairly support the refer-
ence back, but for the last sentence in the Report, which made
it clear that the Standing Committee had in mind that the
standard price should be examined by an expert committee
with a view to alteration from time to time as associated con-
ditions in the industry altered; with that he was satisfied.
Mr. John Beard supported the reference back on the ground
that the Wheat Act did not operate in an orthodox manner in
fixing the price. The time had come for reconsideration of
the basis on which a price of 45s. had been fixed. The farm
worker has a right to a reasonable wage, and the' farmer could
only pay him that with guaranteed prices. The Ministry
should be given the definite idea of the Council that there
ought to be a revision of this standard price.
Lord Fever sham said that in order to clarify the issue he
would call attention to the fact that it had been made clear
in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords that a
policy of review of the standard price at stated intervals
would be adopted by the Government.
Mr. C. W. Whatley (Wilts.) suggested that the difficulty
would be met in the Report by adding words to the effect
that the time was ripe for the question of a new price for
wheat to be considered. Mr. W. J. Cumber then explained
the Report in detail; and Mr. R. L, Walker reminded the
Council that wheat had been grown, in the past, on lands
that were not suitable. Mr. C. H. Roberts supported the
Report and said that he hoped it would not be referred back,
but that the Committee would adopt Mr. Whatley’s
addendum.
The Chairman put the amendment that the Report be
referred back, which was lost: the addendum proposed by
Mr. Whatley was then agreed for addition to the Report (see
sentence in italics at end of Appendix II), and the Report as
amended adopted.
Milk Distribution. Professor A. W. Ashby moved the
adoption of the Report from the Standing Committee on the
Food Council's Report on Costs and Profits of Retail Milk
Distribution in Great Britain {see Appendix V.). Mr. Charles
Roberts said that from the Food Council’s Report one
1016
Council of Agriculture
gathered that most profit was made by Co-operative Societies
in the provinces — about -^d. a gallon. Distributors like the
United Dairies made a profit of \d. a gallon. The real
difficulty was not excessive profits; it was excessive costs.
The distributor’s margin was 11.41^. and rationalization —
cutting down wasteful methods of distribution, two deliveries
a day and twenty dairymen going down one street — was
necessary. Such things would have to be altered unless we
were to have an established monopoly, as in Germany, which
would raise an outcry that the small man was being injured
and unemployment being caused. He would ask the Minis-
try to grapple with the problem. Would the Milk Board take
over an experimental monopoly to see if they could get 3(f.
or 4 d. a gallon off the costs? The Report was put to the
Meeting and agreed.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Sir Merrik Burrell moved the
following Resolution on behalf of the Standing Committee : —
That the Council of Agriculture for England desires again to support
the Ministry in its policy of immediate slaughter of all affected and
contact animals in outbreaks of foot-and-mouth di.scase as the only
policy which, in the present state of knowledge, offers any reasonable
hope of safeguarding this country against a calamity like that occurr-
ing at the present time in Europe.
He said that the Standing Committee had consistently
supported the policy in past years and as there had been
many letters and much irresponsible talk in the Press on the
subject, the Committeft's intention in reverting to the subject
was to strengthen the Ministry’s hands. What was the actual
position ? In this country there were comparatively few cases
of disease, while in certain Continental countries it was very
severe. In Belgium there were 10,498 outbreaks during
October, in France 32,808, with a further 22,655 during the
fortnight in November. During the same fortnight, Germany
had had 1,952. The Netherlands had 11.444 during Sept-
ember, and Switzerland had 95 in the period September i to
November 14. He thought he was right in saying that
Switzerland had, at one time, a slaughter policy, but it had
broken down. If H.M. Government threw over the slaughter
policy, he thought our case would be worse than anything
now happening on the Continent.
Mr. W. R. Smith seconded the motion, and said that while
the Ministry was so efficient in managing this policy of
slaughter, there would be no criticism that the Council need
1017
Council of Agriculture
care about. The Minister (who had now arrived) said that,
from the figures Sir Menik had put before the Council, our
coimtry was clearly more fortunate than our Continental
neighbours. He thanked the Council for the Resolution, as
a body, without whose co-operation, the handling of these
sort of problems would not have been possible. The Ministry
relied on the willing co-operation of the agricultural com-
munify, and he had nothing but praise for the way in which
the farmers had been vigilant and speedy in reporting cases
of the disease. They had also put up in an uncomplaining
fashion with the tedious restrictions which the policy neces-
sarily involved. This was much appreciated by the Ministry.
He was not going to say that we were out of Ae wood yet.
The greatest vigilance should be continued, with a strict eye
on sheep, and he asked farmers to report at once any sus-
picious illness in sheep. The Resolution was carried
unanimously.
Proposed Ploughing*Up Subsidy. Major Nelson Rooke
moved the following Resolution: —
That the Council of Agriculture for England requests the Minister
of Agriculture to consider the extension of the Government's
proposals for increasing the land fertility of the country by offering a
contribution not exceeding, say, £i per acre, towards the ploughing
up and re-sowing of worn-out permanent pastures, subject to suitable
conditions, such as inspection and approval by the County Authority,
the use of specified seeds mixtures, and the establishment of a sound
pasture.
He said that it was not necessary ior him to explain the
large range of pasture lands. Below the half-way line there
was the worn-out pasture, and the average farmer to-day
could not afford to start and re-sow this unless he had some
help. The price levels in wheat and barley had risen so
much that their subsidies were hardly being used at all. He
thought some funds might be free for this other good work.
Mr. Clement Smith seconded the Resolution, but suggested
that it would be best to refer it to the Standing Committee
for detailed consideration. The mover agreed, and the
Resolution was referred accordingly.
Pigs and Bacon. Captain W. C. Coates (Leics.) moved
the following Resolution: —
That the Council of Agriculture for England regrets that H.M.
Government has failed to create the conditions under which farmers
can make the production of bacon pigs pay,
ioi8
Council of Agriculture
He said that the Resolution was put down partly owing
to the delay in coining to a settlement, and also as a mild
protest. The producer had done his bit in putting his house
in order and it was then up to the middleman. The Minister
had said that in 1936 the output of British bacon was double
that of 1930 and that to-day we were producing one-third of
the bacon consumed. He hoped that progress had really
been made by the curers, who depended largely on the Gov-
ernment controlling imports, not only from the Dominions,
but from foreign countries. In 1934, the Dominion of
Canada exceeded her own quota from March to August by
134,000 cwt. In January, 1935, there had been the Govern-
ment's statement as to the need for a subsidy, but nothing
happened until March of this year, when the Pigs Marketing
Board came to the decision that the subsidy could only be
brought into use by agreement with foreign countries regard-
ing the bacon being sent in by those countries. Sir
Arthur Hazlerigg seconded the motion. The Minister, in
reply, said that he knew pig producers would like to hear a
statement of policy at the earliest possible moment. The
difficulty arose from the breakdown of the contract system
last year. No doubt one cause was the rise in the price of
feeding stuffs, and the uncertainty in the minds of producers
as to what the figures might be some months afterwards.
The question of rationalization now being gone into with the
curers was a difficult and complicated one. Negotiations had
been going on since September and he was in a position to
say that they had gone on very satisfactorily as a whole. He
hoped to be able to make a statement fairly soon. The
Resolution was put to the Meeting and carried.
McCreagh Estate. Mr. H. W. Thomas (Hants.) moved
the following Resolution: —
That the attention of the Council be called again to the question
of the derelict land (consisting of about 3,000 acres) in Hampshire,
and that the Ministry be asked that steps be taken to bring this land
into cultivation and so absorb labour and increase the food supply
of the community.
The p>osition, he said, was desperate; the land, with atten-
tion, was capable of producing a great deal of food, and he
wished to ask again whether there was any method available
for doing something with it. Mr. John Beard seconded the
motion. Mr. Charles Roberts suggested that the Land Settie-
ment Association could take it over as an example of inferior
1019
Council of Agriculture
but improvable land and put on it ordinary weekly wage
labour until the farins were reconstructed and reconditioned,
when the land could be let to smallholders, Mr. George
Dallas said that it was impossible to exaggerate the serious
statements made about the condition of this land, and he
recommended that the Minister should see it. All were
agreed that it was an intolerable scandal.
Sir Donald Fergusson, on behalf of the Ministry, said that
the Minister was well aware of the condition of this land.
He would not now discuss the reasons the Minister gave at the
last meeting as to why it had not been found possible to deal
with the matter under the Land (Utilisation) Act, or get it dealt
with by the County Council for smallholdings or by the
Commissioner for Special Areas for land settlement. He still
hoped it might be possible to find some way, and he would
certainly have Mr. Roberts’s suggestion considered. He
would mention that litigation had recently occurred in regard
to some of the land, and, when the award had been issued, it
might be found that things not feasible now or in the past
might be feasible in the future. The Resolution was put to
the Meeting and carried.
APPENDIX I
Report from the Standing Committee on the subject of the
Extension of the Period of the Subsidy Scheme for Lime and
Basic Slag under the Agriculture Act, 1937
1. Farmers will be aware that the facilities which the Government
have provided for the increased use of lime an*d basic slag on agricultural
land will under the present powers be continued until July 31, 1940, i.c.,
until approximately three years from the date oi the commencement of
the scheme. The Agriculture Act, 1937, I of which embodies the
scheme, makes possible an extension of it without further legislation
for a further period of two years, but by means of two successive orders
to be made when the periods are running out.
2. It would be a great advantage if farmers could be informed now that
the scheme will be extended to cover a period of five years. The chief
reasons as they appear to the Standing Committee are, first, the necessary
loss of time before some farmers will be able to obtain supplies of lime
or slag, and, second, that it is, in some cases, to be preferred that the
lime or slag be applied in annual quantities in the course of the rotation
of crops adopted on a particular farm.
3. As regards the first reason, it appears that the response of farmers
to the scheme has been at the beginning so great as to tax severely the
resources of existing lime-kilns and supplies of basic slag, and many
applicants must perforce wait and take their turn as supplies become
available ; again, other farmers have found it necessary to look round
before applying for lime or slag under the scheme and possibly to wait
for advice from their Agricultural Research centre or Agricultural Organizer,
because they want to know which particular fields should be treated and
1020
Council of Agriculture
what quantities should be used having regard to the expenditure they
themselves can afford. The delay so caused in applying lime or slag
may mean that a large number of farmers requiring this assistance will
not be able to get the commodity until next autumn or winter, so that
one- half of the allowed period for the subsidy will by then have expired,
leaving only another autumn and winter to complete any required dressings.
A further consideration under this head is that the period of subsidy
supply in the case of lime ought, in our view, to be sufficiently long to
justify a lime producer in spending the capital necessary to work a new
lime-kiln or to recondition one that has become derelict.
4. As regards the second reason, few mixed arable and pasture farms
to-day are managed on a shorter than a four-course rotation, and if it
is desired to deal with all the land of the farm fully and fairly, equal
amounts of lime or basic slag should be applied each year during the
rotation. Where this is desired and allowing for the fact that many
farmers will not get their first year's lime or slag in the first year, it is
suggested that five years from July 31, 1937, would be a more suitable
period to allow farmers in which to complete their operations under this
scheme.
November 10, 1937.
APPENDIX II
Report from Standing Committee on Wheat Act ” Resolution
1. At the last meeting of the Council of Agriculture the following
resolution was referred to the Standing Committee for consideration and
report : —
“ That in the opinion of this Council there should be no limit to
the amount of home-grown wheat entitled to the full deficiency payment
and that the standard price should be raised to 50s. per quarter."
2. The Committee has considered this question and finds the present
position to be that Parliament has now raised the amount of home-grown
wheat entitled to the full deficiency payment from six million quarters
to eight million quarters (see Section 13 of the Agriculture Act, 1937) *
and, as regards the standard price, that the Committee 'which was set
up under the Wheat Act, 1932, to consider the desirability of making any
alteration in the standard price, reported in June, 1935, that they saw
no reason then to make an alteration, but recommended that authority
be obtained for the subject to be considered again after a further period
of years. The late Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Walter Elliot, in the
course of a debate on agriculture in the House of Commons on July 31,
i 935 f said that " the Government . . . take note of the valuable
suggestion, made in the report of that Committee [i.e. the Standard Price
Committee], that further reviews should take place at stated intervals,
instead of merely this review once and for all. I think it is clear that
these reviews at intervals will be a feature of the policy which this
Government, and, indeed, future Governments, will need to adopt with
regard to agriculture," The Committee has noted that in the course of
the debate in the House of Lords on July 22, 1937. on the comnuttee
stage of the Agriculture Bill the Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry,
Lord Feversham, stated that it was proposed shortly to bring fonvard a
Bill to make certain amendments to the Wheat Act, that the Wheat
Commission had suggested that provision should be made in the Bill
for the setting up of a further committee to review the standard price
at triennial intervals, and that this proposal was receiving consideration,
together with the other proposals for the amendment of the Wheat Act.
1021
Council of Agriculture
3, Turning to the general questions involved in an acceptance of the
resolution^ the Council will realize that the Standing Committee could
not well undertake a consideration of the whole economic position of
agriculture so as to enable it to say to what extent the wheat crop should
be encouraged, having regard to the claims of other food crops for a share
in our limited farm lands, and at what price it would be appropriate for
the State to guarantee its sale in order to obtain the desired increased
acreage. The Standing Committee is not persuaded that the increased
production of wheat should be advocated rather than that of other food
crops. It is true that there is inferior pastureland up and down the
country which would be better ploughed up and sown with a suitable food
crop and thus rendered more productive, though it is noted that for this
class of land the Government have already brought in a scheme for the
supply of cheap lime and basic slag so that it may continue as better
pasture than formerly. The fact is that there are inducements enough
to farmers for ploughing-up land for wheat or other crops, if they are
persuaded that the land is better to them as arable than as pasture, and
if they can get the consent of their landlords to plOughing-up without
trouble and real expense. In addition, financial assistance, direct and
indirect, towards greater production of food crops is being given by the
Government, and the Standing Committee does not feel that it can fairly
recommend that the wheat crop should be singled out for more assistance
than is provided under the Wheat Act, 1932, and Part II of the Agriculture
Act, 1937, providing arrangements are made — as it is understood they
will be — for the “ standard price to be examined by an expert
committee with a view to alteration from time to time as associated
conditions in the indu.stry may alter. The Standing Committee hopes that
the Committee in question will be set up as soon as possible,
December 2, 1937.
APPENDIX III
Report from the Standing Committee 09 the Clearing of
Watercourses
1. In connexion with the campaign to incioase the fertility of the land
by means of the larger use of such agents as lime and basic slag, the
Standing Committee has had a variety of questions under consideration.
That dealing with the desirability of an early announcement of the
extension of the Subsidy Scheme for five years is dealt with in a separate
report. The present report will deal with certain land drainage aspects,
as efficient drainage is recognized as fundamental to fertility.
2. The Committee is glad to note that assistance is being given, under
the Agriculture Act, 1937, Drainage Authorities other than Catchment
Boards, in finding money for the smaller works of arterial drainage.
Grants are available at the fixed rate of 33^ per cent, for ordinary drain-
clearing work, and 30 per cent, in the case of schemes, or portions of
them, involving the provision of machinery or expensive material. All
schemes as to which application for grant is proposed require the Ministry's
approval in the first instance, and will be confined each year for three
(and possibly for five) years to the period October 15 to April 30. It
^ould be noted that for this purpose County Councils, and those County
Borough Councils having agricultural committees, come withffi the
category of Drainage Authority, and can organize voluntary schemes
among landowners and fanners where a combined system of land drainage
appears to be required. Field drains^e is not included within the scope
of these grants, but in certain counties sheep gripping or the cutting of
1022
Council of Agriculture
sheep drains will rank for grant provided the scheme embraces more
than one holding.
3. In addition to calling attention to these new powers, the Standing
Committee desires to refer to the provisions of the Land Drainage Act,
1930, which requires occupiers to keep the smaller watercourses clear of
obstruction, so that field drainage water from farmlands drained by such
can get away into the main rivers, and so to the sea. Section 35 of that
Act empowers Drainage Boards (other than Catchment Boards) — and
Section 50 (2) gives the same power to County and County Borough
Councils — to serve notices on those by whose act or default the flow of
water is impeded, requiring them to clear the obstruction. The person
on whom such notice is served may within 21 days of service either
complain to a court of summary jurisdiction or require a reference to
arbitration. Either party may appeal against the decision of a court
of summary jurisdiction to a Court of Quarter Sessions whose decision
in the matter is final. Then, assuming that the decision is that the person
should proceed as required by the notice, and he does not do so within
two months, the Drainage Board or Council are empowered to enter on
the land and execute the work, recovering the cost summarily as a
civil debt.
4. The Standing Committee is informed that there are County Councils
and County Borough Councils who do not use their powers in this connexion
as actively as they might do. In some counties, immediate action is
taken as a matter of routine whenever obstruction is reported, and it
usually happens in such cases that the person responsible, on being
called upon, at once docs the necessary work. Where he does not, it is
often found that compliance with the notice follows on the intimation
that the Council will itself do the work and charge him with the cost.
5. The Standing Committee would urge all members of the Council
who are representatives of County or ('ounty Borough Councils to take
this matter into personal consideration with a view, in the national
interests, of bringing the practice in their own district into line with that
followed in other local authorities’ areas and described above.
Sovemher 19, 1937.
APPENDIX IV
Report from the Standing Committee on the Subject of
Rural Housing
1. The Standing Committee has noted the issue of the Second Report
of the Rural Housing Sub-Committee of the Central Housing Advisory’
Committee of the Ministry of Health, on Rural Housing, and desires to
record its view" that the question of jiroviding adequate cottage accom-
modation for rural wwkers is a national one of the first importance. It
understands that a Bill to give effect to the Sub-Committee's subsidy
recommendations wdll shortly be introduced by the Minister of Health.
2. The Council will remember that in July, 1936, the Standing Committee
brought the general position in regard to the housing of rural workers
before them in a report dated May 12, 1936. It discussed the aid given
to rural housing by the Housing Acts, 1930 and 1935, and the Housing
(Rural Workers) Acts, and made recommendation, inter alia, for members
to urge their County and Rural District Councils to press forwai’d with
the provision of more new and reconditioned cottages under existing
Acts* That report was followed by another presented at the December
meeting of the same year, in which was definitely recommended the
renewal of subsidies to encourage the building of rural houses at rents
1023
Council of Agriculture
which farm workers could afford to pay. In the last-mentioned report,
the Committee stated that whilst it looked forward to the issue of a report
by the Rural Housing Sub-Committee (see this Second Report now issued),
it regarded the position over the country as serious, calling for early
remedial measures. Since that time, improvement has no doubt taken
place in many districts, but much urgent work, both by Local Authorities
and private owners, still remains to be done.
3. The Sub-Committee in para. 12 of its Second Report throws a clear
light on the causes of the increasing shortage of houses for agricultural
workers to-day. These are (i) the development of new industries and
the growth of neighbouring towns, causing an influx of industrial workers
into rural districts ; (2) an influx of week-enders ; (3) an increase in the
number of separate families among the agricultural population ; and
(4) an increase in the number of retired workers enabled through the
Old Age Pensions, etc., to live alone instead of as in former years residing
with relatives or in an Institution.
4. The Standing Committee, whilst it does not deplore any of these
causes, feels bound to repeat and emphasize them as indicating the wide
gap that exists — wider than is commonly thought by an individual
having knowledge only of his own district — between the supply of avail-
able cottages for young agricultural workers getting married and the
demand for them. It seems obvious to the Committee that this matter
lies at the root of our agricultural well-being, for without good homes
available there will be a rapid falling-off of recruits for farm work, and
the industry must come to a standstill.
5. As regards the new Bill which the Minister of Health has sjo promptly
undertaken to introduce, the Standing Committee hopes that it will be
made clear in it that the subsidies proposed shall be sufficient to allow
houses of a standard three-bedroom type to be let to farm workers at
rents not exceeding 3s. a week (inclusive of rates) ; and that where
subsidies for the relief of overcrowding or for slum clearance (under
existing Acts) are not sufficient to enable such houeses when built for
agricultural workers to be let at this rent, some new additional subsidy
shall be available, specifically for agricultural workers, to reduce the rents
now charged for such houses in rural districts to the above standard figure.
6. The Standing Committee feels sure that t'he subsidies to private enter-
prise to be proposed will include subsidies to Housing Associations
established under the Housing Acts, and that where these work in con-
junction with Rural District Councils, they will be equal with those
given to those Councils.
7. As regards the period of operation of the subsidies, the Standing
Committee would like to see a longer term than 5 years envisaged in the
Bill proposals. If it appears that the subsidies would definitely end in
5 years* time, building might be so pressed forward that costs would rise
still higher than they are at present. It might have a steadying effect if
it were known that it was the intention to continue the subsidies fotVj
10 years, subject perhaps to general review and reconsideration of them
and their results at the end of 5 years.
8. The Standing Committee trusts that Rural District Councils through-
out the country will do their utmost to take advantage of the new sub-
sidies to help them to provide good houses for agricultural workers, and
wherever members of the Council find themselves in a position, through
membership of local councils, to help forward this provision, that they
will do their utmost in the matter. The Standing Committee reali2es
that it is as much by the personal touch and individual enthusiasm of
members and officials of Rural District Councils as by the powers of
Statutes that a number of new and adequate rural homes can speedily
Council of Agriculture
be created even with attractive subsidy inducements. The Minister of
Health has power under Section 169 of the Housing Act, 1936, to step in
where a Rural District Council has failed in its duty under the Housing
Acts, and where the County Council has also failed to discharge its duty
in substitution for the Rural District Council. Rural District Councils
will, we hope, respond generously to the opportunity which the subsidies
will give them and which many of them have been anxiously awaiting.
If, however, there are cases of default by local authorities the powers
provided should be such as will enable the Ministry of Health to take
steps to provide the necessary cottages in every case and at the earliest
practicable date.
December 2, 1937.
APPENDIX V
Report from Standing Committee on the Food GounciPs
Report on Costs and Profits of Retail Milk Distribution in
Great Britain
The Standing Committee has read with very great interest the Report of
the Food Council on the Costs and Profits of Retail Milk Distribution in
Great Britain, dated September 24, 1937* issued on November 18,
1937. "l^he main conclusions of the Food Councirs Report are that : —
(а) The minimum distributors' margins which are operative are such as
to permit of the Co-operative Societies making a. high rate of profit on
turnover. That rate of profit is, on evidence available, higher than that
made by proprietary businesses.
(б) As regards the latter, the rates of profit on turnover differ very
widely : some businesses are making a more than liberal rate of profit ;
many others are making a moderate rate of profit ; while some sure
actually making a net loss.
(c) Distributors have called attention to the fact that recent costs
have tended to rise : it is on this ground that, under the terms of the
Milk Marketing Board's contract for the year 1937-8, distributors have
obtained an average increase of \d, per gallon in the margin between
the wholesale buying prices and the minimum retail prices.
(d) The number of n^ilk distributors in the industry, taking the
country as a whole, is excessive ; and this must add to the average
distributing cost : redundancy of distributors in any area results in
their trying to extend their trade farther afield, with a consequent
• increase of distributive costs : the higher the cost of distribution in
general, the wider will be the margin which the distributing industry
will demand.
(e) There is much overlapping, quite apart from that due to any
excess in the numbers of distributors : this overlapping is responsible
for much uneconomic expenditure.
(/) Excessive competition is in part responsible for distributors giving
services which, in a number of cases, are unnecessarily elaborate and
which add to operating costs : competition in price is prevented by
the fixing of minimum retail prices and this may tend to increase still
further the competition in services.
(g) In the main the distributors' margins have been fixed in various
areas by reference to the population and without relation to services
rendered : in individual cases this means that distributors performing
a simple and therefore relatively inexpensive service in any particular
area are allowed margins which have been fixed by reference to a more
elaborate service and which for the distributors p)erforming a more
^mple service are excessive.
D
1025
Council of Agriculture
(k) The fact that in all districts minimum margins are in operation
must in general be detrimental to the consumer as it must in some
districts prevent a lowering of the retail price, particularly where the
services performed are less elaborate than elsewhere.
The above statement is taken almost verbatim from the Food Council’s
Report (pp. 33~4). Following it, the Report envisages future possibilities
including the freeing of retail prices from control, or alternatively the
reduction of minimum distributive margins, or again what the Council
conceives as being more important, measures designed to effect some
rationalization of the industry.
The Report, farther on, indicates that the following economies could
reasonably be looked for as a consequence of rationalization of the
industry ; —
(2) Savings by reason of the concentration of processing and distributing
depots.
(2) Savings by reason of the concentration of rounds.
(3) Savings resulting from a reduction in the number of shops in various
areas.
(4) Decreased costs incidental to book debts and their collection.
{5) Reduction in expenses of advertising.
(6) Economies resulting from possible simplification of services.
The views of the Standing Committee on the subject are simply .stated.
The Committee is surprised at the continuance of the present wasteful
and costly system of distribution in spite of the repeated notice of it in
reports such as that of the Food Council. It believes that a reduction in
distributive costs offers the best prospect of securing a substantial decrease
in retail prices to the great benefit of producers and consumers, but it
recognizes, as did the Committee of Investigation in 1936, that no
appreciable reduction in these costs can be expected under present
conditions. It welcomes, therefore, the reference to distributive reform
in the White Paper outlining the Government's milk policy i.ssued last
July, which concludes with the words “ Accordingly, the Government
propose, in the legislation that will be necessary te carry out the present
proposals, to include provisions to facilitate the improved organization
of the distributive service.” The Standin(? Committee hopes that a
determined attack will be made, if possible with the full co-operation of
distributors, on this most difficult problem.
December 2, 1937.
1026
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for November is 133 (base, November, 1911-13=100), or 2
points higher than a month ago, and 8 points above that for
November, 1936. If allowance be made for payments under
the Wheat Act, 1932, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937,
the revised index for the month becomes 137. Compared with
October, average prices of barley, fat cattle, sheep and pigs,
eggs, butter and milk showed an advance, while those of wheat,
oats, hay and wool were reduced.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce [Corresponding
months of 1911--13 - 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
114
“7
119
130
Februan^ . .
TI7
106
112
115
I18
129
March
102
io8
112
ti6
130
April
.17
‘05
III
119
‘^3
140
May
115
J02
112
III
133
June
III
I .
iio 1
: 111 j
lib
131
July
106
1 i
117
131
August
i05
! *05 '
I T 9 !
113 i
ijg
133
September . .
104
1 107 ‘
119 !
T20 1
127
1 137
October
100
107
114 1
113 1
1^5
131
November . .
lOI
109 !
II4
113 1
125
133
December , .
i «3
110
II3
114 j
126
—
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and for the Cattle subsidy (b).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1
“‘35
1936
1937
January
—
III
119
124
‘25
133
Februar)^ . .
—
110
117
122
123
133
March
—
106
112
118
122
134
April
—
109
116
126
128
143
May
—
105
ii6
TI7
120
13b
June
—
104
114
117
I 2 I
134
July . . . .
—
X04
117
I 2 I
134
August
108
108
122
120
124
13b
September . .
iq8
III
125
128
133
142
October
104
112
121
II9
129
134
November . .
105
113
120
II9
129
137
December . .
107
114
120
120
130
(a) Commenced August, 1932. (6) Commenced September, i 934 -
D 2 1027
Miscellaneous Notes
In tile folbwing table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for tiie montiis of August
to November, 1937, November, 1936, and November, 1935;
base, tile corresponding months of 1911-13=100.
Ck>mmodity
1937
1936
1935
Nov.
Oct.
Sept.
Aug.
Nov.
Wheat
120
124
114
II8
114
78
Barley
152
148
147
147
115
lOI
Oats
120
124
125
125
98
87
Fat cattle . . ,
113
III
115
1 19
93
92
„ sheep . .
137
134
138
I4I
130
120
l^on pigs . .
129
124
124
120
118
93
Pork „ . .
137
131
125
II9 '
126
103
Eggs
126
141
138
III
109
Poultry
132
133
130
132
1 16
118
Milk
181
I7I
202
175
171
171
Butter
1 16
III
109
no
97
Cheese . . *
121
122
124
126
107
Potatoes
156
153
147
127
209
Hay
79
86
95
97
102
Wool
T 33
140
146
147
107
Dairy cows . .
1 19
117
1 14
109
103
Store cattle
107
113
1 19
95
90
„ sheep
Ii6
X29
138
142
117
112
M pigs ..
167
164
153
141
155
129
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and to the
cattle subsidy.
Wheat
132
134
132
Bl
132*
121
Fat cattle . .
128
126
130
WSM
108
106
General Index
137 j
134
142
Ba
129
119
♦ Superseding figure previously published.
Grain, Wheat at an average of 9s. per cwt. was 2d. lower
on the month, the index moving downwards by 4 points. (If
tile deficiency payment under tiie Wheat Act, 1932, is taken
into account the index is 132.) The price of barley at 12s. iid.
per cwt. showed an advance of ^d. and the index rises by
4 points, but that of oats at 8s. ^d. per cwt. declined by zd. and
fee index falls by 4 points. In November, 1936, wheat aver-
aged 8s. 7(i., barley 9s. gd. and oats 6s. lod. per cwt.
Live Stock. During the period under review quotations for
fat cattle advanced, the average for second quality, at 37s. lOd.
per live cwt. , being 6d. higher, and tiie index rises by 2 points
1028
Misoellanbous Notes
to 1x3. The addition of the subsidy under the livtesiock
Industry Act, 1937, brings the index up to 128. Fat she^
at loid. per lb. for second quality, averaged more than in
the previous month and the index appreciates by 3 points.
Baconers at 12s. ii<i. per score (20 lb.) and porkers at 14s. iid.
showed increases of 3d. and qd. per score respectively, the
relative indices moving upwards by 5 and 6 points.
Dairy cows were sligh% dearer on the month but, owing to
a more pronounced rise being recorded in the base period, the
current index is i point lower. Prices of store cattle and store
sheep declined, the relative indices being reduced by 4 and
13 points. Store pigs also were cheaper but the index rises
by 3 points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. During the month, tiie
regional contract price of liquid milk advanced by id. per gal-
lon and the index rises by 10 points to 181. Butter at is. 4jd.
per lb. averaged i jd. per lb. more than in October, the index
moving upwards by 5 points. Quotations for eggs were again
higher at 22s. 3d. per 120, but, as a larger increase occurred in
the base price, the index recedes by 10 points. The average
price of cheese was unchanged at £4 iis. per cwt. but, owing
to a slight increase during the corresponding months of 1911-13,
a reduction of 1 point is shown in the index. Recent quotations
for poultry were about repeated, although the combined index
is I point lower.
Other Commodities. Prices of potatoes rose slightly during
November to £5 los. tjd. per ton and the index is higher by
3 points. Both clover and meadow hay made less money and
the combined index is 7 points lower. Wool at is. sJd. per Ib.
was id. cheaper than in October and the index declines by
7 points.
R.A.S.E. Tractor Test
The Royal Agricultural Society of England sponsors a
Tractor Testing Scheme that aims at providing a permanent
means by which tractors can be tested on practical lines, the
results being published for the guidance of farmers.
Entries of standard machines designed for agricultural use
in the United Kingdom are accepted in April of each year,
and the necessary tests are made as far as possible during the
following autumn.
The following reports have just been issued and copies may
1029
Miscellaneous Notes
be oi^ained; price 2d. each, post free, from the Institute for
Research in Agricultural Engineering, Parks Road, Oxford : —
Bristol Trackla3ring Tractor.
Case Roadless Model L Tracklaying Tractor.
Caterpillar Diesel RD. 4 Tracklaying Tractor.
Fordson Land Utility Pneumatic-tyT^ Wheel-Tractor.
Fordson Agricultural Wheel Tractor.
Fordson Roadless Tracklaying Tractor.
International Tractractor T.D. 35 Trackla3dng Tractor.
John Deere Model B.R. Wheel Tractor.
Massey-Harris Pacemaker Wheel Tractor.
Massey-Harm 24/40 Wheel Tractor.
The conditions of the entry of machines have been approved
by a committee including representatives of ‘the Society of
Motor Manufacturers and Traders, The Agricultural
Engineers’ Association, The, Tractor Users’ Association, and
the Agricultural Machinery Testing Committee of the Ministry.
Advisory Leaflets
Since the date of the list published in the October, 1937, issue
of this Journal (p.698), the undermentioned Advisory Leaflets
have been issued by the Ministry : —
No. 41. — Feeding Stuffs for Use with Cereals in Pig-Feeding. (Revised.)
No. 58, — Grey Squirrels. (Revised.)
No. 239. — ^Lime and Its Uses on the Land. (Revised.)
No. 283. — ^Advice to Intending Bee-keepers*
No. 288. — Basic Slag.
No. 289. — Composts.
Copies of any of the above-mentioned leaflets may be pur-
chased from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House,
Kingsway, London, W.C.2, or at the Sale Offices of that
Department at Edinburgh, Manchester, Cardiff, and Belfast,
price id. each net (i^d. post free), or gd. net per doz. (io<i.
post free).
Smgle copies of not more than 20 leaflets may, however,
be obtained, free of charge, on application to the Ministry.
Further copies beyond this limit must be purchased from
H.M. Stationery Office, as above.
A list of the Ministry’s publications, including leaflets, on
agriculture and horticulture may be obtained free and post
hree on application to the Ministry.
1030
MiSCfiLLAMBOUS NOTES
Agrieoltiiral Retnnis of England and Wales, 1987
Prodnee of Hops
Preliminary Statement showing the Estimated Total Production
OF Hops in the Years 1937 and 1936, with the Acreage and
Estimated Average Yield per Statute Acre in each County
OF England in which Hops were Grown ; and the Average
Yield per Acre of the Ten Years 1927-1936
Counties, etc.
Estimated Total
Produce
Acreage
Returned in
June
Estimated Average
Yield per Acre
1937
1936
1
1937 i 1936
1
Average of
the Ten
years,
1927-1936
/East
Mid
Kent ( Weald
cwt .
29,800
43,600
56.300
cwt .
34*000
46.600
70,200
1
(Kres 1 acres
1,864 1 1.990
3,092 3.032
4.961 1 5,084
cwt .
16.0
14. 1
II -3
cwt .
17. 1
15*3
13.8
cwt .
15.0
13*4
12.4
\ Total, Kent
Hants
Surrey
Sussex
Hereford . .
Worcester
Other Counties* , .
129,700
7,500
1,300
18,900
55t000
22,000
600
150,800
7,100
1,700
24,200
45,000
22,300
900
I
9,917 |io,io6
558 ! 556
XI 2 ; II5
1,583 ; 1,586
4.0391 3.994
1,818 1 1,894
66 66
. 13-1
13-3
II. 6
II. 9
13-6
12.0
9*5
14.9
12.7
14.4
15*2
11*3
11. 8
13.0
13.2
11*5
11.6
130
to. 7
10.4
II. 7
Total . .
235,000
252,000
18,093 't8,3I7
1
13*0
137
12.4
♦ Salop, Gloucester, and Berkshire.
Note. — The total acreage under hops returned in 1937 by occupiers
of agricultural holdings exieeding one acre in extent was slightly less
than that of the previous year. In Kent, which again returned more than
half the total hop acreage, there was a decrease of 189 acres. Hereford
alone of the chief hop-producing counties showed an increase, viz. : 45 acres.
The total production is estimated at 235,000 cwt. or 17,000 cwt. less
than in 1936 and 9,000 cwt. less than the average for the ten years
1927 - 1936 -
Hops grown by brewers for their own use, or sold by producers under
registered contracts, do not come under the marketing provisions of the
Hops Marketing Scheme. For this reason the quantity of hops consigned
for sale to the Hops Marketing Board is less than the estimated total
production of 235,000 cwt.
The yield per acre over the whole of the hop-growing areas is estimated
to be 13*0 cwt. compared with 13’ 7 cwt. in 1936 and an average of
12 *4 cwt. for the ten years 1927-1936. In Kent, which returned 55 per
cent, of the total production, the yield per acre was estimated to be
13 • I cwt. as compared with 14*9 cwt. in 1936. Both in Sussex and Surrey,
although the condition and quality of the crop was good, the yiel^ were
lighter than were anticipated and dropped in each county by approximately
3 wt.
The weather conditions throughout the whole of the season were generally
1031
Fasm Wokkbhs' Minimum RAm of Wa^
lavout^ble ftmi tiie qxiftUty of the mtp is very good. Very little disease
was reported. The area left unpicked was estimated to be 31 acres as
compared with 1,122 acres in ^e previous year.
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFSj ENGLAND
Hertfordshire ; Mr. W. Q. Connold, B.Sc. (Agric.) has been appointed
Lk:turer in Agriculture vice Mr. R. G. Ferguson, M.Agr., and will
take up his duties on January i, 1938.
WALES
Glamorgan: Mr. J. R. Evans, B.Sc. (Agr.), has been appointed as
Technical Assistant.
Farm Workers* Minimum Rates of Wages. — ^A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London,
S.W.I, on November 30, 1937.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Buckinghamshire. An Order cancelling the previous minimum and
overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor,
came into force on December 5, 1937, ^tnd continues in operation until
December 17, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over are 34s. fid. (instead of 33s.) per week of
50 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Easter Monday and
Whit Monday fall, when the hours are 41 ; 48 hours in winter, except
in the weeks in which Christmas Day and December 27, 1937, when
the hours are 39 J, with overtime throughout the period at lojd. per
hour (instead of lod.), on weekdays, and is. ojd. per hour (instead of
IS.) on Sundays. Easter Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day and
December 27, 1937. The minimum rates in the case of female workers
of 18 years of age and over are unchanged at 7d. jfer hour, with overtime
at 8Jd. per hour on weekdays and lod. per hour on Sundays, Easter
Monday, Whit Monday, Christmas Day and* December 27, 1937.
Leicestershire and Rutland. An Order varying the previous minimum
and overtime rates of wages, the rates as varied came into force on
December 5, 1937, and continue in operation until October 29, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and
over are, in Leicestershire 35s. (instead of 348.) per week of 54 hours in
summer, except in the weeks in which Easter Monday and Whit Monday
fall, when the hours are 48 ; 52 hours in winter (instead of 54), except
in ^e weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall, when the
hours are 46^ (instead of 48), and in Rutland 33s. fid. (instead of 32s. fid.)
per week of 54 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Easter
Monday and Whit Monday fall, when the hours are 48 ; 48 hours in
winter (instead of 50), except in the weeks in which Christmas Day and
Boxing Day fall, when the hours are 43 (instead of 44). The overtime
rates in both counties are unchanged at 9d. per hour on weekda3rs and
I id. per hour on Sundays. The minimum rates of wages for female
workm of 18 years of age and over are unchanged at 5d. per hour, with
overtime at 8d. per hour for Sunday work.
Surrey, An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages for male
and l^ale workers came into force on December 19, 1937 (Le. the day
following that on which the previous rates expired and continues in
Farm Workers’ UonMUM Rates of Wac^
operation until December 24, 1938. The minimum rate in the case of
horsemen, stockmen and shepherds of 21 years of age and over is 4x2. 6d.
(instead ^ 40s.) per week of 60 hours, except in the weeks in which
Christmas Day, December 27, 1937, Good Friday and August Bank
Holiday fall, when the hours are 51. In the case of other male workers
(except casual workers) of 21 years of age and over the minimum rate
is 34a. 6d. (instead of 33s. 4d,) per week of 50 hours, except in the
weeks in which the above-mentioned days fall, when the hours are 41.
In both cases provision is made for the payment of the minimum rate
of wages in respect of the reduced number of hours in Easter week
instead of the week in which Good Friday falls if a holiday is given on
Easter Monday in lieu of one on Good Friday. In the case of casual
male workers of 21 years of age and over the minimum rate is 8Jd. per
hour (instead of y\d.). The overtime rates for all classes of adult male
workers are pjd. per hour on weekdays (instead of gd.), and iijd. per
hour on Sundays (instead of ixd.). In the case of female workers of
18 years of age and over the minimum rate is 6Jd. per hour (instead of
5id-). with overtime at 8d. per hour on weekdays (instead of 7d.), and
9d. per hour on Sundays (instead of 8d.).
Yorkshire (West Riding). An Order varying the previous minimum and
overtime rates of wages, the rates as varied came into force on
December 5, i937» continue in operation until November 23, 1938.
The minimum rate for male workers of 21 years of age and over employed
as waggoners or other horsemen, beastmen or shepherds is 41s. (instead
of 40s. 6d.), per week of the hours specified below in the case of all other
workers, with in addition not more than 1 2 hours per week on weekdays
and 3 hours on Sundays and when holidays on full pay are given, 3 hours
on those holidays, for work in connexion with the care of and attention
to stock. In the case of all other male workers of 21 years of age and
over the minimum rate is 36s. (instead of 35s. 6d.), per week of 52J hours
in summer except in the weeks in which Easter Monday, Whit Monday,
and August Bank Holiday fall when the hours are 43, and 48 hours
in winter except in the week in which Boxing Day falls when the hours
are 39 Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of
which the minimum weekly rates are payable to meet cases where
I, 2, 3, or 4 days* holiday on full pay are given in particular weeks in lieu
of Easter Monday, Whit*Monday, August Bank Holiday and Boxing
Day. The minimum rate for female workers of 18 years of age and
over is unchanged at 6Jd, per hour for a week of 44 hours.
The overtime rates are, for waggoners or other horsemen, beastmen
or shepherds, 9jd. (instead of 9d.), per hour on weekdays and iid. per
hour on Sundays. For all other male workers the rates remain
unchanged at lojd. per hour on weekdays and is. ojd. per hour on
Sundays and for female workers of 18 years of age and over unchanged
at 8d. per hour on weekdays and 9id. per hour on Sundays.
Anglesey and Caernarvon, i. An Order varying the previous minimum
and overtime rates for male workers (not being workers employed
wholly or mainly in forestry), and minimum rates for female workers,
the rates as varied came into force on December 12, i937» ^tnd continue
in operation until further notice. The minimum rate in the case of
male workers of 21 years of age and over wholly or mainly employed
as horsemen, cowmen, shepherds, or hwsmyn (bailiffs), is 36s. (instead
of 35^.), per week of 58 .hours. In the case of other male workers
21 years of age and over the minimum rate is 32s. per week of 48 hours
in winter and 50 hours in summer (instead of 31s. per week of 50 hours
aU the year round). The overtime rate for all classes of male workers
remains unchanged at 9d. per hour. The minimum rate for female
1033
Farm Wchikbrs’ Minimum Rates of Wages
workers x8 years of age and over is 6^. per hour (instead of 6d. per
hour).
2. An Order varying the previous minimum and overtime rates of
wages for male workers employed wholly or mainly in forestry, the
rates as varied came into force on December 12, 1937, continue in
operation until further notice. The minimum rate in the case of male
workers 21 years of age and over is 37s. (instead of 36s.), per week of
50 hours with overtime unchanged at Qd. per hour.
Dembigh and Flint, An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of
wages for male workers (not being workers employed wholly or mainly
in forestry), and female workers to operate from February 16, 1938
(i.e., the day following that on which the existing rates are due to expire),
until February 15, 1939, unless otherwise ordered. The minimum rate
in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over employed wholly
or mainly as team-men, cattlemen, cowmen, shepherds, or bailids is
37s. 6d. (instead of 36s. 6d.) per week of 60 hours, and in the case of
other male workers (except casual workers), of 21 years of age and over
32s. (instead of 31s.) per week of 48 hours in wuntcr and 50 hours in
summer. The overtime rate for male workers of 21 years of age and
over (other than casual wwkers), is unchanged at 9d. per hour. The
minimum rate for casual male workers of 21 years of age and over is
unchanged at 8d. per hour for all time worked, “ casual employment "
being emplo5mient under a contract of service for a period of less than
one week.** In the case of female workers of 18 years of age and over
the minimum rates are unchanged at 5d. per hour for a week of 48 hours,
with overtime at 6Jd. per hour.
2. An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages for male
workers employed wholly or mainly in forestry to operate from
February 16, 1938 (i.e„ the day following that on w’hich the existing
rates are due to expire), until February 15, 1939. In the case of male
workers of 21 years of age and over the minimum rate is 37s. (instead of
36s.), per week of 50 hours with overtime unchanged at pd. per hour.
A further meeting of the Agricultural Wages Board was held at Kings
Buildings, Smith Square, London, S.W.i, on December 13, 1937.
The lizard considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Berhshire. An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages came
into force on January 2, 1938 (i.e., the day following that on which
the existing rates expired, and continues in operation until December 31,
1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 335. 6d, (instead of 325.) per week of 41 hours in the
weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and Boxing Day fall and
50 hours in any other week, with overtime throughout the period
unchanged at per hour. The minimum rate in the case of female
workers of 19 years of age and over is unchanged at ^d. per hour for all
time worked.
Cambridge and Isle of Ely. An Order cancelling the existing minimum and
overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution came into
operation on January’ i, 1938, and continues in operation until
December 31, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age
and over (other than horsemen, cowmen or shepherds) are 355. (instep
of 32s. 6d.) per week of 39^ hours in the weeks in which Dumber 24
and Boxing Day, 1938, fall, 48 hours in any other week in winter ;
42 hours in the weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and August
1034
Farm Workers' Minimum Rates of Wages
Bank Holiday fall and 50 hours in any other week in summer. Provision
is made for an adjustment of the hours in respect of which the minimum
weekly wage is fixed in the week in which August Bank Holiday falls,
to meet cases where an alternative holiday is given on July 25, 1938.
The overtime rates are lod, per hour on week^ys (instead of per
hour), IS. per hobr on Sundays, December 24, 1938, Boxing Day, Good
Friday, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday (instead of iid.).
For male workers of 21 years of age and over employed wholly or mainly
as horsemen, cowmen or shepherds (other than workers employed solely
as stockmen or yardmen), the minimum rates are 415. (instead of 39s. 6d.)
per week of the hours specified above and all employment in connexion
with feeding and immediate care of animals. For female workers of 18
years of age and over the minimum rates are yd. per hour with overtime
at 8d. per hour (instead of 6d. and yd. respectively).
Cornwall and Isles of Scilly. An Order fixing minimum and overtime
rates of wages for male workers and minimum rates for female workers
came into force on January 2, 1938 (i.e., the day following that on which
the existing rates expired), and continues in operation until December 31,
1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 2 1 years of age and
over are 34s. (instead of 33s.) per week of 41 hours in the weeks in which
Good Friday, Whit Monday, August Bank Holiday and Boxing Day
fall and 50 hours (instead of 51 hours) in any other week, with overtime
unchanged at gd. per hour on weekdays and lod. per hour on Sundays.
The minimum rate in the case of female workers of 20 years of age and
over is unchanged at $d. per hour for all time worked.
Derbyshire. An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages came
into force on December 26, 1937 (i ®-* ^^.y following that on which
the existing rates expired), and continues in operation until December 25,
1938. The minimum rate in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over is 385. (instead of 8J<f. per hour with a provision for pay-
ment at not less than 37s. ijef.) per week of 45 hours in the weeks in
which Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day and Boxing Day
falls and 54 hours in any other w^eek. The overtime rates for adult
male workers are 8J<f. per hour on weekdays (instead of the present
s]7stem of payment at S\d. per hour), with the rates for employment
on Sundays (including Christmas Day), unchanged at \od. per hour and
employment on Good Friday, Easter Monday and Boxing Day unchanged
at qd. per hour. The rates for female workers of 18 years of age and
over are unchanged at 5<f. per hour with payment for overtime (i.e
employment on Sundays) at Sd. per hour.
Hampshire and Isle of Wight. An Order continuing the existing minimum
and overtime rates of wages for male workers and minimum rates of
wages for female workers from January 2, 1938, until March 6, 1938,
and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor to operate from March 7,
1938, until March 4, 1939. The present minimum rate which is to
continue in force until March 6, 1938, is, in the case of male workers of
21 years of age and over, 325. per week of 48 hours. The minimum
rates to operate from March 7, 1938, to March 4, 1939 # stJ*® 33 ^* (instead
of 325.) per week of 41^ hours in the weeks in which Good Friday,
Easter Monday, Whit Monday, and August Bank Holiday fall and
51 hours in any other week in summer ; 32 hours in the week in which
Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall, and 48 hours in any other week
in winter. Provision is, however, made for an adjustment of the hours
in respect of which the minimum weekly rates are payable, to meet
cases where one or two days' holiday on full pay are given in particular
weeks in summer in lieu of Easter Monday and August Bank Holiday.
Overtime rates are unchanged at gd. per hour throughout the year,
1035
FiUSH : WoRKxaKs' Minimum Ratbs 0f Wa<mcs
except in the case of carters, cowmen, shepherds and milkers for work
in connexion with the immediate care of animals, in which case the
overtime rate is 8d. per hour. The minimum rate for female workers
of xd years of age and over remains unchanged at 5d. per hour for all
time worked.
Herefordshire » An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution came into operation
on December 19, 1937, continues in force until December 31, 1938.
The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 2X years of age
and over employed wholly or mainly as bailiffs, waggoners, stockmen
or shepherds are 385. 6d. (instead of 375. as at present) per week
(including Sunday) for all time necessarily spent on the imme^ate care
of animals (not exceeding 60 hours), with overtime unchanged at gd.
per hour except for employment on Christmas Day and Good Friday
where a worker has completed less than 60 hours in the weeks in which
those holidays fall when the rate is 2d, per hour. For other male workers
of 21 years of age and over the minimum rates are 34s. (instead of
32s. 6d,) per week of 39^ hours in the week in which Christmas Day
falls and 48 hours in any other week in winter ; 44 1 hours in the week
in which Good Friday falls and 54 hours in any other week in sununer,
with overtime unchanged at gd. per hour on weekdays and lod. per
hour on Sundays. The minimum rates in the case of female workers
of 18 years of age and over are 6d. per hour (instead of per hour),
with overtime at 6d. per hour except for employment on Christmas Day
and Good Friday where a whole-time worker has completed less than
46^ hours in the weeks in which those holidays fall when the rate is i Jd.
^r hour.
Norfolk, An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages came
into operation on December 26, 1937 (i ®-» following that on
which the existing rates expired) and continues in force until
December 24, 1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers
of 21 years of age and over are 345. 6d, (instead of 33s. 6d.) per week of
42 hours in the weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and August
Bank Holiday fall and 50 hours in any other week in summer ; 44 hours
in the week in which December 27, 1937, an& 48 hours in any other
week in winter, with, in addition, in the case of workers employed as
cowmen of x8 years of age and over a sum of 6s. 6d. per week to cover
employment of not more than 10 hours per week in summer and 12 hours
week in winter in connexion with the immediate care of animals
(instead of 55. 6d, per week for all employment on such duties), and in
the case of workers employed as teamsmen, shepherds, 5s. 6d. per week,
and in the case of sheep-tenders and bullock-tenders, 45. 6d. per week
in lieu of overtime in respect of work in connexion with animals, other
than such work on Good Friday, Whit Monday aud August Bank
Holiday. For work in connexion with animals on those holidays an
additional sum of 5s. is payable to special class workers except where
a day's holiday on full pay is given in the weeks in which those holidays
fall, or in the weeks immediately following. The overtime rates in the
case of all male workers of 21 years of age and over are g^d, per hour
on weekdays and iijd. per hour on Sundays (instead of per hour
on weekdays and iid. per hour on Sundays). The minimum rates in
the case of female workers of 18 years of age and over are 6d, per hour
(instead of ^d,), with overtime at jd. per hour (instead of 6\d.) on week-
days and 8d. ^r hour (instead of 7jd.) on Sundays.
Warwickshire, An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime
rates of wages, the rates as varied came into operation on December 19,
I 937 » continues in operation until farther notice. The minimum
1036
Farm Workers' Minimum Rates of Wages
rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and ov^r are 335.
S stead of S2S.] per week of 39J hours in the week in which Christmas
y falls and 48 hours in any other week in winter ; 41 hours in the
week in which Good Friday falls and 50 hours in any other week in
summer. The overtime rates are unchanged at gd, per hour on week«
dajrs and iid, per hour (instead of lod.) on Sundays, Good Friday and
Ch^stmas Day. Provision is made for an adjustment of the hours in
respect of which the minimum weekly wage is payable in the weeks in
which Easter Monday and Boxing Day fall to meet cases where holidays
are given in those weeks instead of in the weeks in which Good Friday
and Christmas Day fall. In the case of female workers of 18 years of
age and over, the minimum rates remain unchanged at ^d, per hour
with overtime at 6d, per hour on weekdays and y^d. per hour on Sunda3rs,
Good Friday and Christmas Day.
Wiltshire, An Order fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages came
into force on January 2, 1938 (i.e., the day following that on which the
existing rates expired), and continues in operation until December 31,
1938. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of 21 years of
age and over are 335. 6d. (instead of 32s. 6d.) per week of 41 hours in
the weeks in which Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday,
August Bank Holiday, December 24, 1938, and Boxing Day fall ; and
50 hours in any other week with overtime unchanged at g\^d, per hour
on weekdays and lod, per hour on Sundays. Good Friday, Easter Monday,
Whit Monday, August Bank Holiday, December 24, 1938, and Boxing
Day. The rate proposed for overtime on the hay and corn harvests is
g\d. per hour. The minimum rate for female workers of 18 years of age
and over is 6d, per hour (instead of 5^.) for all time worked.
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
December 12, 1937, legal proceedings were taken against two employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board.
Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears
of wages
ordered
No. of
workers
involved
Carmarthen
Car-
£ s . d .
100
1 5. d .
3 14 9
I
1
Derby
marthen
Derby . .
0
0
7 14 0
34 16 0
3 *
600
£i 14 0
£38 10 9
4
♦ Case of one worker dismissed.
Foot-and*Mouth Disease. — Since the previous issue of the Journal
went to press there have been 48 further cases of foot-and-mouth disease.
The disease has appeared in a new area comprising parts of the counties
of Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire, Hampshire, Buckinghamshire and
Gloucestershire, and in this area 19 cases have been confirmed. There
have also been more cases of the disease in the Kent and East Sussex
areas, which have now been combined to form one area of a radius of
approximately 1 5 miles round Stone-Cum-Ebony, Kent, and South Mailing,
Lewes. In this area, 16 cases have been confirmed since November 23,
the most recent of these being at Lydd on December 20 and at Stoue-
cum-Ebony on December 18. It is not possible at this stage to indicate
the probable date of any contraction of this area.
1037
FoOT-AND-MotfTH DISEASE
During ,t)ie period under review. i,e., from November 23 to December 20,
the infected area restrictions a£^ecting the following areas have been
revoked, viz. : —
Norfolk and East Suffolk ; Surrey ; Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge
and Essex ; Lincoln (Lindsey) ; and Essex, Hertford and Middlesex.
In addition, the Huntingdon and West Sussex areas have been con-
siderably reduced in size.
With regard to the “ Standstill ** Order issued on November 9 and
referred to in last month's Journal, the position in the Eastern counties
of England had so far improved by December 9 as to warrant the
revocation of the order on that date.
On November 26, an outbreak of disease was confirmed at Latimer,
Buckinghamshire, but as there was no further outbreak in this area the
restrictions were withdrawn on December 18.
The following infected areas are still in existence : —
No. I. Dorset and Wiltshire Infected Area. — An area comprising 15 miles
radius round the infected premises at the following places, namely :
Winterbourne Whitchurch, Dorset; Tytherington, Warminster; Laver-
stock and Ford, Salisbury ; Beechingstoke, near Devizes ; and East
Garston, Berkshire.
No. 2. Kent and East Sussex Infected Area. — An area comprising
15 miles radius round infected places at Lewes, Sus.sex and Stone-cum-
Ebony, Kent, and 5 miles radius round infected places at Lindfield and
Haywards Heath.
No. 3. West Sussex. — An area of 5 miles round Petworth. It is
hoped to release this area from restrictions on December 27.
No. 4. Essex. — An area of 15 miles radius to the north of infected
places at Mucking and Orsett and of 5 miles radius round Stock, Chelmsford.
This area will, provided that there are no further outbreaks, be reduced
as from midnight on December 20 to an area of 5 miles radius round
infected premises at Mucking and Orsett, and will be finally released as
from midnight on December 27.
No. 5. Soke of Peterborough, Northampton and H untingdon. — An area
of 5 miles radius round infected place at Wansford.
No. 6. Cheshire. — An area of 5 miles radius round Churton, Cheshire. An
order has been issued releasing this area from , restrictions on December 23.
No. 7. Northumberland. — An area of 5 miles radius round Morpeth ;
in this case also an order has been made for releasing the area from infectecl
area restrictions on December 30.
WIRELESS TALKS, JANUARY. 1938
HORTICULTURE
Station and
Date
Time '
p.m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
Sundays
Jan. 2*4
2.0
2.5
2.5
Mr. C. H. Middleton
Mr. B. A. Keen
9 9
In Your Garden.
Plant Growth.
North:
Jan. 14
28 .
6.40
j
Fruit Growing.
Fruit Growing.
West:
Jan. 7
.. 21
6.45
7.30
Mr. I>. Harris
,, and others
My Post. '
Why Flower Shows ?
Book Notice
AGRICULTURE
Station and
Date
Time :
p.m.
speaker
Subject
National :
Jan- 5
6.20
Mr. W. S. Mansfield
Alternate Husbandry.
,, 12
6.20
Inspecting a Farm.
„ 19
(^.20
High V. Low Farming.
M 26
6.20
Successsful Farming.
North :
Jan. 7
6.40
Prof. J . A. Hanley, Mr
Discussion on Land Fertility
John Walker and Mr,
in County Durham.
,, 21
Harold JBurkitt
Mr. W. B. Mercer
Pigs.
Midland :
Jan. 0
6. 40
Mr. P. F, Astill
Summer Grazing and Manage-
O.40
Mr. W. B. Thompson
ment.
I'or Midland Farmers.
West:
Jan. 0
<3 30
A Young Farmer and
Poultry* Keeping.
.. 13
0 0
an Expert
Plympton Agricultural
Broadcast of a Meeting.
1, 20 I
i <>49
Discussion Society
A Young Farmer and
Dhscussion.
„ 27
an Expert
Mr. A. W. Ling, Mr.
Malt and Barley.
Welsh :
Jan. 1^ j
1
1
S. G. Thompson and
Mr. J. Nichols
1 Prof. Robinson and Mr
I Discussion on Land Fertility
i
M 15
1 Davidson
Mr. W R, Jones
1 in Wales.
I “ Unigolion y Tir.'’
Scottish :
Jan, 6
I h 30
Mr. A. Stewart
, Pioper Use of Lime and Slag.
0 »3
1 0 10
Mr. R. L Scarlett
—
,, 20
j 7 30
Mr. A. R. Wannop ami
Lowland Ewe Flocks.
Northern
1
1
Mr W. K. Leggat
Ireland :
Jan. 3
i 7 30
How and Why of Fixing Egg
,, lo
1
1 7-30
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Prices.
' Farmer's Work and Worry.
0 17
730
lYof. R. G. Baskett
1 Quality in Feeding Stuff.s.
24
730
—
i Agricultural Discussion.
BOOK NOTICE
Robert Loder’s Farm Accounts, 1610-1620. Edited for the Royal Historical
Society by Cx. E, Fussell. Pp. xxxi -r - 207 . (London : Royal
Historical Society. 1936 ,)
Robert Loder kept accounts of his farm over three hundred years ago,
and now, by permission of Vice-Admiral F. P. Loder-Symonds, the manu-
script has been transcribed by Mr. G. E, Fussell, of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, who also contributes an able Introduction.
Bom in 1589, Robert Loder entered upon his inheritance at Ids coming
of age. His farm was in the parish of Harwell, on the north side of the
Berkshire Downs, and comprised about 150 acres of open held, 100 acres
of enclosed down at Awfield, oddments of other enclosures, his orchards,
1039
Book Nones
the paddock, with gming rights ovet the commoa, aod some acms of
meadow. It would be reckoned a substantial holding to-day.
Loder was a very enterprising farmer. Whether it paid him better to
grow more wheat and less barley ; whether he should keep a breeding
lock instead of buying in ewes ; whether it was more advantageous to
him to pay day rates or piece work — ^these were questions of serious
concern to him. His programme of work on the farm was based on the
accounts he kept. For instance, he soon found that wheat was his most
profitable crop, and, although it was not customary, ho accordingly
increased its acreage until it approached that under barley. He ran his
farm on businesslike lines. He was an early seventeenth century
improver," probably one of many in that period.
Only wheat, barley, peas, beans and vetches were grown. The first
two were partly cash crops ; the last three useful forage. So far as can
be worked out, Loder's rotation appeared to be wheat, fallow, wheat or
barley, fallow. This followed the orthodox lines of his day. The yields
fluctuated widely; some of the later harvests gave as high returns as
to-day's national average. He was justified in prbclaiming a return of
13 ; I in wheat as a " most marvellous yield." Barley yields were, however,
lower than the present average. As regards the hay crop, Loder for the
first few years contented himself with the ordinary simple precautions that
any farmer would take on meadow lands. He did a little " thisseling " ;
he hired a mole catcher to destroy the moles and spread their heaps;
in the Mead he tried " watering," and from the context it seemed that
water-meadows, in an elementary form, had been constructed there.
As horses were the most important animals on the farm they received
the best attention. In winter he fed them on rations of hay, chafi, malt,
beans and peas. Their summer grazing was supplemented by malt and
sometimes green vetches or peas. As for cattle, Loder records that on
one occasion seven animals ate nothing but straw after Candlemas Day
until the new grass was ready. Later, he kept a dairy herd, and made
a profit, though milk yields were low even for his own day. Loder does
not disdose very much about his sheep. In winter the scanty grazing
was supplemented by straw. In the year 1613 there was much flooding,
and he lost 400 sheep through rot. The following year he suffered further
losses and warns himself that he should not ,have bought " after so great
a rot year." Pigs he kept for household food only.
From his accounts he computes the whole yield of the farm, and he sets
out the amounts sold, what was used in his household, given away, used
for feeding his animals and poultry. He charges interest on the money
invested in tillage and seed, but does not charge managerial salary. His
net profits ranged between £200 and £300 a year. His sales were mainly
of wheat and malt. Oddments such as leases for stock on the conunons, sales
of produce from the orchards, and other items, helped to swell his profits.
Labour costs were of a similar order to others of which there are records.
Day rates were 6d. to 8d. in winter, and a penny or so more in summer.
For mowing hay or reaping com he paid rs. 2d, to 15. ^d, a day. A
shepherd received £2 a year, a carter £3 6s, 8d,, a boy £i 4s,, and the
maids were paid 30s, They all lived in, and Loder calculated the cost
of their keep at an average of £10 a year each. Piece-work rates varied
from 6d, for threshing a quarter of barley to is, 2d, for wheat.
These are only a few of the very interesting facts now brought to light
in Mr. Fussell's painstaking transcription of a manuscript which shows
us farming methods in Jacobean England. All interested in agricultural
history will welcome this volume.
Printed under the authority of His Majssty’s Statiokkxy Office,
By William Clowes k Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S*E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 11 February, 1938
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Agricultural Machinery in England and Wales
The tabulation has now been completed of the replies to
the enquiry addressed in September last to all occupiers of
agricultural holdings over i acre in extent in England and
Wales, with regard to the numbers of tractors and other
machinery on their holdings at that date. On the basis of the
information so obtained, the total numbers of the specified
machines on agricultural holdings are estimated to be as
follows : —
Wheel tractors for field work 41,500
Wheel tractors for stationary work onh' . . . . . . 3,420
Tracklaying tractors 1,500
Steam tackle (sets) . . . . . . . . . . 1,630
Threshing drums 12,200
No comparable figures are available for earlier years.
Particulars were furnished by 70 per cent, of the occupiers.
This is a very satisfactory response.
Numbers of Pigs, Cattle and Sheep in England and Wales
in December, 1937
The Ministry recently issued the following statements of the
estimated numbers of pigs, cattle and sheep on farms in
England and Wales on December 4, 1937, compared with the
corresponding figures in June last and in June and December
in the two previous years.
The estimates for December, 1937, are based on returns
received from two-thirds of the farmers in the country with
holdings of over i acre. '
Pigs. The total number of pigs in December is estimated at
3,914,000, which is 142,000 less than in December, 1936,
and 199,000 less than in December, 1935. As in each of the
A 1041
Notes for the Month
past two years, there has been a material increase in the num-
bers between June and December. The increase in 1937
amounted to 282,000, which is rather larger than the increase
in 1936, but less than that in 1935.
The number of sows for breeding decreased by 32,000 on
the year, following a decrease of 27,000 between December,
1935, and December, 1936. The decline in the number of
breeding sows between June and December is greater than
that recorded in either of the previous two years.
Other pigs of two months and over have increased both in
1935-36 and in 1936-37, but there has been a marked decline
over the two years in the number of pigs under two months
old.
The figures generally indicate that the increase in the number
of pigs recorded on September 4 was due to seasonal causes,
and that the decline in pig keeping continues.
Estimated Pig Population of England and Wales on December
4. 1937. WITH Comparative Figures for 1936 and 1935, and for
June 4 in all three years.
Sows FOR Breeding —
1935 1936 1937
Thousands Thousands Thousands
June
494
483
455
September
. . —
—
472
December
507
480
448
Boars for Service—
June
40
34
32
September
, —
33
December
41
34
32
Other Pigs, 2 months and over —
June
. . 2,074
2,187
2,107
September
—
—
2,628
December
. • 2,519
2,580
2,604
Other Pigs, under 2 months —
June
1,205
1,100
1.038
September
—
—
1.223
December
1,046
962
830
TOTALS—
June
. . 3.813
3.804
3.632
September
. . —
—
4.356
December
.. 4>ii3
4.05t>
3.914
Cattle. The total number of cattle on December 4 in
England and Wales is estimated at 6,761,000, which is 113,000
greater than in December, 1936, and 251,000 greater than in
December, 1935. The December total shows, as in 1936, an
increase over the June total. Cows and heifers in milk are
estimated at 2,040,000, being a decrease of 4,000 as compared
1042
Notes for the Month
with 1936, and 31,000 fewer than in 1935. Cows and heifers
in calf, however, again record an increase, the December
estimate of 1,086,000 comparing with 1,058,000 and 1,009,000
in ttie corresponding mon^ of 1936 and 1935 respectively.
Estimated Cattle Population of England and Wales on December
4i i937i WITH Comparative Figures for 1936 and 1935, and for
June 4 in all three years.
1935 1936 1937
2'housands Thousands Thousands
Cows and Heifers in Milk —
June 2,232 2,227 2,217
December . . . . . . . . 2,071 2,044 2,040
Cows IN Calf, but not in Milk —
June 382 405 394
December . , . . . . . . 606 639 648
Heifers in Calf, with first Calf —
June 437 444 45^
December . . . . . . . . 403 419 438
Bulls being used for service —
June . . . . . . . . . . 8() 84 87
December . . . . . , . . 88 90 93
Bulls (including Bull Calves) —
June 40 44 44
December . . . . . . . . 55 50 49
Other Cattle —
2 years old and above —
June * .. 923 9J3 925
December . . . . . . . . 8bo 913 895
I vear old and under 2 —
June 1,314 i»25I 1,274
December 1,214 1,250 1,272
Under i year, for rearing (excluding
Bull Calves being reared for
service) —
June 1,127 i>i72 1.165
December 1,213 1,195 1.27^
Calves intended for slaughter as
CALVES —
June — — 57
December . . . . . . . . — 4^ 4^
TOTALS—
June 6,541 6,540 6,619
December . . . . . . . . 6,510 6,648 6,761
Sheep. The total number of sheep, as estimated from the
returns, is 13,740,000, an increase of 828,000 over December,
1936, and of 1,078,000 pver December, 1935. The usual fall
in numbers from the June figures is recorded, though this is
not so large as in the previous two years. Ewes kept for
breeding numbered 8,005,000 and show a steady increase, as
do lambs intended for breeding.
A 2
1043
Notes for the Month
Estimated Sheep Population of England and Wales on December
4* 1937# WITH Comparative Figures for 1936 and 1935, and for
June 4, in all three years
1935
1936
1937
Thousands Thousands
Thottsands
Ewes Kept for Breeding —
June
7.125
7.238
7.321
December
7.607
7.753
8,005
Ewe Lambs Intended for Breeding —
June
(«)
(«)
924
December
977
1,386
1.526
Rams and Ram Lambs to be Used for
Service —
June
. .
. . 226
- 23 ^
241
December . .
. •
. . 228
■243
-253
Other Sheep —
Under 6 months old —
June
. .
7,156 (6)
7.304 (b)
7 MO
December . .
. .
. . 481
316
315
6 months to i year —
June
. .
439 (b)
437 (b)
323
December . .
. .
. . 2,696
2.673
3>i32
I year old and above —
June
. •
1.531
1.438.
1.245
December . .
••
673
541
509
TOTALS—
June
. .
. . 16,477
16,648
17.194
December . .
. . 12,662
12,912
13.740
{a) Not available : included under (h) for year concerned.
(b) Includes ewe lambs intended for breeding.
^Essex Seed Growers* Association
For some years now research has been carried on with
the object of improving the strains of various plants that are
used for agricultural purposes. In addition, there have been
attempts to establish organizations to foster the production,
and to encourage the use, of some of the existing strains of
particular merit. The importance of strains of all the farm
crops has thus gradually begun to attract more and more
attention, and it may be that the time is not far distant when
it will be the majority, rather than a small minority, of farmers
who demaird definite strains of seeds, and who will also want
some guarantee that the seeds are of the strain they require.
As the need for this service increases, it will be necessary for
growers of seeds to oi^anize themselves into associations that
can undertake to supply authenticated stocks of the various
strains that are available.
One such organization, the Essex Seed Growers' Associa-
Notes for the Mokth
tion, formed in February, 1933, and of which Mr. John Garton
is President, might well be taken as a model for others.
A scheme for the establishment of such an association was
originally submitted to the Essex Coimty Farmers' Union,
who appointed a small committee to examiiie the proposal.
This Committee — of which Mr. P. Hutley, Junr., and Mr.
Hollis Clayton were Chairman and Vice-Chairman respec-
tively, and who still retain their positions in the Association
to-day — recommended that the proposed scheme should be
carried out, and accordingly the Association was formed for
the purpose of bringing the merits of Essex Late-FloMfering
Red Clover to the notice of farmers likely to find it of par-
ticular value under their conditions of soil and climate. It
was held that the aim of the Association was to benefit Essex
farmers as a whole, but it was decided to limit the member-
ship to 30 members until the Association became established.
The Association, by inspecting crops of clover grown by its
members, and by issuing certificates in respect of those crops
that proved to be true, aimed at ensuring that purchasers of
certified Essex Late-Flowering Red Clover should be able to
purchase the seed with every confidence that they would
obtain true and reliable stocks. No restrictions were placed
on the sale of certified seed, but the Association arranged that
Messrs. Hasler & Co. , Ltd. , of Dunmow, should act as th^
agents for dressing the seed, and that certificates should opfy
be issued in respect of seed dressed by these agents and leaving
their warehouse in sealed bags.
The East Anglian Institute of Agriculture was in fact
resp>onsible for originating this scheme, and it is particularly
due to the work of Mr. R. P. Hawkins, the District Agricul-
tural Organizer for North-West Essex, that it was made prac-
ticable. Mr. Hawkins was in Devonshire before coming to
Essex, and it was there that he commenced the investigations
into strains of Red Clover, which ultimately made it possible
to start the Association. Inspection of the growing crops,
for which a nominal charge is made, has been arranged for
by the East Anglian Institute, this service being fitted in
with the ordinary work of the District Agricultural Organizer.
At the outset the District Agricultural Organizer also acted
as Secretary of the Association, whilst the Agents of the
Association, Messrs. Hasler & Co., Ltd., dealt with all trade
inquiries. In 1936, Mr. F. T. Smith, Panfield, Braintree,
Essex, was appointed Secretary, and Mr. Hawkins was elected
1045
Notes for the Mcrith
to the Executive Committee as Tedmical Adviser to the
Association. The cost of membership of die Asitodation is
small, there being an annual subscription of 5s., an entrance
fee of 5 $., and a levy of is. per acre on aU crops inspected.
These fees are used for the purpose of advertising die seeds of
die Association.
At the request of certain of the members Essex Broad Red
Clover was brought into the Association's scheme in 1936.
Evidence of the value of genuine Essex Broad Red Clover
in North-East Scotland has been obtained as the result of
trialsfat the Craibstone Experimental Station of the North of
Scotland Agricultural College. The Welsh Plant Breeding
Station, Aberystwyth, also made approaches.to the Associa-
tion, and, as a result, members have now started to grow
crops of the special strains of seed that have been raised at
that Station.
The progress of die Association can best be shown by die
following summary of crops inspected: —
Inspection
Meffthership
Crops Acreage
1933 ••
30
Late-Flowaing Red Clover .
9
66
1934 ••
30
Late-Flowering Red Clover .
16
130
1935 ••
50
Late-Flowering Red Clover .
14
112
1936 ..
50
Late-Flowering Red Clover .
17
148 1
Broad Red Clover
9
165 V341
Aberystwyth Seeds . .
7
28 J
1937 ••
55
Late-Flowering Red Clover .
16
1371
Broad Red Clover ^ .
10
160 }-39i
Aberystwyth Seeds
24
94/
It will be seen from diese particulars that the Association
soon extended its interest beyond Essex Late-Flowering Red
Clover, and, in fact, members are now growing 12 different
strains of grasses and clovers. The Executive Committee
are now considering other schei^ of expansion, and one
interesting suggestion is that diO' Association shall extend its
facilities to members who have fidds registered under the Wild
White Clover Certification Schome operated by die National
Fanners' Union and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,
so that the produce of such fields shall be sold in bags sealed
by the Association.
The Association hold^ two meetir^ aimually. The annual
general business meeting in January, which is followed by
an open lecture by some author!^ on grass land problems;
and a m^ummer meeting which is followed a diort tour
Notes for the Month
of inspection of a number of seed crops which are being
grown by members. These meetings have been most success-
ful and indicate the great interest that is being taken in the
work of the Association. The summer inspection of the seed
crops provides a most useful opportunity for discussing the
many problems that arise in connexion with seed growing,
particularly as to the manurial treatment and time of cutting.
These discussions on matters which are at present not
very well understood are of considerable educational value,
and are by no means a small part of the value of this Seed
Growers’ Association, The contact that is thus established
between the County Education Staff and the members of this
Association is likely to prove of great advantage to the mem-
bers, and to enhance the value of the educational work that
is undertaken.
An added interest to the members who grow Essex Late-
Flowering Red Clover is the competition for the William
Hasler Challenge Cup which is awarded annually to the grower
of the best crop. The competition is based on the result of
inspections of the growing crop and examination of the seed
on delivery to the agents, when marks are awarded for purity,
colour and quantity. The winner, in addition to holding fte
cup for a year, receives a certificate and a small replica of
the cup.
The Association is a fine example of co-operation between
farmers, merchants and education staffs. It is in a flourishing
condition and seems likely to make further headway, yj^
The Accredited Poultry Breeding Stations Scheme
The Accredited Poultry Breeding Stations Scheme in its
present form may be said to have developed from the egg and
chick distribution scheme, which was in operation up to 1928.
The object of the latter was to enable poultry-keepers of the
small-holder and cottager type to obtain hatching eggs and
day-old chicks at reasonable prices. Following the discon-
tinuance of this scheme, several County Authorities, with the
approval of the Ministry of Agriculture, developed schemes
of an experimental nature, which became known as approved
poultry breeding stations schemes. The necessity for their
co-ordination subsequently became manifest, and to facili-
tate inter-county distribution and assist the expansion of
the export trade in stock poultry, it was decided to operate a
sdbeme on uniform lines throughout the country. This led
1047
Notes for the Month
to the inauguration of the present Accredited Poultry Breeding
Stations Scheme in 1932-1933.
The scheme is under the direct administrative control of
County Authorities, and supervision by the Ministry of
Agriculture is maintained through its Small Livestock Inspec-
torate. Thus a measure of official guarantee is afEo^ed
regarding the health and quality of the stock distributed. In
most counties, farms applying for accreditation are now placed
on probation for one season, in order that the County Poultry
Instructor may satisfy himself that the quality of the stock
and die system of management are satisfactory, and to enable
the breeder to familiarize himself with the requirements laid
down in the regulations.
One of the primary requirements of the scheme is that no
bird may be bred from until it has passed the blood agglutina-
tion test for Bacillary White Diarrhoea. On a Class “A”
station, all the birds of six months old or over must be sub-
mitted to this test, while on a Class “ B ” station, the breeding
stock only is tested.
The objects of the scheme are to facilitate the supply of
hatching eggs, day-old chicks, and adult birds, both as
breeding stock for the purpose of egg and table poultry pro-
duction, and as actual egg producers and birds for table. To
assist in the attainment of these objects, the Ministry pub-
lishes annually a register of accredited stations and hatcheries,
of which copies may be obtained on application. The accredi-
tation of hatcheries is a corollary of j;he Accredited Poultry
Breeding Stations Scheme, and the Ministry has prepared a
model scheme for the use of County Authorities desirous of for-
mulating such a scheme in conjunction with their accredited
stations.
When the Accredited Stations Scheme in its present form
commenced in 1932-1933, it was operated in seventeen
counties with 121 stations. Other counties have since adopted
the scheme, and the corresponding figures for the 1937-38
season embrace thirty-four counties and 208 stations. In
addition, there are now five accredited hatcheries.
Ctmtrol of Onion and Leek Smut in England and Wales
Smut of onions and leeks is a very serious disease that plays
havoc with seedlings and young plants; it occurs on older
1048
Notes for the Month
plants also, but less frequently. It is caused by a parasitic
fungus, and is contracted from the soil. Fortunately, the
disease has not yet become common in this country, the total
number of outbreaks known to exist in England and Wales
up to the end of 1937 being only 31, distributed as follows : —
Northumberland 10, Durham 2, Westmorland i, Lancashire 2,
Worcestershire 12, Northamptonshire 2, Huntingdonshire i,
and Suffolk i.
It is of the utmost importance, however, that the further
development and wider spread of the disease in this country
should be prevented by all possible means. Regulations have
been in operation for several years to secure this end, and it
is the duty and to the interest of all growers to show loyal
co-operation in carrying out these regulations, of which a
summary is given below, and which may be claimed to have
had the effect of confining the disease to comparatively
restricted areas, and of preventing any serious loss to the
onion-growing industry of this country.
The Importation of Plants Order of 1933 prohibits the
landing in England and Wales from any country other fhan
Scotland, Ireland, and the Channel Islands of (amongst other
things) any onion “sets” (bulbs) for planting, except in
accordance with certain specified regulations.
The Onion Smut Order of 1921 requires the occupier of any
land on which Onion or Leek Smut exists, or appears to exist,
to notify the fact forthwith to the Ministry or to an Inspector.
The sale of plants viably affected with Onion Smut is pro-
hibited, and those who have affected plants may be required
to destroy them by fire or other suitable method. In land
declared to be an “ Infected Place ” for the purposes of the
Order, no onion or leek plants may be planted, and no onion
or leek seeds may be sown, except under licence. No onion
or leek plants grown in an “ Infected Place ” may be removed
therefrom except under licence, unless they are free from soil,
and are intended solely for consumption. It may be added
that licences to plant or sow are issued only on special condi-
tions as to soil treatment at sowing time and after cau’eful con-
sideration of all the circumstances in each particular instance ;
such licenses are valid for a limited period only, and are not
necessarily renewable thereafter.
Copies of these Orders and of an illustrated Advisory Leaflet
(No. 261) entitled “ Onion and Leek Smut ” may be obtained
on application to the Ministry.
1049
Notes for the Month
Progress of the Land Fertility Scheme
The Land Fertility Scheme came into operation on September
6, 1937. By the end of the year 67,300 applications for
Exchequer contribution under the Scheme had been received
from occupiers of agricultural land in the United Kingdom,
in respect of approximately 383,000 tons of lime and 203,000
tons of basic slag, involving, it is estimated, contributions
amounting to £231,000 for lime and £120,000 for basic slag.
The Land Fertility Committee have issued a Memorandum
(L.F.C.4) explaining the procedure for giving provisional
approval, as " approved associations ” under paragraph
4 (i) (b) of the Scheme, to associations of farmers, allotment
holders, or smallholders, or other similar associations, which
purchase lime or basic slag in bulk, for redistribution to their
members; copies of this Memorandum can be obtained on
application to the Secretary, The Land Fertility Committee,
41, Tothill Street, London, S.W.i.
Work of the Land Division of the Ministry, 1936
The recently published Report on the Work of the Land
Division of the Ministry for the year 1936 deals with the
provision of small holdings and allotments by local authorities
under the Small Holdings and Allotments Acts; the admini-
stration and finance of the Ministry’s farm settlements;
the sanction of schemes submitted by landowners for the pur-
pose of loans under the Improvement of Land Acts; the
extinguishment of fines and other manorial incidents attach-
ing to land formerly of copyhold tenure; the control and
management of commons; sales and other transactions under
the Universities and College Estates Act and the Glebe Lands
Act; the appointment of arbitrators in connexion with matters
of dispute between landlord and tenant affecting agricultural
holdings; and the redemption and apportionment of, and
other transactions relating to, tithe rentcharge.
The report also deals with the activities of local authorities
and file Ministry under the Rats and Mice (Destruction) Act,
1919, and with the administration of the statutory powers for
the destruction of injurious weeds.
Another interesting item in the Report is the reference to
the conclusion of the campaign against the musk rat or
musqua^, the importation into and keeping of which within
Great Britain have been prohibited by an Order made under
1050
Notes for the Month
the provisions of the Destructive Imported Animals Act, 1932.
Musk rats have been at liberty in considerable numbers in two
areas, in Salop and parts of adjoining counties, and in West
Sussex, Surrey and Hampshire, but the measures taken appear
to have resulted now in the elimination of this pest.
The Use of Lime
Readers of the Journal are now familiar with the provisions
of the Agriculture Act, 1937, whereby farmers can obtain lime
at one-half of the cost delivered to their farms.
Farmers generally are well aware of the supreme importance
of lime in soil fertility, and they should take the opportunity to
make the most of the present concessions. Although, however,
the immediate cost of liming is halved, farmers should not use
lime indiscriminately, nor will they generally be able to afford
the veiy heavy dressings of lime or chalk Aat were formerly
customary. Soils differ widely in their requirements. Some
are already so well supplied with reserves that it would be
against the interest both of tire farmer and of the nation to
incur expense in still further increasing the surplus. On the
other hand, farmers need not be deterred from embarking on
liming through the belief tliat lime must necessarily be applied
in heavy dressings and at great expense. On some light
sandy soils, which are often in most need of lime, a ton or
two per acre will often suffice.
Attention is therefore directed to the recent re-issue of the
Ministry's Bulletin {The Use of Lime in Agriculture).* This
has been specially revised with the " liming subsidy ” in mind,
and is intended to provide information that will assist farmers
in working out their liming policy. In addition to reviewing
the various forms of lime available and advising as to their
application, the publication describes the chemical tests for
soil acidity and lime requirement, and briefly mentions Ihe
facilities available, under the Ministty's advisory and educa-
tion scheme, for suppl5dng advice to farmers as to the require-
ments of their fiel(te.
• Bulletiii No. 35. Price 6 d. (post free jd.), from His Majesty’s
Stationery Office, Kingsway, London, W.C.a.
THE OXFORD FARMING CONFERENCE, 1938
Sir Daniel Hall, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
The Oxford Farming Conference held on January 4-7
differed from its predecessors in its wider scope. Previously,
the papers and discussions had dealt mainly with the appli-
cation of mechanization to farming and with implements; on
this occasion the topics were systems of farming and the basic
principles of crop production under present-day conditions.
The Conference was well attended by about three hundred
men and women, drawn from all parts of Great Britain, with
a few from Ireland, and it was encouraging to note that the
majority were young. In the discussions, young men came
forward and succinctly described their experiences, and one
got the impression that there is a new race of farmers who
are anxious to learn and ready to try new things if a good
case can be made out for them. It is refreshing, too, to find
the Conference little interested in what may be called agricul-
tural politics; except for an occasional allusion to the losses
farmers are sustaining and the need for a rise in prices —
allusions which provoked little response, but were rather taken
as common form — ^fte Conference steadily kept its attention
on the technical aspects of farming and the improvement of
output.
Professor Scott Watson opened the first day with a general
survey of the secular problem — ^how is the fertility of the land
to be maintained ? In the last sixty years or so men have
been exploiting vast areas of new land in the Americas,
Africa, and Australasia. Very generally this has been done
without any regard to the permanent productivity of the soil;
die pioneer has always conceived of there being more land
and yet more land waiting for him, and he has taken what
he could get out of his farm and moved on. The result has
been that die major foodstuffs of die world have been sold
at prices below their real cost, because the depletion of the
soil, and consequentiy the loss of capital, has been ignored.
The consequences are now becoming apparent in die accounts
of worn-out farms and of land destruction by erosion diat are
reaching us from meiny of the countries that a few years ago
were flooding the world with cheap cereals. Professor Watson
asked what had been the reaction of this cheapness on our
1:052
The Oxford Farming Conference, 1938
land; how far have low prices driven our farmers to cash the
fertility they had inherited ? He concludes that in the better
farming districts the fertility of the land is probably higher
to-day than it has ever been. It may not look in such a spick
and span condition as it has done, because labour has become
so costly, but, thanks to artificial fertilizers and imported
feeding stuffs, its productive capacity has been raised. On
the other hand, he considers that the hill pastures have been
deteriorating for the last hundred years under commercial
sheep farming, which has been continuously taking away
fertifity, notably the phosphates, without any measures of
recuperation, either chemical or physical. The deterioration
is plainly evident in the character of the herbage; cultivated
fields have often gone back to rough grazings, Nardus and
Molinia replace heather, Bracken has been spreading and
reducing the carrying capacity of the moors. While paying
his tribute to the work Professor Stapledon and his colleagues
are doing in showing how the hill pastures can be regenerated
by the use of lime and phosphates, but more especially by
ploughing up and re-seeding, Professor Watson pointed to the
even larger areas of indifferent grass land in England, which
would give a much more profitable return for expenditure
upon them. Sometimes the need is for drainage; sometimes
lime and basic slag, to the provision of which the schemes
of the Government are directed, will exert a marvellous
re-conditioning effect; but in many instances, especially on
land of the extreme types, light or heavy, little real improve-
ment can be affected unless the land is ploughed and re-sown.
This led Professor Watson to insist on the necessity of such
a plough policy now as an insurance against the emergency
of war. Grass land may be a reservoir of fertility, but the
reservoir cannot be drawn upon when there are no ploughs
or tractors or horses in the grass areas, above all if there are
no men able to use such tools. In the last war the difficulty
of extending cultivation lay in the lack of men and implements ;
to-day we should be starting from a much lower level both
of arable land and of men accustomed to working it. Again,
old grass land is much less amenable to cultivation than tem-
porary grass that was under the plough a year or two earlier;
the turf of old, sour pasture takes a long time to disintegrate,
and wireworms are likely to be more troublesome.
Professor Watson concluded his papr with some discus-
sion of tire Government’s Land Fertility Scheme. He con-
1053
Thb Oxford Farming Conferoncb, 1938
ddered tihiat the benefits are spread somewhat imevenly, for
the Cotswold farmer, for example, does not require lime, and
die Scottish farmer at some distance from a railway would
prefer, to basic slag, the more concentrated ground rock
phosphate for the purchase of which he can receive no
assistance. Even when lime or slag is provided, there is
much land that cannot be productive until it is drained; but
after all the list of deciderata could be extended indefinitely.
Following upon Professor Watson’s introduction, the
Conference turned to the consideration of its main subject —
the management of temporary grass land, or what is now
being called alternate husbandly. At the outset a little dif-
ference in nomenclature had to be cleared up. To the
Englishmen of the South alternate husbandry represents the
system that began when prices broke about 1921, and it
became evident that the older rotations, with a quarter, or even
more, of the land under roots or other fodder crops, could no
longer pay for the labour expended. So grew up the plan of
alternating temporary le}^, left down for three, four or five
years, with a similar period of corn crops, which would cash
the fertility that had been accumulated by the Wild White
Clover that was an essential constituent of the seeds mixture.
Roots would be entirely eliminated, except perhaps for a single
field of mangolds grown because of their usefulness to the
flock. The North Countryman, though he has undoubtedly
lengthening his leys since the ’eighties of last century, and
depends so much on the fertility dye to the growth of
Wild White Clover, does not dispense with roots, because
he has a larger period when his stock must be kept under cover
and need winter keep. Thus, alternate husbandry in the
North may mean the mere extension of the ley from one year
in the old four-course system to two, three, or even four, years
in an extended rotation. The term may have still another
significance as representing no more than the practice of
having no permanent grass on the farm. Even though the
farm may be entirely given up to grass, it is better on many
soils to put the plough through from time to time, even if the
land is at once re-seeded. Indeed, Mr. J. R. Bond, from
Derbyshire, reminded the Conference that there was nofliing
new in alternate husbandry, that tiie practice of renewing the
pastures, of successively ploughing every field of the farm,
had been common form in the West and North from time
iixmMmorial.
1054
Tbb Oxford Farming Conferencs;, 1938
On behalf of Ihe alternate system it was argued that tem-
porary grass is more productive; live stock upon it are always
less subject to epizootic disease; and fanners, at any rate
those who spoke at this Conference, made light of the trouble
and expense of laying down a pasture. Moreover, as one
speaker put it, why store up fertility indefinitely in permanent
grass land when you can cash that fertility at intervals of a
few years by turning it into crops ?
Professor J. A. Hanley dealt with the methods of securing
fertility by improving grass land — drainage, lime and slag.
He had something to say about the difficulty of getting the lime
and phosphates properly incorporated in the soil; indeed, he
insisted that after the herbage has been reformed by such
treatment it is only by ploughing and re-seeding that one can
obtain full value for Ae fertilizer that remains accumulated in
the surface layer only. Professor Hanley ranged himself
strongly on the side of alternate husbandmen; his experience
includes land near the industrial districts of Lancashire and
Yorkshire so fouled by smoke that it will grow nothing at all
until it is broken up.
While Professor Hanley wanted to give attention first to
improvement of the lowland grass, he agreed that the hill
pasture required consideration, if only because of deteriora-
tion in the sheep stocks upon them— upon which stocks nowa-
days most of the sheep husbandry of the country depends.
Even if it is difficult to ameliorate the hill grazings proper,
much can be done by improving and extending the area of
enclosed land, the lower fields near the homestead. There
should be rectified the mineral deficiencies that have become
associated with the rough grazings.
A Tweedside farmer, Mr. D. G. Brown, of CornhiU, then
discussed methods that characterize that famous farming
country. It was predominantly an arable country, worked on
a four-course rotation, and it still is an arable country, though
the le3?s stay down for three years on the better land and up
to ten or twelve years on the more distant or steeper fields.
A mixture is used in which Perennial Rye-grass and Cocksfoot
predominate, with a pound of Wild White Clover per acre,
but it also contauns 6 or 8 lb. of Late Red Clover and Alsike.
Mr. Brown insisted that with proper manuring and manage-
ment these temporary pastures will turn out mutton and beef
without any artificial feeding, and will yield profitable crops
of wheat and barley when ploughed up; but he made an
1055
The OiTOitD Farming Comfebbncx, 1938
interesting confession — “ I can never watch a plough being
struck into these good pastures without suffering pangs of
remorse. 1 toink it is hereditaiy from toe da}^ when toe
imking«f a good grass field was a generation's woik."
This point — ^toe reluctance to break up grass land — arose
repeated for discussion during toe Conference. In his
opening address, Professor Watson had alluded to restricted
covenants, and on toe following day Mr. C. S. Orwin pointed
out that most Agreements still contain a clause proMbiting
the breaking up of permanent grass except by permission of
toe landlord and under heavy fine. Opinions differed on toe
actual operation of these clauses; some speakers declared that
permission was freely granted, but on toe otoer hand we
were reminded toat the landlord needed all toe protection he
could get against a bad tenant, since toe Agriculture Act is
being so interpreted that a landlord cannot in practice obtain
a declaration toat a tenant is farming so badly as to justify
a Notice to Quit.
As Mr. Orwin pointed out, permanent grass is held sacred
because grass farms let more readily; they require less capital
and are less subject to market fluctuations of value; and
they represent “ safety first ” to both tenant and owner.
Though the first part of toe old maxim, " to break a pasture
makes a man, to make a pasture breaks a man,” has lost
its attraction, toe latter part is still held to be true in face of
toe now widespread experience of the ceftainty with which
good temporary pasture can be laid do,wn.
Mr. Orwin dealt generally with the relative values of per-
manent grass, which one speaker described as a fetish of
English agriculture that commanded no respect across toe
Border. He gave instances of toe greater productivity, profit,
freedom from disease, vailue for employment and for national
defence, of land managed on toe temporary ley system. One
might hesitate to break up toe fattening pastures of Leicester-
shire and the marshes in many coastal areas, but even on these
rich lands the vegetation has often become coarse and un-
palatable, epizootics cause great losses of stock, and toe old
tradition toat it is impossible to re-establish a good pasture
has never been tested under modern conditions. The most
productive potato and vegetable-growing lands of Lincolnshire,
which have made wealth for their cultivators, were ploughed
out of old bullock-feeding pastures, generally at toe cost of
a pretty stiff penal rent.
1056
Tbb OKFcntD Farming Conference, 1938
While the papers thus hir had all set out the advantages to
be derived from alternate husbandry, Mr. W. S. Mansfield
addressed himself to a discussion of the difficulties, of which
many men were so conscious ffiat it had made relatively little
headway in the Eastern Counties. There, as a rule, the aral^
was arable and the grass grass; from the arable the hedges and
<llfeches had pretty well disappeared, so that if it had to be stocked
with cattle a considerable initial expenditure was required for
water and fencing. Again, it was still by no means easy to estab-
lish a good ley on heavy soils where spring droughts prevail.
Mr. Mansfield’s personal experience on heavy clay land had
led him to use a cheap mixture consisting mainly of Perennial
Rye-grass with up to 2 lb. per acre of Wild White Clover, and
up to 4 lb. of Late-flowering Red Clover. The seeds were
drilled in spring in an autumn-sown wheat crop (the soil is
too heavy for spring corn) for which a dressing of 10 cwt.
per acre of high-grade basic slag had been given. Mr. Mansfield
holds by grazing even in the first year, though never too
closely, and if the plant is weak through droughty condi-
tions he nurses it with a little nitrogenous manure. The
failure of long leys in the Eastern Counties may often be put
down to taking hay crops too early and too often. Mr.
Mansfield then dealt with the question of how the grass land was
to be turned to profit. He claimed that he had been able to
send both cattle and sheep to market off his new grass without
any extraneous feeding, which was not possible on such per-
manent grass as could Ije maintained in the same soil. Other
speakers, however, complained that while they obtained
plenty of grass and white clover on their temporary leys, it
did not seem to possess the same fattening value that, for
example, the Tweedside farmer got out of his grass. Earlier
in the proceedings, Professor Hanley had insisted that an
improved calcium content in the grass was the chief factor in
good feeding, and Mr. A. W. Ling had uttered a warning
against setting too much value on white clover. The proof
of a pasture was its productivity, not its appearance.
Mr. Mansfield had been dealing with clay land, and was
followed by Mr. Fisher Crouch, who farmed on the thin lands
of Salisbury Plain, also subject to spring droughts. Mr.
Crouch’s farm was wholly mechanized, but he regarded the
alternation of corn with a three- to five-years ley as essential
to successful corn growing, the leys themselves being grazed
wiffi dairy cattle, sheep and poultry. Mr. Crouch declared
1057
Thb OxTOltD Farming Confbbbncb, 1938
himself strongly in ^vour of seeding with the indigenous
Strains of grasses introduced by the Aberystwyth Plant
Breeding Station, in opposition to Mr. Mansfield, who had
stated ^t for his three- or four-year leys he could never
afford such expensive seeds and, moreover, that he had found
the commercial strains both earlier and more palatable to
stock. Other speakers also expressed diverse opinions about
the Aberystwyth strains of grasses; on the whole the
experiences agreed that they were not so early, but that good
graaing was prolonged to much later in the season. One
Wold farmer had it both ways by sowing a mixture of half
commercial and half indigenous, and he also sowed as much
as 4 lb. per acre of Wild White Clover and grazed poultry
for the first of his three years' ley.
Mr. N. V. Hewison of Wye College, whose opinion carried the
weight due to file exceptional profits he had been making from
the College Farm, while agreeing that the indigenous selec-
tions from Aberystwyth give a longer if later period of grazing,
admitted that his preference for them was a good deal based
on the fact that he was saving and selling seed. Mr^ Hewison
^vas one of the few speakers who had definite figures to put
forward; comparing temporary with permanent grass on the
same type of land, he had obtained a live-weight increase of
403 lb. with lambs on the leys as against 313 lb. on the per-
manent grass. He made out the cost of his leys, for rent,
cultivation, manure and seed, as £2 2s‘. 6 d. per acre per
year. Another speaker, dealing with Jhe difficulties of estab-
Ushing pasture on the extreme types of land, extra heavy or
very light, advocated autumn seeding without a cover crop.
During the first half of the Conference, the discussion had
thus been occupied wholly with the advantages of alternate
husbandry, but on Wednesday afternoon Mr. F. Rayns, of
Norfolk, put forward a new point of view. He was farming
land, of which there was much in the Eastern Counties, that
should on business grounds be kept under continuous arable
cultivation. He could not afford a long ley in which to build
up fertility, and so the Government’s Land Fertility Scheme
was of little assistance, because lime and phosphates did not
add to the stock of nitrogen, unless leguminous crops Avere
taken frequently, and again did not increase the yield of straw,
which, by conversion into farmyard manure " is really the
sheet andhor of arable farming.” This was a return to the
old school of farming, which was summed up in a definition
1058
Tbe Oxford Farming Conference, 1936
of agriculture as the art of converting farmyard manure into
crops and stock, or, more tersely, of “ turning muck into
money.”
As Mr. Rayns put it, the problem of the man who is con-
tinuously cropping arable land, especially of the lighter kind,
is how to maintain the humus content of the soil. He can
buy the nitrogen that is needed, though what he buys is
nitrogen in its fugitive combinations, which have little effect
in building up fertility, but are spent in their year of applica-
tion. Phosphates too are to be bought, and potash is of more
importance than might be gathered from the discussion of
long ley husbandry. With liberal supplies of potash, the
one-year red clover ley, hayed once and then turned in as a
well-grown aftermath, was the best means of adding humus
to the soil. These red clover crops, however, have to be
spread out pretty widely in the rotation because of clover
sickness. Mr. Rayns had obtained poor results from plough-
ing in green manure crops, apart from the waste of land in-
volved in growing the crop, and ploughing in straw had given
similar poor results — often the diminution of crop in the first
year and no increases until the second year. Indeed, this is
now pretty well understood as a matter of competition for
whatever available nitrogen there is in the soil between
the growing crop and the bacteria destroying the straw or other
crop residues. Mr. Rayns had obtained excellent results from
the ploughing in of sugar-beet tops, and for this reason would
prefer, in a four-cours§ rotation, to put in the whole of the
root break with sugar-beet. About the value of sheep folding
he was doubtful, not so much as regards the improvement
it effected in the land, but from the difficulty of realizing in
sheep the values of the crop consumed. Unfortunately, no one
else took up this question of the value of folding sheep upon
arable land. The ‘‘ golden hoof ” is traditional, and upon
sandy types of land there does seem to be value in it, both
from the treading and the manurial residues. On other classes
of land, good farmers may be found who deny that any better
crops follow the fold ; the ammonia evaporates and the treading
deteriorates instead of improving the texture of the soil.
Of course it is understandable that a late fold, when
the sheep ate not taken off until March, is a bad preparation
for barley, but, putting so extreme a case out of question, it
wjuld seem that more study might be given to sheep folding,
which at one time was regarded as the basis of fertility of
1059
The Oxford Farming Conference, 1938
the lighter lands. According to one good farmer, the secret
of retaining both fertility and good texture consists in following
the fold closely with the skim plough, just turning up two
or three inches of the surface.
.In the end Mr. Rayns expressed the opinion that the purely
arable farm could not long get on without farmyard manure, so
that its profitableness and the maintenance of fertility even-
tually turn upon meat production (by which he would seem
to mean bullock fattening in winter) becoming a paying propo-
sition again. Neither Mr. Rayns nor the speakers who
followed him had anything to say about composting or the
making of artificial farmyard manure as a means of adding
humus and maintaining fertility, but this question of humus,
its provision and its function, perhaps merits a Conference
to itself. It presses not only on the all-arable farmers like
Mr. Rayns, and on the mechanized farmers who wish to
eliminate live stock, but even more urgently on the intensive
market gardeners who can no longer obtain the stable manure
upon which they once depended. There are many questions
about humus that demand the investigation of both scientific
and prajctical men.
The remainder of Wednesday afternoon was occupied with
a discussion of the methods of fertilizer distribution, whether
the aim should be an even distribution of the fertilizer over
the surface or its concentration in lines or pockets nearer the
growing plant. The data, however, seenled to be still insuf-
ficient for any practical conclusions to be drawn.
The latter part of the Conference was mostly concerned
with discussions regarding the provision of winter keep by the
preservation of fodder crops grown upon the farm, of which
grass is naturally the mpst important. Haymaking is the
traditional method of dealing with grass and a good deal of
consideration was given to methods whereby the losses
generally experienced in haymaking might be reduced. Mr.
W. H. Cashmore recounted some interesting studies in the
rate of drying of hay and its re-absorption of moisture at
night when humidity is high, and passed on to a consideration
of the practice of baling partly-made hay in the field instead
of stacking. Several other speakers had experimented with
tills process, success with which seemed to depend on obtaining
just the right degree of openness in the bale to permit of the
drying process to continue, and on building up the bales in
such a fashion as will allow ventilation without the risk
1060
The Oxford Farming Conference, 1938
of collapse when the bales shrink unevenly. The advocates
of the tripod seemed to make out the best case for
securing hay in good condition.
It was interesting to note a considerable revival of interest
in silage, due to the introduction of the acid or molasses treat-
ment to reduce the losses by fermentation. Accounts were
given of the cheaply constructed dwarf silos that prevail in
Holland, and of portable wooden silos to be used in the field
and So minimize carting, but a speaker from New Zealand
insisted that good results can be obtained with good stacks.
Of interest was the reported use of silaging to conserve, on the
one hand, beet tops, and on the other, green-pea haulm where
peas are grown for canning. The haulm is valuable food,
but becomes an intolerable nuisance if it cannot be got rid
of immediately.
The real difficulty about silage making, as about grass
drying, was pointed out by Mr. A. Bridges — ^its heavy call
for labour when labour is wanted elsewhere on the farm.
For this reason one speaker would reserve silage for early
grass, leaving the main cut to be dealt with by haymaking.
The final day of the Conference began with an important
paper, by Dr. Garrett of Rothamsted, on the root fungi of
the soil that may prove, and in some districts are proving, a
considerable obstacle to methods of farming involving a
succession of straw crops. Dr. Garrett dealt particularly
with “ take-all ” or “ Whiteheads ” in wheat and barley,
which he had been • investigating in Australia, and the
Cercosporella fungus that causes lodging by attacking the base
of the stem. It is difficult in a short space to set out
Dr. Garrett's conclusions, for no effective means of control
have yet been found. Indeed, some of his recommendations,
for example, to defer the sowing of wheat to as late in the
autumn as possible, are in conflict with what is otherwise ffie
best practice. These diseases, however, merit the most
serious investigation as they threaten some of the recent
improved methods of farming.
The final sitting of the Conference returned in some measure
to its earlier study of alternate husbandry, for Mr. D. Skilbeck
opened a discussion on the subject of weed prevention. The
critics of all methods of farming that involve even a short
succession of straw crops and no roots, are always asking
how the lands can be kept clean. Mr. Skilbeck’s chief text
was “ wild oats,” with “ black bent ” one of flie most trouble-
1061
The Oxford Farming Conference, 1938
some of arable weeds because it will only germinate in the
wheat, and sheds its seed before its crop is harvested. Mr.
Skilbeck spoke of the value of burning the stubble as a means
of stimulating germination; this, indeed, is the desideratum, for
even a bare fallow does not induce the germination of some
of the most difficult weeds.
The interest in the Conference was maintained to the end,
and everyone felt it had been a great success. It owed much
to the organizing ability of Mr. S. J. Wright; printed copies
of the papers to be read were available every morning, times
were kept, lodging arrangements and visits experienced no
hitches. Professor Watson and his colleagues made charm-
ing hosts; the dinner in the noble Hall of Christ Church was
much enjoyed if a Uttle chilly, and it is reported that the late
discussions in Hertford were worth more even than the public
meetings.
FARMING IN SOVIET RUSSU
Sir E. J. Russell, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
Director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station
The vast territory commonly called Russia, but more
properly named the Union of the Socialist Soviet Republics, is
not only the largest self-contained political unit in the world
but includes also a wider range of natural conditions from
Arctic to sub-tropical than can be found anywhere else. Its
variety of agricultural products is correspondingly wide, includ-
ing the cold northern crops, rye, flax and potatoes; the more
temperate crops, wheat, sunflower and sugar-beet; and such
sub-tropical crojjs as oranges and tea. Nowhere else can so
many different crops be seen in one country.
Only a small part of the land, however, is cultivated. Of
the 8.25 million square miles, only about 330 million acres
(about 6 per cent.) are in actual cultivation. The remaining
94 per cent, includes forest 44 per cent. ; pasture and grass
land 13 per cent, (corresponding to our “ rough grazing,”
though 2 per cent, is called grass land); the rest is waste, or at
least non-agricultural land. The present population is esti-
mated at between 168 and 170 millions and it is growing at
the rate of about 2 millions per annum : averaged over the
whole area, the density is about 20 to the square mile, or
concentrating them all dn the cultivated area, a density of i per
2 acres.
With so wide a variation in natural conditions it is impossible
to speak of any particular system of Russian agriculture. The
systems vary in the different areas according to the conditions.
One general feature, however, runs through most of them,
and this is the preponderance of grain cultivation and the low
production of animal products as compared with the agriculture
of western Europe. Out of the 133,000,000 hectares cultivated
in 1935 no fewer than 103 million were in grain of various
kinds, this being 75 per cent, of the arable land, as compared
with 44 per cent, in England and Wales. On the other hand,
fodder crops, which figure so largely here, occupied less than
9 per cent, of the land.
The area of cultivated land varies somewhat from 3^ar to
year, but has increased since 1913, as also has tiie population.
1063
Farming in Soviet Russu
The figures are given in Table i. The principal crops are in
order of areas sown : wheat, rye, oats, millet, barley, potatoes,
sunflower, maize, flax, cotton. The areas sown, in million
hectares, are given in Table i.*
TABLE I.— Areas of Principal Crops Sown in the U.S.S.R.f
19x3
1928
1
1930 1 1931
1932
1933 .
1934
1935
1936
Plan
for
1937
Total area sown ..
105*0
—
I27‘2i 136*3
134*4
129-71
131-5
132*8
133*7
138-9
Grain crops
94-4
—
101*8 104*4
99.7
101*5 i
104*7
103*4
103*96
Rye
24*9
24-1
— —
26*2
25-4 j
23*6
23*1
—
Wheat . .
3 X-I
27*6
— , —
34-6
33 * 2 *
35*1
37*0
—
—
Spring corn, includ-
ing wheat
—
— —
—
—
—
—
—
65*4
Potatoes . .
—
5 * 7 , 6*1
6-1
5*6
6*1
—
—
Vegetables and fruit
Fodder crops
3-8
8*0 9*1
9*2
8-8
—
9*9
—
—
2*1
—
1 6*5 8*8{
10*6
7 - 3 '
7*1
8*6
—
; 13-7
Technical crops . .
4-3
—
1 10*5 14*01
I 4 * 9 i
12*0
10*7
10*6
—
11*0
including -
1
1
Sunflower . ,
0*9
3*9
1 ^
5*3
3*9
3*5
3*3!
—
3*1
Flax and hemp . .
1*0
1*4
j 1*4 —
4*1
2*4
2*11
2*1 1
—
2*4
Cotton
0*7
0*9
— —
2*3'
2*0 1
1*9
1*9
—
2*1
Sugar-beet
0*6
0-7
! — — ,
1*5 '
x*3
i*i
1*2
—
1*2
Tea
Population in
1
33*598
““ ,
168-170
millions
X39-3t
|x54*3
1 (X929) ,
165*7
• I hectare « 2I acres. The figures are left in hectares as they arc always given in this fonn
in official publications.
t From Sel*skoe Khoziaistvo S.S.S.R., 1935 (Statistical Year Book for 1935, the latest available).
X Within the present boundaries of the U.S.S.R.
This preponderance of grain production is not peculiar to
Russia : it is characteristic of other non-tropical Continental
regions consisting mainly of great rolling plains : it is seen in
Canada, Australia, the plains of Hungary and elsewhere.
In speaking of their agriculture th'e Russians always lay
the greatest stress on the development of their technical crops
as shown in Table I; this is one of the consequences of their
policy of increasing the industrial production of the counfay.
Russia now produces the whole of the sugar, flax and cotton
that it consumes. As an example, the areas of sugar-beet and
the production in million centners are as follows : —
1913 * •
Harvest Yield
(miliums of
centners)
.. 109*0
Area
(million
hectares)
0*6
Average Yield
per Hectare
(untners)
180
1928 . .
.. 101*4
0*8
125
1932 . .
65*6
1*5
41
1935 *.
.. 162*1
1*1
147
1936 * *
230*0
1*3
176
1937 ■*
.. 245*0
1*2
204
Average for 6 years = 145 centners per hectare =5-8 tons per acre
The highest annual yield (1937) averaged 204 centners, corresponding
to 8 tons per acre.
ZO64
Farming in Soviet Russia
The distinctive features of Russian agriculture is that it is
definitely planned by the Central Authority : it is not left to
the farmers’ judgement of what is likely to be most profitable.
The Central Authority decides that certain quantities of the
various agricultural products are required and allocates to
each of the constituent Republics its share in the production. A
counter plan may be put forward but ultimately agreement is
reached. Each Government then allocates to the Regional
Head of the Agricultural Department through the Regional
Commissars (Ministers) the share of each Region in the work :
and each Regional Head allocates shares to the District Heads
of Departments. These call together the chairmen of the
collective farms in the districts, and between them the various
quotas arc assigned, so that each farm knows what it is expected
to produce: each has its “plan.” The Chairman must see
the plan through, and the district agricultural organization of
the Party sees that he does it. Every farm is told, therefore,
what crops it must grow and how much it must produce. After
the plan is settled there can be no more discussion and the
plan must be fulfilled ; there is no appeal of any kind. Total
acreages are fixed and also average yields per acre, yields of
milk per cow, yield of meat, etc.*
In order to understand the organization of the farms it is
necessary to know how they arose.
When the Bolsheviks took charge of the Government of
Russia they resolved to apply Marxist principles to agriculture
with the same compl^eness as they had applied them to
industry. The problems, however, proved much more diffi-
cult. The factory workers easily apprehended the underlying
idea of State ownership of the factory, and each one knew
perfectly well that the factory never could belong to him. The
peasant, however, had an old ingrained belief that the land
was his. There was an old peasant sa5ting “ My back belongs
to my master, but my land is mine. ’ ' There are good grounds
for the belief that the peasants joined the Revolution not out
of any desire for Communism but to eliminate the landlord
♦ By the decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council
of People's Commissars of the U.S.S.R. the quantities “ Fixed " for the
U.S.S.R. for 1937 include: total area of grain sown, 103-96 million
hectares; average yield of grain, 10-4 centners per hectare (=8-3 cwt.
per acre) ; average yield of milk per cow, 1,400 kg. (~ 3,100 lb.) ; live-
weight of pigs at slaughter, 80 kg. ( = 178 lb.) ; clip per sheep at beginning
of 1937, 2-6 kg. (= lb.), and so on.
1065
Farming in Soviet Russia
and so secure possession of Ihe land. The Bolsheviks, on the
other hand, took the view that the Revolution would have
failed if the peasants were left as owners of the land. So began
a trial of strength in which both sides suffered greatly. The
townspeople went hungry for some years because the peasants
produced only small quantities of food, especially of meat and
dairy produce, so that these things became very scarce and
dear.
TABLE II. — U.S.S.R. Numbers (millions) of Live Stock*
1916
1929
1930
1931
1932
19331 1934' 193.5 ji 936 t
! ! 1
Plan
for
1937
Horses . .
31-5
34*0
30*2
26-2
19-6
i6-6| 15-6 15*9 1 i6-6
Cattle
58-9
68- 1
52-5
47*9
40*7
38 -r>' 42 - 4 . 49-3 57*0
j —
„ Cows
—
—
26*7
24*4
21 -0
19*7 i — i !
! —
Sheep and goats
115*2
147*2
108-8
77*7
52*1
50-b 5i-9 ,Oi-i , 64-0
73*3
Pigs
20*3
20*9
13-6
14*4
Ji-6
1
12-2 i 17-4 22-5 j 30-4
1.11
1
* .prom Sel’skoe Khoziaistvo S.S.S R , 1935 (Statistical Year Hook for 1035,
the latest available).
t Provisional : taken from Monthly Review, I'cbruary, 1937, ?• ^ 4 *
March, 1937. V -
The peasants, on the other nand, and especially the small
farmers, were "liquidated ” by the thousand: no one knows
how many lost their lives during the struggle. In the end the
Bolsheviks won their point that individual ownership of land
and means of production must cease, and that henceforward
the ownership must be by the community and not by the indi-
vidual. The peasants, nevertheless, won their point that each
must have some land secured to him, also such live stock as
he can maintain : and further, that the ownership of the farm,
if it is to be by the community, shall be by the particular
community that is farming it and not by the State as a whole.
In my earlier visite to Russia in 1930 and 1934, the struggle
was still going on, and one could not fail to notice a good
deal of disaffection among the peasants. This revealed itself
in the figures for numbers of live stock, always a very sensitive
index of agricultural conditions ; there was a catastrophic fall,
many of &e animals being eaten rather than given up, and
many died. On my latest visit (summer of 1937) it was evident
that the peasants were becoming more contented. Each house-
holder may have from i acre up to 2 acres of land, held if not
in ownership at any rate on a tenure that satisfies the peasants’
wishes; many of ftem have, and all are intended to have, a
X066
I’lG I C'()l]<*( tiv<,‘ I‘'arm. \’oroshilo<l - The old home
Fig. 2.- C'ollective Farm, Voroshiloft -The new home
To fare paf^e loof)
Fig 3 A Political Lecture^ at the Karl Ficbknecht Collective l-'ami,
near Oclessa
Fig.
Odessa The Kefdilat.ons,
photograpl)s „f Stakhanovites. and the wall newspaper
Farming in Soviet Russia
cow, a few pigs and some poultry. The great source of
pride, produced always wi& sparkling eyes and much
enthusiasm, was the deed of settlement, only recently received,
elaborately written in the chief languages of the Union on stiff
white paper and bound in an attractive binding, which the
peasants show as their title of ownership of the collective farm.
This farm, they feel, is now theirs, as well as the houses in
which they live and the bit of land that goes with it.
There are two types of farms: State and collective. The
State Farms belong to the State, as their name implies; they
are managed by State officials’ and the employees receive a
definite wage — ^they are paid on a piece-work basis — “progress-
ive piece work ” is the phrase adopted. This method accords
well with the underlying principles of Communism and in point
of fact was widely adopted in the early days of the Revolution;
but it does not accord well with the ideas of the peasants, and
so file area under State farms has steadily decreased, and at
the present time if a collective farm wishes to expand it can
claim possession of a State farm for this purpose.
The Collective Farm works on a completely different basis
and represents something, which so far as I know, is entirely
new in the history of agricultural organization. The whole of
the peasants of the village are brought together into an organi-
zation called the Collective Farm. They bring into it their land
and all their agricultural implements and their animals: no
compensation is paid for anything and no objection is permitted
(there is a short way of dealing with all objectors and dissenters
in Russia) . The organization thus starts free of debt and of all
capital obligations whatsoever : the farm may consist of about
2,500 or more acres, of which about 50 to 70 per cent, may be
arable, and may have about 300 to 500 workers (i.e., about
16 workers per 100 acres) according to the quality of the land
and the cropping. The workers elect a committee of manage-
ment and a chairman : the Committee meets at regular intervals
— usually several times a month — ^to decide on the arrange-
ment of the work and the day-to-day decisions are taken by
the chairman. The Committee organizes the workers into
brigades, to each of which is allotted certain duties: one or
two are in charge of live stock, one in charge of orchards,
several in charge of crops— and so on. Specially good workers
receive a special tide: they are called “ Stakhanovites,”
named after the now famous workman Stakhanov, who found
1067
Farming in Soviet Russia
various ways in which he could increase his ou^ut. The
declared aim of the workers is to do more than the allotted
task, and it is always said that the eye of the fellow-worker
is the best incentive to hard work.
No wages are paid, but the residue of the produce, after &e
various outgoings have been met, is divided among the workers
according to the work they have done.
The work is assessed directly and not on a basis of hours.
The Committee decides that a certain quantity of work, such
as a certain area of land ploughed or a certain number of cows
tended and milked, can be called a day's labour. Each
worker’s labour record is kept and at the end of the year tiie
number of " labour days " he has accomplished is added up.
For ordinary workers this may amount to anything between
150 and 400 days per annum, but for the Stakhanovites, or
very good workers, it may be as much as 800 days per annum.
The produce is tiien shared out according to the number of
labour days.
Some of the allocations per labour days are given in
Table III.
TABLE III. — Shpitky, Kiev. Labour Days
1933
1934
(expected)
1935 ; 1936
, ..
1937
(expected)
Grain
kilos I
3
1-8 . 2
4
Potatoes . .
,, 5
6
4 10
12
Hay
4
8
1 1 1*5
2
Vegetables
»» 3
3
1-51 2
2
Apples
grams loo
200
— ! — ;
—
Honey
It
! —
100 200
300
Cash
79 k.
3 r.
70 k. ji r. 10 k.
2 r. 50 k.
Labour days per annum : 1936, 150-700.
These are for the farm of Shpitky which I visited in 1934,
and again in 1937. The figure " expected for 1934 ” was
given me in August of that year before die accounts were
finally made up, and are almost certainly an overestimate* as
also is the amotmt " expected for 1937 " : neither the potatoes
nor the honey could furnish so much for Ihe workers. The
general position is clear, however: the worker has his ^re
of tiie produce and can either eat it or sell it direct to consumers
in tile open market or to a co-operative society.
1068
Farming in Soviet Russia
The outgoings of this farm are as follows : —
For Government, 2 per cent, gross amount of all receipts from sales.
Grain, 32 kg. per ha., for which the Government pays : for wheat,
48 k. per pood (i.e., i r. for 75 lb.) ; for rye, 44 k. per pood.*
Potatoes, 3 dz. per ha. (2*4 cwt. per acre), for which the Government
pays 7 r.
Milk. 58 litres (izj gal.) per cow, for which the Government pays
12 k. per litre.
Pork, 2 tons at i r. per lb.
Bee}. 22 cwt. at 76 k. per lb.
* I pood ~ 36 lb. ; 100 kopecks - 1 rouble. The value of the rouble
is di^cull to estimate : the visitor buys roubles from the State Bank at
about gd, each, but in the shops, judging by English prices, they aure
worth about 2d., except when buying black bread for which they are
worth more, if one allows the same price for black bread as for English
white bread — which of course one should not.
The Government demand for grain, potatoes and milk
amounts to about 4 or 5 per cent, of the average 5delds fixed
by law. There is no means of knowing how far these yields
are in fact attained: at each farm I visited the Chairman
assured me they were actually reached or even exceeded. On
several farms in one district I was, in 1934, given the official
figure (8 cwt. per acre) as the yield of grain, but inspection on
the field showed that the yields, whatever they were, could
not all have been the same. After the Government share has
been set aside the remainder is divided up for the following
purposes :
For M.T.S. (Motor Tractor
Section :)
Grain . . » . . . . 3 per cent.
Potatoes . • . . 3 dz. per hectare (2*4 cwt.
per acre).
For Insurance and Seed :
Grain . . . . 12 per cent.
Potatoes . . . . 7 „
Old and Sick People :
Grain . . . . 2 per cent.
Potatoes . . . . 2
Day Nursery and Criche :
Grain . . . . 1 per cent.
Potatoes . . . . I J
Live Stock :
Grain (inferior) .. 12 percent.
Potatoes (small) . . 10 „
The remainder is divided among the workers according to
their labour days. As already stated some workers have only
about 150 labour days a year, others have as many as 800 :
it is typical of modem Russia that all work is piece work,
and in consequence the earnings are very unequal. The wage
1069
Farming in Soviet Russia
system is therefore payment in kind, aiul from the consumers’
and Government point of view has the advantage that prices
do not come into play and die peasant bears the risk of variable
yields.
The numbers of workers seem very high to an Englishman ;
there were 700 of them, and a total population of 2,000. The
farm is 4,500 acres, of which 750 are orchard, 200 kitchen
garden and 3,000 arable, mostly grain, but with 300 acres of
potatoes. The live stock consists of 300 cattle, of which 130
are,milking cows : these all graze in summer but are housed
for 4 months in winter. There are also 120 horses with 60
young ones. Tractor power is supplied by the M.T.S. (Motor
Tractor Station). The standard of farmipg may be judged
by the yields : 6 to 10 cwt. per acre of grain, 4 and 6 tons per
acre of potatoes, milk probably about 300-400 gallons a year
(this figure was given me in 1934: nearly double the yield
was claimed for 1937). On an English farm of this size one
might expect to employ at the outside about 190 men* so that
the Russian workers are three or four times as numerous as
would be required here. On other farms the proportion was
about the same,! and even allowing for short time it seems
safe to assume that the British agricultural worker is about
three or four times as efficient as the Russian. I give the figures
for purpose of illustration only : comparison would be unfair
because the British agricultural worker is very efficient and
the level of production per acre and* per animal is much
higher than in Russia.
I have described the Shpitky farm at length because it is
typical of all the general farms I saw; but the proportion of
orchard varies on different farms, as well as the numbers of
live stock and the amount paid per labour day.
♦ About 60-80 men on the arable land, about 10-15 for the live stock,
about 40-60 for the orchard and 20-30 for the kitchen garden : but the
orchard and kitchen garden did not come up to English standards.
t Other figures — also given onl)’’ for purpose of illustration — ^are as
follows : —
Total Area
of Farm,
Arable Land
{including
Total
Total Number
ha.
vegetables and
Population
of Workers
1,832
fruit), ha.
850
1,650
480
1,180
, . 700
. . 800
460
1330
420{
. . 1,200
640
2,601
8oo§
1,946
734
1070
{ In Georgia : including 165 of tea.
§ Including 2x4 market garden.
Farming in Soviet Russia
The village is thoroughly typical. The cottages are built
along a street, each in its patch of ground; they are plain and
unattractive, one storey only, with two or three rooms each
containing beds, one containing also a table and a few chairs :
there is usually a small store place. On the walls often hangs
a large portrait of Stalin, and in the corner there is usually the
ikon or sacred picture, which still remains though it is explained
that it has no meaning for the younger people. There are
occasionally a few poor personal photographs, but none of the
ornaments one sees in an English cottage, and no “ parlour.”
The older women still have some of their embroidery which
they show with pride, but the younger ones do not. Water is
supplied from wells. There are no shops, no cinemas, no
garages, no public-houses or hotels, no picturesque comers and
no chapels : and the Church is commonly used as a club or a
grain store.
There is, however, a school of which the villagers are proud,
and also a creche where the babies are left while the mothers
go out working — for in Russia the women work just like the
men, doing everything that a man can do and not infrequently
doing it better. Usually, also, there is some meeting-place,
for the ” Party ” attach great importance to political propa-
gjinda, and lectures are given setting out the Party’s views on
home and foreign affairs. There being only one Parly, and
no opposition and dissent, no discussion of the kind familiar
in England can take place, and the lectures are very different
from anything to which we are accustomed. There are crowds
of children, and indeed the Russian Government is encouraging
their production by giving for the seventh child a bounty equal
to about 2 years' pay. The children are cheerful and attractive,
and their parents have some very likeable qualities. The
educated Russians are among the most charming people one
can find.
On the State farms money only is paid, and the range of
wages in those I visited was from 250 to 400 roubles per
month, the Stakhanovites earning 600 roubles. These com-
pare with wages of 250-275 roubles paid to unskilled workers
in the towns, 800 roubles that the best workers (Stakhano-
vites) can obtain, 400-800 to teachers, 500 upwards to doctors.
The only difficulty is that the peasants have so little on which
to spend their money, and the great need now is to increase
the production of commodities such as the peasants desire in
order that their earnings may have real value for them.
1071
Farming in Soviet Russia
Some parts of &e countiy show marked improvement since
my earlier visits, particularly Armenia. In 1930 there were
only very few motor-cars in that countiy; I was assured there
were only 10 and one of these was lent to me. The niimber
is now considerable, and there are even more motor lorries.
The Ih&in roads have been improved, and where new houses
are being built in the villages they represent a considerafaie
advance in comfort and healthiness on the old ones. These
new houses have two good rooms, with a hall that can serve
as a store or a small room, and also a verandah. Armenia is
benefiting by the irrigation schemes that are now being put
forward. Both here and in the other areas I visited there was
more food than when I was there before, and in the towns
more colour in the women’s dresses; there is a material
improvement.
I have already stated that the peasants seem more content
with the system of collectivization than in 1930 or 1934, and in
consequence the system now has a chance of showing what it
can do. Some 98 per cent, of the sown area is now in collective
farms.
Leaving aside the wide political and social issues involved
in this Russian experiment of complete direction and control
of agriculture by Ae State, there are many purely technical
aspects of it which are of great interest. The experiment is,
in my opinion, being made under more favourable conditions
for success than would exist in most other countries, and its
results will be watched with great interest by all students of
agriculture.
1072
STARTING A CENTRAL APPLE PACKING STATION
Clive Burton, Dip. Agric. (Wye)
The great changes that have taken place in this country
during tiie last ten years, in the methods of growing high grade
apples, have brought to the notice of producers the fact that
the growing of an article second to none for quality and flavour
will not be satisfactory if that product is not marketed in an
attractive form.
The enormous imports of apples, which in the first place
had to be well packed to stand the long journey, have made
buyers demand the same standard for home-produced fruit.
Owing to geographical considerations, such fruit is largely
bottle-necked at relatively few exporting ports, and the inspec-
tion for standardization and regulation of supplies to markets
is greatly simplified.
In this country, with markets practically at the gates of the
orchards, stringent grading and packing, and a means for
regulating the supply of fruit reaching the markets, have been
slow in materializing. Growers, however, are now forced by
economic pressure into better presentation and marketing of
their wares.
When improved packing is commenced on the farm with
anything over 20 acres of bearing fruit, a number of problems
arise, the main ones being, (i) that some form of power grader
is required, (2) to keep up the standard of packing (and secure
efficiency), a considerable amount of intelligent supervision
is necessary, and (3) refrigerated storage calling for large
capital outlay and skilled attention must be installed. A
grower carrying out all, or even part, of tlie above operations,
finds that a large part of his time is spent in the packing shed,
and the outside work on the farm tends to suffer, unless, of
course, he is operating on a sufficiently large scale to employ
a packing shed manager. Even so, and when packing is all
that can be desired, the loads sent to market will be small com-
pared with the thousands of cases of one grade arriving from
abroad, and continuity of supply will be difficult to obtain.
Unless a grower has 150 to 200 acres of bearing apples, the
cost per acre of storage and grading equipment may become
an unduly lai^e item. Where existing buildings have been
B 1073
A Central Apple Packing Station
adapted this is not so noticeable, but few orchards have
buildings really suitable for the modem economic handling
of fruit, and new buildings must be provided or drastic recon-
struction of old buildings carried out after a few seasons.
Small grading machines working to less than 50 per cent,
capacity, and the small storage plants found on farms from
30 to 50 acres are not economic. Equipment on such a holding
could deal with the produce off double the area w'ifh com-
pairatively little extra expenditure.
It will be seen that the preparation of fruit for market is
developing into a specialized business, needing a large expen-
diture of capital, such expenditure being essential if remunera-
tive prices are to be obtained. Instances are known in which
individual farms have had more capital invested in storage
and packing facilities than is represented in the value of the
orchards.
For the majority of growers, the centralization of these
operations in the production districts will offer the best and
cheapest solution of their problems. Centralization enables
grades to be standardized and a continuity of really uniform
loads to reach the markets of the country day by day for
months at a time. This is the only way in which competition
of imported fruit can be met.
When centralization is carried out, it is possible to evolve
an organization comparable to a modern factory, with its
carefully plaimed collection, processing and distributive depart-
ments. An efficient costing S5rstem will be part of the office
routine, 'fhis brings out the importance of over-head expenses,
and shows clearly that these can only be lowered by obtaining
the maximum possible bushelage of fruit passed through a plant
of given size.
At first sight die packing costs may appear higher than those
arising under farm conditions, in wWch, however, many
charges are masked in general farm expenditure. The presence
of these charges is not realized, and their magnitude is seldom
brought out in terms of cost per bushel.
The trend of events and the several considerations above
outlined led' a few Essex growers who were faced with the
problem of extending their packing plant and erecting stores,
to undertake the formation of a Central Packing Station.
Before this step was tedcen, investigations were made as to fee
history of previous co-operative marketing enterprises, and it
was found that in most instances of failure this was due to
1074
A Central Apple Packing Station
the fact that members were not rigidly tied to the organization
and wrecked the scheme by selling through outside channels.
A lawyer and an accountant were consulted and a suggested
form of contract between grower and packing station was out-
lined. Their expert knowledge indicated many flaws, but as
the result of several meetings a form of Contract was evolved
that covered, as far as possible, all eventualities, and the most
important of all would be enforceable in a Court of Law. Owing
to its strictness the contract was unacceptable to several people
who might have been interested. Nevertheless, four growers
decided to form “ Fruit Packers (Essex) Ltd.” as a private
limited liability company, operating a central storage and
packing plant.
The salient points of the Contract are as follows : —
(j) All apples and pears grown by signatories must be marketed
through the Company for a term of years. If any breach of
this occurs, strict penalties are enforceable.
(2) The shares in the Company are issued against fruit acreage. Any
new acreage acquired or planted must pay tlie same capital
levy per acre as the original acreage. All areas with trees
over 4 years old are taken as being equal. (Any other form of
assessment becomes too complicated.)
(3) A shareholder cannot dispose of his shares o.\ccpt to another
fruit grower x»roducing from an approximately e(|ual area of
land.
(4) A shareholder shall not interfere with the internal working of
the packing station ; he can watch his fruit bemg handled,
but any complaints or suggestions must be made in writing
to the Secretary of the C ompany.
(5) All sales of fruit o 5 the same variet>% size and grade are pooled.
No individual grower's name appears on the market boxes.
When any particular variety is finally cleared, the returns from
all markets for each grade and each size are added together,
and divided by the total number of bushels of that grade and
size sent out. The grower is paid the average price for each
grade and size on the number of bushels packed from his farm .
There is no question of the good grower being ])enalized by
the inefficient one.
(6) Regarding gas storage — a separate pool price is worked on tliis
fruit.
The wording of this clause is complicated and full details
would tsype too much space in this article.
The idea of locating the packing station on the farm of one
of the members was abandoned early, and a site was chosen
situated as centrally as possible in the fruit area of Essex
with rail and main road facilities, and 'bus services radiating
in four directions. Buildings especially designed for the pur-
pose were erected. It is interesting here to mention that very
B 2 1075
A Central Apple Packing Station
careful thought was given to working conditions of the opera-
tives. Expenditure, which at one time was thought to be on
the generous scale, was incurred in providing proper mess-
rooms, washing facilities, central heating, etc. After one
season's work this outlay has proved itself more than justified,
since an excess of good class labour has come forward of its
own accord, and in spite of the fact that numerous factories
in the district are worldng at full pressure and that on the sur-
rounding farms seasonal labour is extremely difficult to obtain.
The wages paid are based on the agricultural rates.
The station is in charge of a full time manager who is re-
sponsible for the whole internal working, but this year at least
two directors were present every day assisting with the
organization, as packing commenced before the builders were
out of the premises. Now initial experience has been gained
this assistance will not be necessary in future years.
The Company arranges the collection of fruit from the
farms through a haulage contractor. Although most of the
farms are within a six-mile radius, fruit has been sent in from
30 miles away with no damage from bruising or loss of con-
dition. Likewise the Company delivers the fruit to the
markets.
In order to explain the handling of fruit an example will
be taken for Grower X. He telephones to say that 200 bushels
of Worcesters are ready for collection and another 300 bushels
will be ready the following day. A lorty taking 150 orchard
crates is sent as soon as convenient The fruit is in file
grower's own orchard crates all marked with his name. These
are delivered into the reception bay of the packing station and
stacked with a space left for the remaining loads to come and
form one block.
In the meantime the packing station will be working on
Worcesters from Grower Y. When these are finished, time
will be given to partially clear the grader and see all packed
boxes are stamped with the code letter for Grower Y, and an
allowance made for the fruit remaining on the grader. This
operation only takes a few minutes. Fruit from Grower X
is then sent through from reception bay to packing shed
where it passes over a Cutler Grader and is divided into four
grades and various sizes. After being packed off the grader
into the market containers, these are placed on a conveyor
where the quality of packing is checked, and a slip placed
on top giving packer's number and date of packing. The
1076
A Central Apple Packing Station
boxes proceed by gravity into the next room where lids are
put on, and end stamped with Count, Date, Grade, and
grower's Code Letter. From here another conveyor takes
the finished article to the dispatch bay where the various
grades and counts from each farm are stacked separately. On
completion of this particular batch of fruit from Grower X a
tally is made of all the various grades and counts, the quan-
tities being entered into the grading day-book. From this
book entries are made in the Grower’s Ledger, and a state-
ment is sent to the grower giving grading results.
SPECIMEN COPY OF GRADING SHEET
Fruit Packers (Essex), Ltd
To : Ofower X.
Date UlBjSr
The undermentioned is a return of your Worcester Apples
showing particulars as to grading.
Date |
Extra Fancy
Fancy
Good
3RDS
L.
M.
s.
BHQBB
L. M. S.
L. ' M.
17I91S7 ,
18
64i
24
m 1 111 , 9ii
13i , 60i 1 Hi 1
-| ®
2 i
' 1 .ill
t 1 ; , ' 1 ’ ;
f' ' , ' ' 1 1. ' i
i
1
i ! . ' ' '! !
Total
18
S4i
24
m ! ni ! 9ii
13i ; OOh 41i
-1 6
1
IT
Counts
' L”
Large
0 - 125 .
Received 500
Orchard Crates.
' M’^
Medium
138 - 200 .
445i Bushels Packed
(as shown above).
"S"
Small
213- •
4
Bushels, Waste.
6
Bushels, Culls.
44 i Bushels, Shortage on
Orchard Crates.
Remarks ...
1077
Manager. ..
A Central Apple Packing Station
Once a grower's fruit has been over the grader and a record
taken, packages are bulked together with previously padced
fruit. Consignments as far as possible in five-ton loads or over
of special grades and sizes are made up to suit individual sales-
men and markets.
As soon as returns come in from the salesmen, and have
been checked, an interim pa3mient is made to &e grower.
Final payment cannot be made until the variety is finally
cleared, and pool prices for each grade and each group of
counts have been worked out. With varieties selling over a
long period a second interim payment will be made to the
grower, based on an estimate of prices, and final pa3nnent on
completion.
All fruit is divided into four grades. Extra Fancy, Fancy,
Good, and srds. The first two are strictly in accordance with
National Mark Standards and packed under the “ Ace ”
Label. “ Good ” contains fruit that is on the border line of
Fancy or slightly below, but free of progressive blemish.
All these grades are box packed in Bushel Boxes; Half-
bushel Boxes are not favoured, except for Coxs. The srds
are marketed in salesmen's empties, failing a satisfactory cheap
non-returnable container for low grades.
At the commencement of the season careful estimates are
made of crops expected from the farms, and salesmen advised
of approximate quantities they can expect. Specific markets
are selected and regular supplies sent. If a market decided
on falls below expectations, supplies are reduced', but not cut
off. Salesmen are also consulted, and with their collaboration
a programme for the ensuing week is drawn up, giving da}^
of dispatch and almost exact quantities that will be sent. It
is the Company's intention to keep the markets regularly sup-
plied for 6 to 9 months of the year.
Fruit going into gas-store is sorted over a special grader,
very large or damaged fruit being removed and marketed
at once. Fruit for storage is wrapped in oil-papers and placed
in special crates each marked witii the grower's code letter. No
final account is taken until the fruit has been brou^t out of store
and passed over tiie Cutler Grader. No payment is made for
any fruit until it has been actually sold and money obtained.
Ihe Company, although formed independently of any
County Association, is a member of the Associated Fruit
Growers of Essex, Ltd., and, as previously stated, packs all
suitable fruit undw their label.
T078
A Central Apple Packing Station
SPECIMEN COPY OF PAYMENT FORM
Fruit Packers (Essex), Ltd.
To : Grower X.
Date 28110137
The undermentioned is a statement of prices realized
and amount due for Worcesiers
Bushels
Extra Fancy
Fancy
Good
3RDS
Total
m
s.
B
9
S.
I"'
■1
m
H|
in
■
BB
B
■
■
■
BB
B
18
64 ^
24
111
OH
m
60 i
m I —
6 2 i
445 i
Avera
5.
817
gepri
919
ce for
91 -
who
811
le sea
8110
son
619
4 l 9 i
712
ii
ii
m j m
4 /S 3 l 2 i
—
SUMMARY
445^ Bushels of Worcester £
Less per bushel
Packing charge . . £
Less advancement of
. . . .per bushel . . £
N.B. — ^The above prices are
free of market charges and Cheque Total . .
salesmen’s commission.
For varieties that are not eligible for the National Mark
a special label is used, but these only account for a very small
proportion of the total bushelage handled.
As only one season’s experience has been obtained, no more
can be said on actual practice, but a few words may be
devoted to contemplated future activities. Requests have
been made this year from growers who require storing and
packing facilities, but who are not prepared to supply capital,
1079
A Central Apple Packing Station
or tie the whole of their produce to the Company. If this
demand is to be catered for on any scale, the original policy
and financial structure will need alteration. The Company
at present do not feel justified in doing this, or in putting up
expensive equipment for fruit that may be diverted elsewhere.
When accurate packing costs are Imown as the result of
several seasons of working, steps may be taken to meet this
demand with a modified contract. Additional growers are
joining the Company as shareholders. It is intended to
double the packing capacity of the station before next season.
Should space be available, fruit from outside sources will be
accepted, but this fruit must be packed under the Company’s
label and sold through its marketing organization.
In order to relieve the pressure on the packing plant during
the Worcester season, a large cold store is being erected to
hold fruit as it comes from the orchard, for short storage.
This store will later in the season be used for Coxs or other
varieties to be marketed before Christmas. The running
expenses of this store will be treated as a general charge spread
over all fruit handled.
In Essex conditions have been particularly favourable for
the formation of a Central Packing Station, a large number
of the orchards being young and the owners without specialized
packing equipment. From this year’s experience the writer
sees no insurmountable difficulty to similar organizations
being formed in other districts. Where farms have existing
gas stores the fruit could be sent to a central station for packing
and distribution. With prices pooled, however, the control
and actual date of opening stores would have to rest with the
packing station management.
Acknowledgement is made to the valuable assistance given
by Messrs, ffirdford Growers, Ltd., and ffie Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, for supplying information that
greatly helped in the formation of “ Fruit Packers (Essex)
Ltd.”
THE CONTROL OF THE ONION FLY
D. W. Wright, B.A.,
Horticultural Research Station, Cambridge
The larva of the Onion Fly {Hylemyia antiqua Meig.) is
a serious and widespread pest of onions in this country. It is
very common in gardens and allotments and in certain districts
of intensive vegetable culture, where, as a result, onion growing
may be almost an impossibility in some seasons. It
occasionally attacks leeks and shallots but rarely causes
appreciable economic losses in these crops. In Wales it has
been recorded in tulip bulbs. The pest is well known on the
Continent and since its introduction into North America it
has become epidemic in certain localities. It attacks garlic
grown for culinary purposes in Italy.
Life History. Observations made by the writer in the
Eastern Counties suggest that the life history there is substan-
tially similar to that worked out for the fly in Lancashire by
Smith (i).* The winter is passed in the puparial stage in the
soil, from which adults emerge in early May. In the Eastern
Counties this emergence is practically complete by the second
week in June, the peak period extending over the last two
weeks in May. Adults, arising from larvae of the first genera-
tion, again appear aboyt the first week in July and reach
maximum numbers in mid- July. From this time adults can
be found continuously, but in varying numbers, until the
second week in September. There appears to be a third peak
emergence period in the latter half of August, and this,
although smaller than either of the previous two, seems to
correspond to the emergence of a partial third generation.
These emergence times and peak periods for adults should
be regarded only as approximate, as they undoubtedly show
some variation in relation to climate and soil conditions and
to the availability of food.
Nature and Method of Attack. The adult flies do no
injury to the onion plant, but obtain food from various small
flowers. Dandelions are said to be frequently visited. Injury
to the onion is brought about by the larvae or maggots, which
io8i
* For references see p. 1087.
Control of Onion Fly
bore into and feed in the base of die plant, reducing it to a
rotting mass.
Eggs are laid either on die plant itself or in the soil clc»e
to its base. Observations suggest that on seedling onions
the first generation of flies normally oviposits only in die latter
position. The eggs of later generations are, however, com-
monly deposited on the neck and leaf bases both of seedling
and larger onions, whence they are easily dislodged without
affecting their viability. The larva, on hatching, makes its
way down to the base of the onion plant and enters it at, or
very near to, the basal plate, where the tissues are not protected
by a tough skin. It seems unable to penetrate the side of the
bulb. Migration of older larvae to fresh plants often occurs
and then entry may take place either through the side of the
bulb or through the base. This migration is a feature of the
attack on seedling onions, and when the underground parts are
destroyed the tops turn yellow, fall over and die. Large
bulbs may contain as many as 20-30 larvae and die tissues
are rapidly reduced to a semi-liquid rotting mass upon which
the larvae continue to feed. When fully fed diey burrow into
die soil and change into oval puparia, which become chestnut-
brown in colour.
Methods of Control. Considerable attention has been
devoted to the control of this pest both in Europe and North
America. The control measures advocated can conveniently
be classified into four groups: —
(а) The use of deterrents to prevent egg la3nng;
(б) Trapping and killing adults by poison baits;
(c) The use of larval poisons; and
(d) Cultural measures.
The first category includes, among other materials, pow-
dered naphthalene, tar oil-sand mixtures, chlor-cresylic acid
dusts and paraffin emulsions. All have been shown to give
some degree of control but have not been widely used. Light
engine oil, emulsified in 4 : 4 : 50 Bordeaux mixture and applied
at 2 per cent, oil strength, is, however, extensively used in
North America. A great defect in the use of all deterrents
is the necessity for their constant renewal. Further, when
certain of these compounds are applied over a latge area, the
adult flies appear to become accustomed or “ conditioned "
to their presence and suffer little inconvenience from them.
Poisonous baits, together with chemical attractants, have
been used with some success in climates more arid &an in
ZO82
Control of Onion Fly
Great Britain. Their use here, however, has not been
attended widi much success and could scarcely be relied upon,
chiefly on account of the uncertain nature of wea&er condi-
tions in the average summer.
Among larval poisons used, various mercury salts have
been found to give a considerable degree of control. Cor-
rosive sublimate isolution, periodically watered along the rows,
is reputed to be effective, but its use is attended with some
danger to user and plant. These dangers are greatly decreased
by Ae use of powdered calomel, which may be applied to the
seed coat before sowing or sown separately in the seed drills,
the plant being tolerant of quite heavy applications. Satis-
factory control of heavy infestations of this pest and other
root maggots has been obtained in this way. (2, 3, 4 and 5.)
Cultural operations, although of little value alone in com-
bating heavy infestations, are undoubtedly efficacious in
dealing with minor attacks. Valueless ' onions should be
buried deeply and not dumped in the field, for such favourable
breeding material leads to the rapid building up of a high
fly population. Late planting to avoid attack by the first
generation is of some value, while applications of inorganic
nitrogenous fertilizers enable a crop to grow away and recover
from minor infestations. Finally, onions should be grown
as far as possible from land known to be infected.
Experiments in 1936 . In 1936, preliminary experiments
were carried out with certain of the above deterrents and larval
poisons with the object of assessing their relative value under
climatic conditions here.
Chlor-cresylic acid dust (i per cent.) applied three times
at ten-day intervals, using quite heavy dressings, gave slight
reduction of infestation. A light engine oil-Bordeaux
emulsion, applied at 2 per cent, oil strength and at ten-day
intervals, gave good control of onion maggot, but owing to
its phytocidal action, the nrnnber of plants on these plots at the
end of the experiment was of the same order as that on the
untreated plots which had suffered a fair degree of maggot
injury. Plots planted with seed dusted with calomel powder,
however, suffered veiy litfle injury from the maggot. Further,
this rhemiral appeared to have no deleterious effect on germi-
nation or subsequent plant growth. The final number of
pla n ts on fliese plots was much higher than in any other series
in die experiment. Calomel, when applied along the drills as
1083
Control of Onion Ftv
a 4 per cent, dust, gave a much poorer control than as used
above, aldiough the amount of calomel used per unit length
of drill was greater. Soaking the rows with corrosive sub-
limate solution (i oz. to lo gallons of water) three times at
ten-day intervals gave little control of maggot.
Experimoits in 1937 . In the spring of 1937 a more exten-
rive series of plots was laid out, and the treatments carried
out in the previous year were repeated and extended by the
inclusion of an additional series of seed treatments. The latter
included lead arsenate dust and a range of organic mercury
compounds, all applied to the seed coat before sowing. In
mid-May, at the peak time of emergence of the first generation
of fiies, &e seedlings were to 2 in. high. At tins phase
they are very attractive to the flies and very susceptible to
injury from their larvae. The following table expresses in
summary the details of die several treatments used, their
times of application and the degree of control obtained from
each.
TABLE I
Control of Onion Fly, Cambridge, July, 1937
July 8
Treatment
Method of
Dates of
% Original
Application
Application
Plants
remaining
I.
Control
—
# —
37-0
2.
Calomel
Seed dust
April 22 at sowing
91*5
3 -
Lead Arsenate
it
ft **
34*2
4 *
Methyl Mercury Phos-
1*
3X-6
phate x% at ^ lb. per
bushel seed.
5 -
Methyl Mercury Phos-
26*3
phate 3% at 2 lb. per
bushel seed.
6.
Corrosive Sublimate
Solution at loz.
May 15, 25 and
45-1
per 10 gallons
water.
June 2
7 ‘
Chlor-cresylic Acid . .
1% dust
*>
ft
36*6
8.
Engine Oil-Bordeaux
2% Emulsion in
ft
45-2
Mixture.
4 : 4 : 50 Bordeaux
As in 1936, corrosive sublimate and chlor-cresylic add
treatments had litde effect on the extent of the infestation.
The engine oil-Bordeaux spray gave less maggot control than
in 1936. Again the plants were stunted and dieir number
reduced. This scorching has been noticed in North America,
and is thought to be correlated with conditions of h%h
humidity and low temperature at and following the fpiuy
To face p. 1084
Fig I Control of Onion Fly with calomel Rows marked A untreated (controls) Rows marked B growm
from seed treated with i lb calomel to i lb seed
Control of Onion Fly
applications. A proprietary light oil emulsion, used at the
same strength and time intervals produced a similar effect.
This appears to indicate that such oils are unsafe to use on
onions under the climatic conditions of Great Britain.
The plots in which the seed was treated with calomel were
again outstanding, as the characteristic feature of maggot
attack, namely gapping, was absent. In carrying out this
treatment the seeds, after being first damped with a 5 per
cent, solution of a proprietary adhesive paste containing
starch were agitated in a vessel with finely-powdered calomel.
By this means the seed becomes heavily coated wiffi powder,
one pormd of seed easily retaining an equal weight of calomel.
It was used at this rate in the above experiment. Adherence
of the powder to the seed remained good whilst being handled
at sowing. Germination and subsequent plant growth
seemed in no way affected by this treatment. The organic
mercury compounds, methyl mercury phosphate and methyl
mercury chloride were used as seed dusts (with an inert carrier)
at strengths and dosages ranging from 1 per cent, dust at
the rate of i lb. per bushel of seed to 3 per cent, dust at 2 lb.
per bushel of seed. There was no evidence of any degree
of maggot control over the whole range, while, except at the
lower rates of application, germination was greatly impaired.
Lead arsenate applied to the seed coat in the same manner
and at the same rate as calomel was of no value.
In July, 1937, a series of randomized plots was laid out
to test more closely the value of calomel when used at different
rates. The powder was applied to the seed coat as before,
but at two rates, namely \ lb. per i lb. of seed and i lb. per
I lb. of seed. From counts of seedlings in unit lengths of
row, taken both before and after infestation, the percentage
of healthy plants shown in the table was calculated.
TABLE II
Control of Onion Fly, Cambridge, September, 1937
% Healthy Plants
% Increase over
Treatment
remaining
Control
I.
Control
. . 22*1
. . —
2.
Calomel at \ lb. per i lb.
seed
50*6
129
3-
Calomel at i lb. per i lb.
seed
69*2
213
Standard Error of Mean ± 3*361.
Statistical examination of the results revealed that the
calomel treatment at i lb. per i lb. of seed was significantly
1085
CoNTiKK. OF Onion Fly
better than the half dose, and bodi were significantiy mndi
better than the non-treatment (see Fig. i). A attack
of cutworm and wireworm reduced the final number of plants
by about 5 per cent, but this damage appeared to be dis-
tributed feurly uniformly over all the plots and did not there-
fore appreciably afiect the significance of the final figures in
relation to onion fly control.
Reeommendations. Equal weights of calomel and onion
seed give satisfeictory control. In treating tiie seed the follow-
ing procedure is recommended.
(1) A dilute solution (approx. 5 per cent.) of adhesive paste
is prepared by adding liquid adhesive paste, as purchased, to
water at the rate of 14 grammes or 3 teaspbonfuls per i pint
of water. Thorough stirring to ensure complete mixing is
necessary.*
(2) The onion seed to be treated is placed in a suitably
sized wooden, glass or enamel container. (Metal containers
should not be used as calomel tends to corrode these.)
(3) The diluted paste solution is then added at the rate
of 3^ c.c. or I teaspoonful per ounce of seed, or 56 c.c. (3^
tablespoonfuls) per lb. of seed. The seeds are then thoroughly
stirred until all are moistened.
(4) Powdered calomel, equal in weight to the seed, is then
added, and the whole mixed until the .seeds are uniformly
coated with powder.
The treated seed can be handled irhmediately or allowed
to dry without loss of calomel. If an excess of paste solution
is used, a sticky mass results making even sowing almost an
impossibility.
The seed bed should be firm, as this not only favours good
germination and subsequent plant growth, but also tends to
reduce the number of seed coats brought above ground.
Those remaining in the soil keep the calomel near the base of
the plant where it appears to exert its toxic action on the
larvae.
♦ Although not actually used in these experiments, starch or flour
pastes appear to stick the calomel to the seed quite as well as the pro-
prietary compound. A .suitable paste solution can be made by adding
starch powder or flour to cold water at the rate of 8 grammes
(3 teaspoonfuls) per J pint of water. After shaking, the mixture is brought
to the boil and when cool is used for damping the seed in quantities siiratar
to those recommended above for the dilut^ proprietary compound.
1086
Control of Onion Fly
At current prices calomel can be obtained at 8s. per pound,
but quotations are often considerably above this.
Summary, (i) The life history of the onion fly {Hyletnyia
anUqud) as observed in the Eastern Counties is briefly given.
(2) The site of egg deposition and the initial and subsequent
methods of attack by the larvae are described.
(3) The control measures used in Europe and North America
are briefly reviewed.
(4) Experiments involving the use of deterrents and larval
poisons are described. Satisfactoiy control of maggot was
obtained by the use of calomel powder applied to liie seed
before planting.
(5) A statistical analysis of results obtained from the use
of calomel at two rates on a series of randomized plots gave
highly significant results.
(6) A method for treating the seed is outlined.
The author is much indebted to Mr. D. Boyes, Director
of the Horticultural Research Station, and to Mr. F. R.
Petherbridge of the School of Agriculture, for valuable sug-
gestions and criticisms.
The above experiments and observations were carried out
at ttie Horticultural Research Station, Cambridge.
REFERENCES
1. Smith, K. M. • Ann, A pp. Biology, 1922, 9 . A study of the Life History
of the Onion FI) .
2. Glasgow, H. : J. Econ* Entom., i9^9» 22, p. 335. Mercury salts as
soil insectickies,
3. Friend, R. B. : J. Econ. Entom,, 1932, 25 , p. 709. Control of Cabbage
Maggot on Radishes.
4. Glasgow, H. : J, Econ. Entom,, 1934, P- 3^3- treatments
for control of Root Maggots.
5. Glasgow, H. : Farm Research, 193^. 2, pp. 3, 7, 13.
1087
A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION INTO THE
OCCURRENCE AND CAUSES OP HAIR CRACKS
IN HEN EGG SHELLS
R. Coles, B.A., Ph.D.,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
The candling of eggs at the many packing stations in the
country has revealed that large numbers of eggs are rejected
because of fine cracks in the shell. These shell faults have
been named both “ air cracks ” and “ hair cracks,” but it is
proposed to call them hair cracks in the following account.
There are two reasons for rejecting eggs with this fault.
First, the faulted shell apjiears to induce rapid deterioration
of the egg — ^in the summer, a great number of rejects found
in recentiy-packed consignments are eggs with " hair cracks,”
in which the stuck yolk is adhering to the shell in the vicinity
of the fine hair-like fault. Secondly, an egg with a cracked
shell, however slight the crack, collapses at the first shock,
with results that spoil the appearance of the pack, and, in hot
weather, lead to the rapid deterioration of the surrounding
eggs.
It has become apparent from observation of large numbers
of eggs passing through packing stations, that an unusually
high percentage of eggs are — and rightjy — rejected at certain
packing stations owing to the presence of hair cracks. Indeed,
it is known that several packing stations, realizing the dangers
arising from the inclusion of these eggs in a pack, reject them,
but do not show the full number of eggs rejected through fear
of losing the supplier. This unfortunate position suggests that
the cause of these hair cracks should be sought and the remedy
found. This article gives an account of the preliminary
investigation.
A superficial investigation of the collection methods at
present practised makes it obvious that many hair cracks are
caused by these methods. Cheap metal buckets are often
filled to their capacity, with the result that, when the full
bucket is raised, the bowing of the sides under the weight of
the eggs causes excessive pressure to be brought upon the
lowermost eggs. Rough transport provides a further reason
for the presence of cracked eggs. It is doubtful whether pro-
1088
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
ducers fully realize that careless handling and transport often
account for the majority of faulty eggs rejected at the station.
A large number of hair cracks that the testers fail to note
are apparently caused by faulty graders, and an inefficient
staff may also allow eggs to roll about on the grading table,
particularly if the grading tables have, through wear, acquired
an excessive slope.
During the course of the investigation it soon became ap-
parent, however, that a large number of hair cracks could
not be attributed to the causes enumerated above, but tha t cer-
tain eggs were apt to crack with normal handling. These eggs
had shells that easily cracked owing to their excessive brittle-
ness or to some other shell peculiarity. Indeed, certain suppliers,
although taking the greatest care with their collection and
delivery, maintained an excessively high percentage of eggs
rejected with hair cracks — often as many as lo per cent.,
whilst other suppliers, adopting much more primitive methods
of collection, had very few eggs rejected for this fault, in many
instances as few as i per cent.
Before proceeding further in the investigation it would be
as well to consider some of the experimental work that has
already been carried out regarding shell strength. The
Northern Irish investigators (i)* maintain that (a) shell quality
does not show a significant variation due to changes in manage-
ment or rations, (6) the more common breeds do not show
significant differences in shell strength, (c) the greatest varia-
tion is between individual birds, and (d) the relation between
shell strength and keeping quality is slight. It must be borne
in mind, however, that the shells were only subjected to
steadily increased stress, and not to sudden shocks.
In America, Van Wagener and his colleagues maintain that
there is no significant variation in shell strength between the
eggs of certain common breeds (2).
Opposed to these views is the opinion amongst a number
of producers and packers that certain producers’ eggs crack
readily if subjected to slight shocks, and are even produced
with hair cracks, or lines of weakness that quickly become
hair cracks. Examination of packing station figures certainly
shows that the percentage of eggs rejected for hair cracks
varies locally. On the basis of this evidence it has been sug-
gested on several occasions that there is some constitutional
reason for the presence of hair cr acks, wh ich, in spit e of the
♦ For references see p. 1094.
1089
Um. Cracks m Egg Sams
evideiKe <^ered by U.S.A. and Nor&em Ireland, nmy be
connected \vi(li management or bleed.
Soutih'Enstwn Engltaid. In order to throw some light on
these contentions, an investigation was made in cm area where
the hair crack figures showed remarkable differences regard-
ing the number of eggs rejected for this fault. The area
selected was the south-eastern’ part of England.
In Fig. I is shown the variation in the numbers of cracked
eggs rejected by the packing stations of the area. The dots
and circles shown indicate the sites of the producers' farms;
the dot denoting a percentage above three, the circle a figure
below three. The figures were obtained from thirteen
National Mark stations and other satisfactorily run stations
in the area, and relate to consignments of at least a few
hundred dozen, although in a few instances consignments as
low as forty dozen have been used. When the pattern in
tile figure became apparent, several producers’ figures were
inspected for the entire year. It was found that, although
a certain seasonal variation obtained, it was unnecessaiy to
change the distribution shown in Fig. i, which is for the
month of April.
An inspection of Fig. i reveals a definite distribution pat-
tern. To the north and south, i.e., the Downs, the percen-
tage of eggs rejected for hair cracks .is high, although this
fact is perhaps more definite in the south than the north. It is
also noticeable that the country south' of the North Downs is
a further area producing eggs with a tendency towards hair
cracks, particularly around Maidstone and Ashford and the
intervening tract. The centre of the district also appears to
be a terrain witii a high percentage of eggs subject to hair
cracks, but it will no doubt be remarked that the localization
is not so distinct as in the two regions dealt with above.
Towards the east it is difficult to distinguish any district
having a definitely high or low percentage. Finally, a broad
belt of country extending in horse-shoe-like fashion throu^-
out tiie area may be discerned with the front lying towards
the west. Throughout this tract producers having a high
percentage of hair cracks are rare indeed.
In describing this distribution it will not have escaped
readers that the pattern appears to be related directiy to tire
relief of the country. On ffiis evidence one might reasonab^
ccmtend that the cause of tiie hair cracked eggs is the rough
iogo
Hais Cracks m Egg Shells
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
ground over which the conveyance collecting eggs must travel.
This argument, however, can be defeated quite easily by tiie
fact that egp from certain low-lying areas have to come
across upland areas. Although &is regional cause of hair
cracks does not appear to be tenable, it is worthy of notice
that there is a strong relationship between the relief, the soil
and the cultivation of the area.
Fig. 2.
Before proceeding further along these lines, it is proposed
to investigate more fully the figures of certain selected pro-
ducers and to note any seasonal changes. In Fig. 2A is
shown a graph formed by the average nlonthly figures for
cracked eggs experienced by six producers having a high
percentage of hair cracks. The curves of individual pro-
ducers are also shown. It is at once apparent that two
maxima are characteristic of each curve. These maxima
appear at February-March and at September, but it will be
noticed also that curves rarely fall 3 per cent, and that 10 per
cent, is the average figure.
The graph drawn from the figures of similarly-selected pro-
ducers with low percentages of hair cracks is also shown
(Fig. 2b), togetiier with individual producers’ curves. In
this diagram no strong feature can be discerned, although
in a slight measure the two maxima noticed in the curve of
the producers with high percentages of hair cracks are
repeated . It is also interesting to note that the double summer-
autumn maximum of Fig. 2a is still apparent in the curve
in Fig. 2B. It is noticeable that all curves of producers with
low percentage of hair cracks rarely rise above 3 per cent.
logz
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
These figures of individual producers — chosen because of
the large quantities of eggs they consigned — ^were found to be
characteristic of other poultry fanners shown as producers with
high or low percentages of cracks in Fig. i. It therefore
seems a reasonable assumption that certain producers do con-
stantly have a large number of eggs that easily crack, or in
which these cracks appear. Further, other producers are
rarely bothered with these faults, although both they and the
producers who are troubled with eggs containing a high per-
centage of hair cracks show a seasonal variation — a variation
that is very definite as regards the latter. There also appears
to be a definite localization of the two types of producer in
the area treated (S.E. England), which has a direct relation-
ship to the relief of the area.
Three Other Districts. In view of these features that
are apparent in S.E. England it was thought advisable to
investigate conditions elsewhere and attempt to find confirma-
tion or otherwise of these characteristics. Three districts were
selected — the Midland Valley, Essex and the South-west.
The grading centres of the Midland Valley and the South-
west showed a very low hair crack percentage — ^below 3 per
cent. The Essex area showed both types, and again the
eggs with the high percentage of hair cracks appeared in the
upland areas — the hilly country of the north-west and the
south-east. In all the figures investigated that related to a
high percentage of hair cracks, the two seasonal maxima
were easily discernible. In passing, it was also interesting
to note that the eggs from the districts of low percentages were
usually richer, darker in yolk colour, and darker in shell,
but lacked the compensating high keeping quality of file
eggs of the “ hair crack regions.” Further, “ forcing ” and
poultry farms with high average annual production of eggs,
were more characteristic of the latter districts, while free range
and farm-yard poultry were predominant in the former
districts. The fact that most packing stations report about
3 per c^t. or more cracks in their annual turnover, suggests
that 3 per cent, may be the working minimum, and represents
the average breakage figure incurred by collection and
grading.
Chemical Composition. The figures obtained from various
parking stations having been dealt with, the chemical and
physical nature of egg-shells from producers both subject to
1093
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
and free from, hair cracks were considered. The chemical
analyses (3), however, showed that, apart from slight varia-
tions, the chemical composition was reasonably constant. The
amount of certain minerals found in certain shells appeared
to be too small to affect tiie breaking strength of the shell.
Two variations of importance were observed. The protein
matrix of the shell varied, and the water content vaii^, but
tire variations were small, and the most significant factor
appears to be the physical distribution of tire two materials.
In order to investigate their distribution, shells with and with-
out hair cracks were tested by the candle, and small sections
were examined under the microscope.
References
1. Dryden, W. H,, and Hale, R. W. : Jour. Min. Agric, Northern Ireland.
2. Wagener, Van, Hall G. O., Wilgus, H. S., Jr. : Variations in Egg
Qusdity, Poultry Science, 1936.
3. The chemical analyses were carried out by Messrs. L. W. L..Cole and
I. B. Prowse of the Chemistry Department of the South-Eastern
Agricultural College, Wye. A number of minor variations were found,
but variations not exceeding 0*5 per cent, by weight were disregarded.
{To he continued.)
THE WORKING OP THE SEEDS ACT, 1920, IN THE
SEASON 1936-37
The steps taken by the Government to assist fanners to
increase the fertility of their land by reimbursing a substantial
proportion of the delivered cost of their supplies of lime and
basic slag (see “ The Land Fertility Scheme " in the October,
1937, issue of this Journal) are being followed up by an
official campaign for the improvement of grass land. Excel-
lent results follow the application of basic slag, and also lime,
where lime is needed, to grass land, but in certain circum-
stances it is clearly desirable that the pastures should be
ploughed out and re-seeded. In purchasing supplies of seeds
for this purpose, farmers have a valuable safeguard as to
the quality of the seed in the Seeds Act, 1920, the main object
of which is to protect them against the danger of unknowingly
purchasing and sowing seeds of low vitality and contaminated
with noxious weed seeds. Assistance in selecting the right
kind of seeds mixture is given to the farmer in other ways,*
and it is noticeable that merchants are beginning to stock
indigenous and Aberystwyth-bred seeds and offer the mixtures
advocated by agricultural colleges and county agricultural
organizers. In his own interests, however, the farmer should
himself examine carefully the essential particulars as to the
quality of the seed, country of origin, &c., which the Act of
1920 requires the seller to disclose to him in writing on or before
delivery of the seed.
Similarly as regards other seeds, cereals and the other
principal kinds of farm and garden crops, the Act requires the
seller to disclose essential details as to their germination,
purity, and other matters relating to their quality, and it repays
the farmer to giVe attention to these particulars. These re-
quirements of the Act extend to sales of seed from farmer to
farmer, and it is as necessary for the purchaser to be certain
that he is supplied with the statutory particulars, and that
careful consideration should be given to them, when seeds
are obtained in this maimer as when they are purchased from
a seedsman.
* A revised edition of the Ministry's Bulletin No. 3, The Improvement
of Grass Land, will be issued at an early date.
1095
The Working of the Seeds Act: Season 1936-37
A convenient summary of the provisions of the Act of igao
and the Regulations made thereunder (Form No. 7a8/C.S.),
lowing also the fees charged for testing at the Official Seed
Testing Station and other useful information as to the drawing
of samples for testing, may be obtained free of charge on
application to the Ministry at 10, Whitehall Place, London,
S.W.i.
The administration and enforcement of the Act are matters
for which the Ministry is solely responsible, and during the
course of the 1936-37 season Inspectors of the Department
made numerous visits to sellers of seeds throughout the
country. Apart from certain recurring minor irregularities,
it is evident from the reports on these visits that the require-
ments of the Act are being carried out generally in a satisfactory
manner.
One of the irregularities to which, owing to its increased
practice, attention might be called, is that of delaying the
issue of the statutory statement until some time after the
seeds to which they refer have been delivered. The Act
requires that this statement shall be delivered “ on or before
the sale, or if the goods are not delivered at the time of sale,
on or before delivery thereof." Moreover, it is clearly
desirable that the purchaser should be in a position to examine
these particulars before he sows the seed. The difficulty
which seedsmen may have at the height 'of a busy season in
complying witii this requirement is appreciated, but if it is
found that this practice of delaying the issue of the statutory
statement under these circumstances is giving rise to abuse,
it may be necessary for proceedings to be taken against the
offenders.
A noticeable feature of the seed trade of to-day is the steady
diminution in the number of the smaller houses which at one
time did a business in agricultural seeds. The points at which
ffie Ministry has been accustomed to tap the farmers’ supply
of seed are, therefore, lessening in number. The position is
not analagous to the packet trade where the retailer is an
agent who carries goods that can be officially sampled. With
agricultural seeds it appears that the former relniler is fre-
quently becoming an agent selling on commission. In ffiese
circums^ces it has been found necessary for the Ministry to
extend its practice of checking supplies informally on the
farm.
X096
The Working of the Seeds Act: Season 1936-37
Control Sampling. The number of samples taken during
the 1936-37 season for the purpose of checking the particulars
declared on the sale of seeds was 1,255. They comprised
443 samples of grasses and clovers, 113 cereals, 116 field
seeds (other than sugar-beet), 281 “ loose ” garden seeds, 235
packeted seeds, and 67 sugar-beet seeds.
Farm and Garden Seeds. It was found necessary to
draw attention to 78 instances of discrepancies in the par-
ticulars declared and to 44 incomplete or irregular declara-
tions. Of the 78 discrepancies, 20 were in respect of purity
and 58 of germination. Stated as percentages, the figures
show that 9.7 per cent, of the total samples called for special
attention, 1.6 per cent, in regard to purity and 4.6 per cent,
owing to germination discrepancies, while the remaining 3.5
per cent, were instances of omissions from, or errors in, the
declaration.
As regards the purity discrepancies, 10 samples came
within 3 per cent, of the declared figure, 2 showed a variation
of between 3 and 5 per cent. , and 8 exceeded 5 per cent. With
regard to the germination discrepancies, 16 samples showed
a variation of less than 10 per cent. , 18 others varied by less
than 15 per cent. , leaving 24 in which the difference between
the germination declared and that found in the check tests
amounted to more than 15 per cent.
Grass and clover seeds, which showed 9 discrepancies in
purity and 38 in germination, were responsible for nearly
two-thirds of the total number of discrepancies. Garden
seeds necessitated action in 14 instances, there being 4 purity
and 10 germination discrepancies. Field seeds accounted for
5 other discrepancies in purity and 2 in germination, cereal
seeds for 2 in germination, while packeted seeds showed 2
discrepancies as to purity and 6 as to germination.
Private Licensed Seed Testing Stations. Periodical
visits were paid by the Ministry's Inspectors to the 79 stations
that are specially licensed to conduct tests for the purpose
of making the statutory declaration in respect of fee
licensee's sales. The purpose of these visits was to examine
fee station's records and equipment and to select “ Resenred
Portions ” (duplicate samples of seeds tested by the stations)
for check testing at fee Official Seed Testing Station,
Cambridge.
1097
The Working of the Shids Act: Season 1936*37
Altogether 1,198 “ Reserved Portions ” were obtained and
in 98 ^ these the difference between the results obtained at
die Station and the check test at the Official Seed Testing
Station exceeded the amounts allowed in the limits of variation
prescribed in the Seeds Regulations, 1922. Fourteen of tiiese
samples were of red clovers in which a decrease in the germina-
tion percentage was more or less balanced by an increase in
the number of hard seeds. Apart from these 14 samjdes,
there was a total of 84 discrepancies, which represents approxi-
mately 7 per cent, of the “ Reserved Portions ” taken during
the season, as compared with iii discrepancies or 8 per cent,
of the samples taken during the season 1935-36. On the
whole, therefore, the work of the licensed stations this season
may be said to have been carried out in a very efficient manner.
Seed Potatoes. The Seeds Act requires that every purchaser
of seed potatoes shall be given particulars in writing as to
die (1) name and address of seller, (2) class, viz., either
“ Class I (Scotch),” ” Class i (Irish),” ” Class i (English
Special Stock),” “ Class 1 (Welsh Special Stock),” ” Class i
(English once-grown),” or ” Class 2 ”; (3) name of variety;
and (4) size and dressing. The Wart Disease of Potatoes
Order of 1923 also requires that the number of the official
certificate issued under that Order shall be given.
Considerable attention is given by inspectors to the enforce-
ment of these requirements, and during the period under
review 9 instances of misdescription of variety were investi-
gated (4 of which concerned Scottish seUers and 3 Northern
Irish), 17 instances of false particulars of size and dressing
(of which 12 were in regard to Scottish sellers), and one
instance of false statement as to “ class.” In three of the
above instances and in three others the requisite statutory
statement had not been given to the purchaser or was
incomplete in respect of one or more items.
Prosecutions. The only prosecutions instituted during
tire year were in respect of se^’ potatoes. In one instance a
Birmingham merchant supplied a local farmer with a
considerable quantity of seed that was alleged to be Irish
certified stock. Following a complaint by the farmer, an
inspection of the resultant crop, which was practically worffi-
less and involved the fanner in heavy financial loss, revealed
that ffie seed was not of Irish origin. It was eventually detiied
X098
The Working of the Seeds Act: Season 1936-37
tiiat the most appropriate charge, having regard to the mag-
nitude of the offence, would be under the Larceny Act, 1916,
for obtaining money by false pretences, rather than under die
Seeds Act, 1920, and the Wart Disease of Potatoes Order,
1923. The prosecution was undertaken by the Birmingham
City Police and the defendant, pleading guilty, was fined in
all £50 with £5 5s, ad. costs.
In tile other instance a Lincolnshire potato merchant was
prosecuted under the Seeds Act, 1920, for making a false
statement as to the variety of seed sold. The defendant
pleaded guilty and was fined £2 os. od. with £6 5s. od. costs.
1099
BIARKETING NOTES
]IIi& Marketing Sdieme. The wholesale price for liquid
milk (other than Tuberculin Tested milk) in December, 1937,
was IS. 6<f . per gal. the same as in the previous month, but
xd. more than in December, 1936. The wholesale price for
Tuberculin Tested milk in December, 1937, was is. ^d. per
gal., the same as in the previous month.
Pool prices for December, 1937, are given below, with com-
parative figures for November, 1937, and December, 1936.
Pool Prices
Dec.
Nov.
Dec.
1937
1937
1936
d.
d.
d.
Northern
..
T 5 i
M
North-Western . .
15J
i 5 l
M
Eastern
16
Mi
East Midland . .
154
Mi
West Midland . .
.• i 5 i
15
M
North Wales
15*
i 5 i
M
South Wales
154
M
Southern . .
.. i6i
i 5 f
m 4
Mid-Western
.. i 5 i
Mi
M
Far-Western
.. I 5 i
Mi
i 3 i
South-Eastern . .
i6j
Mi
Mi
Unweighted Average . .
.. 15*64
15*30
M*M
These prices are exclusive of any premium for special ser-
vices and level deliveries, and also of the quality bonuses for
Accredited and Tuberculin Tested milks. • The estimated gal-
lonage on which the quality bonuses were paid was 29,190,725.
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at xd. per
gal. compared with x^d. per gal. in December, 1936. Sales
on wholesale contracts were as follows : —
Dec., 1937
Dec., 1936
{estimated)
Gal.
Gal.
Liquid
51.257,559
47,302,947
Manufacturing
12,851,151
16,310,319
64,108,710
63,613,266
Percentage liquid sales
79*95
74 36
Percentage manufacturing sales . .
20-05
25-64
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
December was y.(^d. per gal. compared with 6.25^. per
gal. for December, 1936. The quantity of milk manufactured
into cheese on farms was 660,220 gal, compared with 938,576
gal. in the previous month and 428,146 gal. in December,
1936.
1100
Marketing Notes
Hops Marketing Sdieme: Committee of Inquiry. In
accordance with an undertaking given in Parliament when
the Amendments to the Hops Marketing Scheme were being
considered in 1934, the Minister has appointed a Committee
of Inquiry to review the operation of the quota provisions
of the Scheme, which are due to expire on July 31, 1939, and
to make recommendations in the light of the experience of
the past few years as to the desirability of retaining the quota
provisions in the Scheme with or without modifications, due
regard being paid to the interests of hop growers, brewers,
and any other persons affected by the Scheme, and to the
public interest.
The members of the Committee are Mr. A. W. Cockbum
(Chairman), Mr. A. F. Forbes and Mr. T. W. Haward. The
Secretary is Mr. R. G. R. Wall, of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i, to whom
all communications should be addressed.
Potato Marketing Scheme. As the outcome of discussions
of matters of mutual interest between the National Federa-
tion of Fish Friers, Ltd., The National Federation of Fruit
and Potato Trades, Ltd., and the Potato Marketing Board, a
tripartite committee consisting of four representatives of each
organization was set up in September last to explore proposals
for long-term contracts between producers, authorized mer-
chants and fish friers for the supply of potatoes at uniform
prices. The Committeq have now issued a report in which
they state that they are agreed that long-term contracts between
individuals for periods of two years or more are feasible, but
that they think there is little prospect of any inunediate general
adoption of collective contracts amongst producers, merchants
or fish friers for securing group responsibility for delivery or
payment. The Committee feel that contracts must depend
upon individual initiative and negotiation, and they do not
think scales of prices could be indicated for the benefit of those
making contracts; but they recommend that the several
organizations should assist with their advice in the drawing-
up of long-term contracts and encourage the scheme generally
and that specimen contracts should be made available.
The Committee further record their view that a tripartite
committee appears to be a satisfactory medium for reconciling
the views of their respective organizations, and suggest that,
if their recommendations are adopted, a permanent committee
IIOI
Marketing Notes
should be established (a) to watch the development o£ long-
term contracts between producers, merchants and fish friers,
and (b) to provide a means for discussing trade problems
affecting the three parties.
Milk Acts, 1934 to 1937: Milk-in-Schools Scheme. The
following figures show the monthly gallonage of milk con-
sumed in each of the first three years of the scheme : —
October . .
1934-35
Gallons
i, 97 i ,482
i 935-36
Gallons
2.273,178
1936-37
Gallons
2,225,782
November
2.449.037
1. 951.73 1
2,199,597
December
1,772,019
1,562,954
1.797.285
January . .
February
2,174,888
1,901,625
1.640,373
2,347.855
2,052,243
2.157.355
March
2.388,857
2,305,192
2,045,251
April
1.649,039
1,547.537
2,227,524
May
2,246,531
2,143.674
1,594,724
2,386,951
June
1,585,824
1,800,843
July
1.833.447
1,778,323
1,843,405
August . .
449,908
474,029
589,406
September
1,984,223
2,125,097
2,296,373
Total
22,854,110
21,916,426
23,004,026
Exchequer
Contribution
^401,872
£397,348
£410,151
Cheese- and Butter-Milk Prices. For the purpose of pay-
ments under the Milk Acts (whether by the Exchequer to Milk
Marketing Boards or by Boards to the Exchequer) in respect
of milk used for manufacture, the Minister and the Secretary
of State for Scotland, with the approval of the Treasury, have
certified the cheese-milk price and the butter-milk price to be
6.40<i. and 5.55<^. per gallon respectively for the month of
October, 1937.
General Publicity. A further scheme submitted by the
Milk Marketing Board on the recommendation of its Advisory
Q)mmittee on Milk Publicity has been approved. It follows
the lines of those conducted during 1935 and 1936 and from
November, 1936, to September, 1937. Of fee total estimated
cost of ;^6o,ooo the major portion will be devoted to a press
and poster campaign covering fee period October, 1937, to
September, 1938.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-grown Wheat — Cereal
Y ear 1937-38, Certificates lodged wife fee Wheat Commission
by registered growers during the period August r, 1937, to
January 7, 1938, cover sales of 12,287,295^ cwt. of millable
XI02
Marketing Notes
wheat as compared with 11,734,687 cwt. in the corresponding
period (to January 8) last year.
Nm> Anticipated Supply and Quota Payments Order. The
Minister, on Ae recommendation of the V^eat Commission,
has made the Wheat (Anticipated Supply) No. i Order, 1938,
revising the “ anticipated supply ” of home-grown millable
wheat in the cereal year 1937-38 from 26 to 25 million cwt.,
and the Wheat (Quota Payments) No. i Order, 1938, altering
the quota payment to which millers and importers are liable
on their output of flour from 2.4 pence to 4.8 pence per cwt.
as from January 23, 1938. (The new rate is equivalent to
IS. od. per sack of 280 lb.).
Sugar Industry (Reorganization) Act, 1936: Production
of Home-Grown Beet Sugar during 1937-38 Campaign. Accord-
ing to information furnished by the British Sugar Corpora-
tion Ltd., the total quantities of beet sugar manufactured in
Great Britain during December, 1937 and the corresponding
month in 1936 were
White Raw Total
cwt. cwt. cwt.
1937 • • • • 039,596 1,585.054 .>,225,250
1936 .. .. 1,512,186 1,701,007 3.213.193
The total quantities of sugar produced to the end of
December in each of the 1937-38 and 1936-37 manufacturing
campaigns were
White Raw Total
cwt. cwt. cwt.
1937-38 •• *^.990,417 4.504.304 7.494.7^1
193O-37 • • 4.O47.203 4.558.873 9.206,076
Livestock Industry Act, 1937 : Cattle Fund. The following
table gives particulars of payments made out of the fund set
up under die Cattle Industry (Emergency Provisions)
Acts, 1934 to 1936, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937: —
Period
Payments
Animals
Average
Payment per
April to December, 1935 . .
£
2,809,560
1,188,147
Animal
L d.
i 7 4
April to December, 1930 . .
2,946,415
1.259,414
269
April to December, 1937*
2,878,939
1,189,710
8 5
From commencement of subsidy
payments to December 31, 1937
12.758.441
5.357.315
00
• The payments during this period comprised ;^i,357,828 for 581,700
animals certified under the Emergenej’ Provisions Acts, and ;^8o6,848 for
250,833 animals of quality standard and £yi4.R'>i for 357,177 animals of
ordinary standard certified under the 1937
1103
Marketing Notes
Approval Orders under Section 14. The Livestock Com-
mission, witii the approval of the Minister, have made an
Order vmder Section 14 of the Act approving the premises
known as the Penrith Farmers’ and Kidd’s Auction at Penrith
for use as a livestock market. The Order was necessitated
by the fact that the market has recently been extended to
include premises that were not used for the purposes of a
livestock market during the year ended November 30, 1936.
An Order under Section 14 has also been made approving
premises known as the Farmers’ Auction Mart, at Wigan, for
use as a livestock market in lieu of a market formerly held
on other premises in Wigan under the same management.
Fat Stock: Carcass Sale by Grade and Dead-weight.
During the past year the Grade and Dead-weight Scheme con-
tinued to work smoothly at all the Ministry’s grading centres,
and over 4,300 quotations for separate offers of stock were
issued to producers. A total of 12,503 cattle, 29,511 lambs
and sheep, and 9,195 pigs were dealt with under the Scheme
as compared with 11,834 cattle, 35,709 lambs and sheep, and
9,440 pigs in 1936.
During the greater part of the year under review fat stock
prices generally were showing an upward trend. Under
these conditions it was anticipated that many producers would
be less inclined to avail themselves of the alternative market
provided under the Scheme and in consequence there would
be some falling off in the number of stock offered. Actually,
as will be seen from the figures above, the only class of stock
showing any appreciable decline in numbers is sheep and this
occurred mainly in the first three quarters of the year. The
number of sheep handled during the last quarter, when prices
fell generally, showed an increase of 1,929 over the corre-
sponding period of 1936.
The following table shows the grading of the carcasses
dealt with during 1937 : —
Super
/
11
111
Rejected
Total
Cattle —
Bullocks and Heifers .
• 57
3.5b8
5^574
I >005
133
10,337
Other Classes
. —
625
1,022
397
122
2,166
Sheep —
I.ambs . .
. —
8.482
8,900
2.895
1.54^
21,819
Other Sheep
. —
i, 96<>
612
-^34
7,692
Pigs —
Pork Pigs and Sows .
. . —
5iJ537
.1,^46
545
167
9,195
1104
Marketing Notes
A noteworthy feature of the stock dealt with during the
year was the higher proportion of fat cattle which qudified
for Grade I. (The percentage of carcasses in this grade
increased from 28.3 in 1935 and 1936 to 34.0 in 1937.) This
does not necessarily mean that the general level of quality of
fat cattle in the country has improved, but it may be attributed
in part at least to an increase in the number of producers of best
quality fat cattle now using the Scheme.
National Mark Beef. During 1937, 365,617 sides of beef
were graded and marked with the National Mark, of which
49.5 per cent, were " Select,” 48.8 per cent. ” Prime ” and
1.7 per cent. “ Good.”
The total number of sides graded and marked from the com-
mencement of the Scheme in October, 1929, to the end of last
year exceeded 2J millions.
National Mark Publicity. British Industries Fair.
Arrangements are being made for staging an exhibit of
National Mark products at the British Industries Fair, which
is to be held at Earls Court from February 21 to March 4.
The display will include canned, bottled and fresh fruit and
vegetables, fruit juice products, honey, cider and perry, eggs,
wheat flakes, cheese, and flour. Samples of various
National Mark products, and a range of the Department’s
publications, will be on sale at the Ministry’s stand.
National Mark ” Weeks.” During the March quarter of
1938, National Mark ” Weeks ” will be held at Preston
(February 2-11), and Southport (March 9-18). The principal
features of these campaigns will be National Mark exhibitions,
shop-window displays and poster ballot competitions, cinema
lectures for housewives and school children, and special
cooking demonstrations and competitions for residents of these
towns and the surrounding districts.
1105
FEBRUARY ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King's College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
At the end of the present month the first days of spring are
recorded by the calendar. In the earlier districts the great
activity associated with spring work in preparation for the
sowing of crops has commenced. In fact, in the earliest dis-
tricts for potatoes some of the tubers may already be planted.
In Jersey, for example, the earliest slopes are conunonly
planted in January, while the bulk of the planting takes
place in February and early March, provided weather condi-
tions are favourable. In all instances the seed potatoes are
sprouted in boxes before planting, and early varieties are
planted in i8-in. drills. This means a large weight of seed
per acre, especially as large sets are frequently used. Liberal
applications of artificial manure are applied, often 14-15 cwt.
per acre in addition to farmyard manure or sea-weed. These
items, along with higher rents and the hand labour needed
in many areas, makes the crop an expensive one to grow.
In seasons of low prices a good deal of money may be lost in
spite of the fact that crops of 10 tons and over per acre are
often produced. On the contrary, in years of good prices the
returns may be excellent.
The weather during the month is usually characterized by
moderate rainfall and sunless conditions. The lengthening
period of daylight allows for full working days and is a wel-
come promise of better weather ahead. While it is important
that no opportunity should be lost in furthering spring cultiva-
tions, harm may be done by working land prematurely, i.e.,
before it is sufficiently dry to permit satisfactory cultural
treatment. Land put out of condition at this season frequently
never recovers for the rest of the year.
Drainage work that still remains unfinished on grass land,
and even on arable, should be pushed forward. On grass
land appreciable new growth has not yet started, but in mild
districts, with suitable weather, growth may be fairly vigorous
early in March,
Cereals. A large proportion of the cereal crops grown in
this country is spring sown. Advantage will be taken of
1106
February on the Farm
any favourable spell during the month to get in wheat on land
where autumn sowing was not possible. As compared with
autumn-sown wheat, it is usually advisable to allow a more
liberal seeding in spring — ^the plant has not the same oppor-
tunity for tillering with the shorter period of growth.
The National Institute of Agricultural Botany recommends
Little Joss for February sowing. The leaflet published by
that Institute gives much useful information as to varieties of
wheat, barley and oats, and is obtainable on application to
The Director, National Institute of Agricultural Botany,
Huntingdon Road, Cambridge. The choice of the most suit-
able variety for any set of conditions is a most important
matter, on which the County Agricultural Organizer is pre-
pared to give advice.
Maturity is an important matter with malting barley, and
on suitable soils much barley may be sown within the next
two or three weeks if weather conditions are favourable. It
should be borne in mind that barley is more insistent on a
good seed bed than wheat. Barley sown under poor condi-
tions seldom gives a satisfactory return, and it is better to wait
for good conditions than to risk loss of crop by too hasty
sowing.
Grass Land. Grass is the most extensive farm crop in this
country and like all other crops is greatly influenced by cul-
tural conditions of soil and manuring. Heavy poaching by
stock on strong land during wet weather is particularly harm-
ful during spring, when there is a risk of rapid drying out
with resultant bad physical condition. Pastures badly
poached in this way often fail to recover during the following
summer and produce much less pasturage. Similarly, on per-
manent hay ground where cattle are being wintered, care
should be taken not to allow undue poaching in wet weather.
The greatest harm occurs when the grass is short. Rough
over-winter grass should be consumed or trodden before
spring growth commences. Dung carting and spreading
should be completed if possible during this and the following
month on permanent hay ground. Careful distribution of
the dung is an advantage and makes for a uniform sward.
Mechanical treatment of grass land can be carried out with
advantage. Where severe harrowing is needed to remove
matted turf it is better done early in the season. The lighter
c 2 1107
February on the Farm
harrowing for the distribution of the droppings from grazing
stock is often left until later.
Some of the grass in certain parts of the country is
of a temporary nature, leys of from three to ten years
being quite common. Generally speaking, the productive-
ness of short-term leys, where the management is good,
is better than that of permanent grass land. On the
stronger soils in the North of England leys of three years
or longer have proved most beneficial, because valuable
hay or pasture can be obtained from the ley, which
after ploughing out, provides plant food and improved
physical conditions for succeeding arable crops. The old
adage " to break a pasture will make a man, and to make
a pasture will break a man," which was perhaps true half a
century ago, has very little truth to-day for most parts of the
country. This is mainly due to the use of more suitable seed
mixtures, improved manuring, and a better understanding
of the early management of the new ley. Alternate husban-
dry has much to recommend it. With short leys, not only
is the productiveness greater, but the conditions for grazing
stock are healthier. In many districts the arable crops fol-
lowing leys are more abundant and plant diseases are not so
troublesome. The chief disadvantages of the temporary
ley system are experienced where cattle are outwintered
and in areas of low rainfall where droughts are frequent,
and there is risk of trouble from 'insect pests, such
as wireworm and leatherjackets, after ploughing the ley.
Experience has shown that, provided care is taken to ensure,
as far as possible, favourable conditions for the sowing of the
seed mixture, satisfactory results can be obtained from tem-
porary leys even in the drier parts of the country. The first
essential for success in connexion with temporary leys
is to establish a good, vigorous plant that will give a
well covered sward from the outset. Seed beds and after-
management both play a most important part in the establish-
ment and ultimate nature of the grass land. Success depends
as much on these factors as upon the seeds mixture. To
establish a ley that will be vigorous and high-yielding from
the outset requires good soil conditions from the point of view
of physical condition as well as plant food, and also an
absence of competition from weed plants.
While there are numerous instances in which very satis-
factory pastures have been produced from seeds sown under
iio8
February on the Farm
poor conditions, and even on land infested with weeds, the
risk is much ^eater and more time is invariably required
before they 3deld satisfactory results. The best and most
uniform " takes ” of seeds are usually obtained when the grass
and clover seeds are sown with a cereal nurse crop. Barley
is most favoured for this purpose, as its growing season is short,
and it does not shade the seeds so heavily as other cereal crops;
further, the early removal of the barley crop allows the young
seeds to make some growth and become well established before
the winter.
Grass and clover seeds are usually sown broadcast soon after
the com is drilled, as it is often found that a much more
uniform distribution of the plants is obtained by broadcasting
than by the use of the coulter drill. It is most important
that a good tilth should be secured. Both grass and clover
seeds are small, and satisfactory plant establishment is only
likely to be obtained with a fine, firm seed bed.
Sheep. February is an important month as far as sheep
stocks are concerned, on both lowland and hill farms. In
many instances arable flocks will finish lambing, and
the need of suitable food for the nursing ewes is one of the
chief problems. It is not easy to keep a good supply of milk
during bad weather witliout fresh succulent foods like grass,
vetches and other such young growing plants.
On lowland grass and hill farms, lambing usually com-
mences later, and the important point during the present month
is to make sure that the pregnant ewes are not losing condition.
While both hill and lowland flocks usually make satis-
factory progress if sufficient pasturage is available during the
first period of pregnancy, some help may be needed if the ewes
are not to lose weight and condition during the later stages.
The strain of the winter period and the falling off in quantity
and quality of food account for this. Ewes that show distinct
signs of falling off in condition should be separated and given
special treatment. On lowland grass farms it is customary
to adopt some form of hand feeding of the in-lamb ewes
during the later stages of pregnancy, but with hill ewes this
frequently is not done. Experiments carried out by Mr. Lyle
Stewart, M.R.C.V.S., in Northumberland, show that hill ew'es
lose a good deal of body weight from the end of January
until the grass comes. While it is recognized that there are
many difficulties in giving supplementary food to hill flocks,
1109
February on the Farm
and probably many objections, the possibility of die economic
use of some suitable supplementary food might be explored
with advantage. Experimental sheep receiving an allowance
of food in ad^ tion to pasture have not shown the same loss in
body weight. The economic aspect of the matter, however,
has not received enough consideration.
Pregnancy toxaemia causes considerable loss amongst
breeding flocks. In this connexion it should be borne in mind
that with sheep, as with all breeding animals, it is advisable
to feed to a carefully balanced diet. The diet should not only
be carefully balanced with regard to protein and starch equiva-
lent, but it should be such as to keep the digestive system in
good working condition. A slightly laxative condition is to
be preferred to any tendency to constipation. Exercise is
important as it keep>s all organs in good tone.
It is customary to reserve fields for lambing, and the stock
are normally put on to fields that have been rested and contain
more fresh food, just before lambing and at a time when trouble
from pregnancy toxaemia is most likely to occur.
IIIO
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
Balanced Manuring. Data for annual fertilizer con-
sumption over a period of years show marked changes in the
ratio of the amounts of the different plant nutrients consumed in
different years. The extent of these changes was indicated
in these notes for May, 1937, when reference was also made
to possible causes of these fluctuations. The changes are
obviously not related to changes in the needs of the crops
themselves, and no doubt publicity, among other things, plays
a considerable part in the popularity or otherwise of any one
t}^ of fertilizer.
The present time, therefore, seems opportune for further
reference to this subject, and particularly for emphasizing
that, though nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers may not be
necessary on some types of grass land, a manuring programme
for arable land must include, somewhere in the rotation,
adequate supplies of these fertilizers as well as phosphates and
lime. The Land Fertility Scheme has given wide publicity to
the use of fertilizers in general, but particular emphasis has
been placed on the use of lime and phosphate, for the pur-
pose of which special financial assistance has been granted.
The reasons for this have already been discussed in this
Journal and elsewhere, particularly the desire to improve the
large areas of poor grass land, for which purpose, in many
districts, phosphate (with or without lime) is the only fer-
tilizer required. It is important to remember, however, that
even the most ferv'cnt advocates of the Land Fertility Scheme
would not suggest that all the money a farmer may be prepared
to spend on fertilizers should be invested in phosphatic fer-
tilizers. This w'ould be very undesirable even on some t5^s
of permanent grass, and would be entirely wrong on arable
land.
Crops cannot live on phosphate alone, and, on many farms,
as crops such as potatoes, mangolds and sugar-beet receive the
bulk of the artificial fertilizer, some reference to the impor-
tance of potassic fertilizers for these crops may serve as a
nil
Notes on Manuring
timely reminder to farmers who have not yet decided on the
manuring for their 1938 potato and root crops.
Effect of Potash on Potatoes. On land farmed and
fertilized on normal lines, potash should always be included
in a fertilizer mixture for the potato crop. It is important
not only for its well-known effects on the total 5deld of the
crop and on the quality of the tubers, but also for its beneficial
effect on the proportion of tubers of ware size. As tuber
size has assumed greater importance since the advent of the
Potato Marketing Board, with its power to prescribe the
size of riddle to be used in the separation of ware from seed
and chats, more detailed information on this point may be
of interest. Data illustrating the effects of nitrogen, phosphate
and potash on the proportion of ware-size tubers in several
experiments were given in these notes for March, 1937.
Examination of data from a larger number of exjjeriments
has now been made by H. V. Garner at Rothamsted, and the
results have been published in the October, 1937, issue of
The Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture. Although
the riddles used to separate the ware tubers varied from
to if in. at different centres, the results nevertheless serve
to indicate the effect of fertilizer on the proportion of large
to small tubers. In general, these results support the main
suggestions made in the March, 1937, notes. Potash will often
bring about a substantial increase in the proportion of tubers
of ware size, especially in circumstances in which potash
increases the total yield of the crop. Phosphate and nitrogen
on the other hand, despite their markedly beneficial effect on
the actual yield of tubers, exert a much smaller effect on
the proportion of ware than does potash. Dung has definitely
beneficial effect on the proportion of ware-size tubers, but the
effects of potash and dung are not entirely independent, the
beneficial effect of potash being less marked, though still impor-
tant, where dung is used than where the crop receives no dung.
The average effect of the three chief plant nutrients over the
whole of the experiments included in Garner’s survey were as
follows : —
Nitrogen increased the jxjrcentage ware by 2 • o
Phosphate „ „ „ „ 2-1
Potash „ „ ,, 7*6
In general, dung was even more effective than potash in this
respect, a result Aat illustrates once again the value of dung
1112
Notes on Manuring
to the potato crop. The interaction between potash and dung
emphasizes the special importance of ensuring an adequate sup-
ply of potash where only a light dressing of dung is available.
Although potash is generally believed to be most effective
on light sandy soils, the Rothamsted experiments have shown
beneficial effects on the potato crop on quite heavy soils. The
quantity best suited for any particular farm or field may vary
from I to 4 cwt. of sulphate of potash per acre according to
circumstances such as soil, past treatment, and the amount of
dung and other fertilizer to be used, but there are relatively
few occasions on which some potash cannot be profitably
included in a potato fertilizer.
The Effect of Potash on the Sugar-Beet Crop. The
inclusion of potash in a fertilizer mixture for sugar-beet has
been almost universally advocated for many years. Reliable
experimental evidence in support of this recommendation, how-
ever, was not very readily obtained in this country,
although the extensive series of trials carried out annually
since 1933 by the Rothamsted staff in co-operation with the
Sugar-beet Factory staffs and with the support of the Sugar-
Beet Education and Research Committee, are now providing
information on this point.* Averaging the results from all
centres in this series of trials in which no dung was used,
muriate of potash applied at the rate of ij cwt. per acre gave
a small but profitable increase in the average yield of sugar
per acre during the tour years 1933 to 1936 inclusive — ^the
average increase being of the order of i cwt. of sugar per acre.
A double dressing of muriate of potash (2J cwt. per acre)
was not appreciably better than the single dressing in 1934
and 1935, but gave a substantial increase over the single
dressing in 1936, a much wetter season than the two preceding
years. The figure obtained by averaging the results from
a large number of centres on widely different soil types is not
always the best criterion, however, since the treatment under
consideration may be beneficial on one soil type and useless
or even detrimental on some other soil type. This seems to
have been true to some extent in this series of experiments,
for a grouping of the results for 1936 according to soil type
shows that potash was markedly effective on the lighter soils
but actually reduced the yield of sugar on some of the heavy
soils.
* See Rothamsted Report for 1936.
III3
Notes on Manuring
Increase in Yield of Sugar {pwt. per acre)
Soil Type in 1936 due to : —
Muriate of Potash Muriate of Potash
@ li cwt. per acre @ 2J cwt, per acre
Coarse sand . .
. .
. .
. . -|- I • 8 . *
+ 3-3
Fine sand
. . 4- 2*6
+ 4-4
Light loam . .
4 - 0*3 ..
-I-I -5
Heavy loam
. . 4-0*2
. . — 1*2
Clay loam . .
4 - 0*0
-1*4
Fen . ,
4 -2*1
4 - 4*2
The cash value of the larger increases in the above table
is, of course, considerably greater than the cost of the potash
fertilizer, the cost of the single dressing being equivalent to
the value of about 0.8 cwt. of sugar at 1938 prices.
The effect of potash on yield of washed beet was very
similar to its effect on yield of sugar. In 1936, increases up to
two tons per acre were obtained on hght soils, but on heavy
soils its use was frequently associated with a reduction in the
yield of roots. Potash gave a small increase in the average
sugar percentage of the roots in all four years 1933-1936, the
annual average increase varying from 0.14 to 0.24 — a result
that corroborates the general opinion that potash helps to
keep up the sugar percentage. It is interesting to note that
this increase in sugar percentage was not confined to the
lighter types of soil. In 1936, potash increased the sugar
percentage at six of the seven heavy an^ clay loam centres,
though not always sufficiently to compensate for the accom-
panying reduction in the yield of washed roots. The average
increase in sugar percentage at these heavy-land centres was
of the same order as that at the six centres on coarse sandy
soil.
These experiments also confirm the importance of main-
taining a proper balance between the amounts of pxjtash and
nitrogen in a fertilizer mixture for sugar-beet. The nitro-
genous fertilizer used was sulphate of ammonia, and in the
three years 1934 to 1936 the full benefit from the nitrogen
was only obtained when a suitable amount of potash was in-
cluded in the fertilizer. Similarly, the full benefit from potash
was only obtained when nitrogen was also included in the
mixture, the response in 5neld of sugar to either fertilizer being
about 2 cwt. per acre greater when the other was present
than when it was absent. This interaction between nitrogen
and potash is, of course, not confined to the sugar-beet crop,
but is a generally recognized phenomenon with many agricul-
XX14
Notes on Manuring
tural crops, as well as with glasshouse crops such as tomatoes
and with fruit such as dessert apples.
The optimum amount of potash to include in a fertilizer mix-
ture for sugar-beet will depend on such circumstances as those
mentioned above in the consideration of the potato crop. In
general, a suitable quantity for use in conjunction with about
3 cwt. per acre of nitrogenous fertilizer and 2 to 4 cwt. per
acre of superphosphate, will be within the range i to cwt.
per acre of muriate of potash or i to 3 cwt. per acre of 30
per cent, potash salts, the largest dressings being required
on very light soils and where potash is not applied to other
crops in the rotation.
Potash is, of course, just as important for the man-
gold crop as for the sugar-beet crop. Here again its
effectiveness is closely associated with the presence of an
adequate amount of nitrogenous fertilizer. The response to
potash, however, is less where nitrate of soda is used than
where the nitrogen is supplied in the form of sulphate of
ammonia, since mangolds are apparently able to use sodium
for many of the functions normally fulfilled by potassium.
Top-dressing Spring Cabbage. As this crop often follows
one that received dung and artificial fertilizer, e.g., early
|X)tatoes, it does not usually receive much fertilizer in the
autumn, though phosphates will help to establish sturdy
young plants, especially where spring greens are drilled in
situ, and potash is often used to encourage winter hardiness.
Whatever the autunln treatment, however, the crop will
usually respond well to spring applications of quick-acting
nitrogenous fertilizer. There is no point in applying the fer-
tilizer before soil and climatic conditions are such that the crop
can utilize the nitrogen, and though early February may not
be too soon to apply top-dressings for the earliest cuttings in
the southern part of the country, early March is usually soon
enough in the north. There is very little direct experimental
evidence as to the relative merits of different types of nitro-
genous fertilizer for this purpose, nor as to the optimum
amounts to apply, but nitrate nitrogen is likely to be most
quickly available to the crop and therefore the best form of
nitrogen where the object is to push on the crop as rapidly
as possible. Spring greens, where earliness is specially
importaint and " hearting ” is not, will probably pay for
heavier dressings of nitrogenous fertilizer than crops that are
1115
Notes on Manuring
to be cut as “ hearted ” cabbage. Just as mild " growing ”
weather in autumn and early winter may lead to " hearting ”
long before the crop was intended to be cut, so spring weather
and market conditions largely determine whether or not top-
dressings will be profitable and how long the crop shall be
left before cutting. Spring greens will usually benefit from
an initial top-dressing of to 2 cwt. per acre of nitrate of
soda, nitrate of lime or potash nitrate, given as early as
weatiier conditions permit, followed by further similar
dressings at about fortnightly intervals until the crop is cut.
For hearted cabbage two top-dressings should suffice.
The leaves of spring cabbage are very susceptible to
scorching and spotting by fertilizer. Hence, top-dressings
should not be broadcast in such a way that fertilizer falls
directly on to the leaves, but they should be applied, as far
as possible, to the soil alongside each row of plants.
PRICES OP ARTIFICUL MANURES
Description
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
during week ended Jan. 5
Bristol
Hull
1
L’pool j
London
Costs
per
Unitll
L
5 .
i
5 ,
i
s.
£
v9.
s.
d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 1 5 i%) . .
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
8
o^;
10
4
„ „ Granulated (N. 16%)
Nitrate of Lime (N. 13^)0)
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
8
oc
10
0
7
qe
7
ye
7
ye
7
yc
II
4
Nitro-Chalk (N. 15^%)
7
IOC
7
IOC
7
IOC
7
IOC
9
9
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
Neutral (N. 20*6%) . .
7
lie
7
I ir
7
lie
7
lie
7
4
Calcium Cyanamidc (N. 20-6%)^
7
12(1
7
1 2d
7
1 2d
7
i2d
7
5
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . . . .
2
18
2
15
2
15
2
15
3
II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5
4
5
1
5
0
5
I
3
5
(Pot. 20 %)
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
3
15
3
12
3
12
3
12
3
7
8
10
8
8
8
5
8
8
3
4
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
10
2
10
0
9
17
10
0
4
2
Basic Slag (P.A. I5|%)
2
12 b
2
5 b
—
2
106
3
2
„ (P.A. 14%)
Grd. Rock Phospliate (P.A. 20-
►s
2
86
2
ob
2
ob
2
66
3
3
27i%)
3
7 a
3
2 a
2
iSa
2
12a
2
0
Superphosphate (S.P.A. i0%)
3
4
—
3
5/
3
3
9
(S.P.A. I3i%)
Bone Meal (N. 3}%, P.A 20 J%)
3
1
2
17
3
2/
2
iGg
4
1
—
7
5
7
5^
7
2
Steamed Bone Flour (N. J%,
P.\. 27j-29|%)
5
5
10
1 4
1 7*
,_1
15
—
Abbreviations : N. ^ Nitrogen ; P.A. ~ Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A. = Soluble l*hosphonc Acid ; Pot. ~ Potash.
* Prices are for not less than 6- ton lots, at purchaser’s nearest railway station
unless olhen\'ise stated, I- nit values are calculated on carriage-paid prices.
§ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless othen^use stated, I’nit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots for. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
b Prices for 6-ton lots Prices at Bristol are for. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fincne.ss 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is 15 per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 3s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, io.s\ extra
d Delivered in 5'ton lots at purchaser’s nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra and for lots of 4 cwt. and under i ton, 20.9. extra.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under 2 tons
7s. 6 d. per ton extra, and for lots of under i ton, 20s. extra.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes.
g Prices .shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, is. 3d. extra.
h l^rices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge,
i Price shown is f o.r. Ne9\T)ort, Mon.
II These are calculated bv regarding a ton as comprising 100 ” units*' (equal parts
of 22 -^ lb.) so that a fertiliser, for example, with 16 per cent, nitrogen, contains
16 such units ** in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a fertilizer be divided
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost ts that of a ** unit ” of that agent. Those
in the table above are based on London prices. (For further explanation, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146. “ The Valuation of Artificial Manures,!* obtainable from
the Ministry, free of charge.)
NOTES ON FEEDING
Charles Crowther, M.A., Ph.D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural CoUege
Pasteurized Milk in Calf Rearing. In the Notes for July,
1937. an account was given of a series of comparisons of raw'
milk with pasteurized milk carried out with calves on the
Auchincruive farm of the West of Scotland Agricultural
College. In these tests there was an apparent small advantage
in favour of the raw milk, but the opinion was expressed in
the Notes that owing to the smallness of the groups used
the results could “ hardly be accepted as decisive.”
Justification for this note of caution is to be found in the
results of two further investigations, the reports of which were
published during the past year.
The first of these (Wilson, Minett & Carling, Journal of
Hygiene, Vol, XXXVII, p. 243) deals with an experiment
carried out under joint veterinary and agricultural control on
a sanatorium farm between July, 1934, and September, 1936.
The general plan of the experiment was to feed alternate calves,
as they were bom, on raw or pasteurized milk for eight weeks,
and to compare their rate of growth. The Shorthorn herd
used has been tubercle-free since 1932, and has also an excel-
lent record with regard to freedom from contagious abortion,
Johne's disease and mastitis. The pasteurization of the milk
was carried out on the farm to ensure efficiency. The milk
used was always taken from the mixed morning milk of the
herd, one-half being pasteurized and the other left untreated.
Both portions were warmed to about po^F. at the time
of fee(^g, the milk required for the evening feed being kept
cool throughout the day. It is of interest to note fliat where
the last-named precaution was inadvertently omitted a certain
amount of “ scouring ” developed in the calves.
One practical defect of the “ random ” assignment of the
calves to the two treatments was that it resulted in a very
uneven distribution of the sexes, there being far fewer bull
calves allocated to the pasteurized than to fee raw milk group.
The chances were feus weighted to some extent in favour of
fee raw milk. Only two calves — ^bofe assigned to fee pas-
teurized milk group^ied in the course of fee experiment,
1118
Notes on Feeding
but in neither instance could death be in any way attributed
to the type of diet that was being given.
The quantity of milk fed was rationed in proportion to the
live-weight of the calf, starting with i lb. milk daily per lo lb.
liveweight for the first few weeks and a rather higher proportion
later — ^though not enough, as experience proved, to cover the
needs of maximum growth. Every calf received its mother’s
colostrum for 3J days before being put on the milk diet.
Besides milk, the calves were provided with hay ad lib,
but as a rule did not eat any appreciable amount of it in the
first month, after which each animal consumed about i lb.
daily, rising to 3 lb. by the eighth week.
In all, twenty-five calves (13 bulls, 12 heifers) were reared
on the raw milk, and twenty-three (8 bulls, 15 heifers) on the
pasteurized milk. All throve well and showed no obvious
signs of rickets or anaemia.
As was to be expected from the higher proportion of bull
calves in the raw milk group, the average initial liveweight
in this group was rather higher (2.23 lb.) than in the pas-
teurized milk group. A closely similar difference (2.09 lb.)
in the same direction was found in the average weights at
8 weeks old, so that the average live-weight gains (53.72 lb.,
53.86 lb.) were practically identical. From time to time the
calves were inspected by outside observers, such as the county
milk recorder and local farmers, but at no time throughout
the experiment was any observer, lay or professional, able
to distinguish betweep the two groups of animals. In short,
no evidence could be obtained, either from growth rates or
skilled observation, to suggest that the nutritive value of
pasteurized milk for calves is in any way inferior to that of
raw milk.
The other investigation (Wilkie, Edwards, Fowler & Wright,
Journal of Dairy Research, Vol. XIII, p. 3 n)> which led to
the same general conclusion, comprised two trials which were
carried out in 1935 and 1936 respectively, at the Hannah
Dairy Research Institute, using milk produced and processed
under typical commercial conditions. The milk used was
drawn from the bulked milk of ten farms. Bull calves alone
were used for the experiment, these being taken from tuber-
culin-tested A5Tshire herds at 2-3 days old, when they had
received two to five feeds of colostrum. On arrival
of the calves at the Institute they were allotted to two groups
in random fashion.
1119
Notes on Feeding
Housing was arranged in two isolated units, which were
over a quarter of a mile apart, and were furnished at their
entrances with foot-baths of strong disinfectant. Each unit
had its own attendant. Between feeding times the calves,
though tethered, had ample opportunity of exercise in the
huts.
Starting with one pint each per day the allowance of milk
was gradually increased until it represented a daily amount
equal to one-tenth of the body weight of the calf at the last
weekly weighing. An average allowance of f lb. of hay per
head daily was also offered from the eighth to the twelfth
week of life. In addition to the weekly weighings various
measurements of each calf were made in the first and twelfth
weeks. At the end of the experiment they were paraded
before a panel of judges, put through the double intra-dermal
test and finally slaughtered, post-mortem examinations being
made of the carcasses.
A preliminary trial with calves born in the spring of 1935
had already shown a death-rate of 62 per cent. — 18 deaths
having occurred in the pasteurized milk group, and 21 in the
raw milk group. Of these deaths 40 per cent, were attributable
to Bac. colt septicaemia, and 37 per cent, to lung infections.
Accordingly the two trials now reported were carried out with
calves bom in the autumn, for which a lower mortality rate
has been claimed than for spring calves.
Taking the two trials together a total of '92 calves were used.
Nineteen calves died before completion of the experiment, 5
of these being in the pasteurized milk *gro^P» ^4
raw milk group. The mean ages of these calves at death
were 44 and 27 days respectively.
Of the 73 calves that completed the full 12 weeks of the
experimental feeding, 37 received pasteurized milk, and 36
raw milk. The former group showed a mean percentage gain
in live weight of 80.2 ±3.1, and the latter 74.5 ±2.7, the
difference of 5.7 ±4.1 being non-significant. In both groups
the average growth-rate was low, this doubtless being largely
due to the fact that no food other than milk was given during
the first eight weeks, in order that any minor differences in
the nutritive value of the two classes of milk might not be
masked.
Marks awarded by experienced stock judges showed con-
sistent differences in favour of the pasteurized milk group, but
the “ significance ” of such differences caimot be assessed.
1X20
Notes on Feeding
No appreciable differences were noted in the skeletal growth
of the two groups.
Daily samples of the milk were combined for the purpose
of tests twice weekly with guinea-pigs. With the raw milk
these revealed the presence of viable tubercle bacilli in 70 per
cent., and Br. abortus in 38 per cent, of the samples. The
pasteurized milk samples were uniformly negative to both
tests.
These differences in tuberculous infection of the two types
of milk were reflected in the results of tuberculin tests and
post-mortem examinations on the calves at the end of the
experiments. Out of the 36 calves on the raw milk diet 24
reacted to the test, and the presence of tuberculous lesions was
confirmed in 23 cases by post-mortem examination. One calf
in the pasteurized milk group reacted to the test, but ex-
haustive post-mortem examination and inoculation of glan-
dular material into guinea-pigs failed to confirm the
presence of any tuberculosis.
Reviewing the information furnished by these two compre-
hensive investigations, the practical equivalence of pasteurized
milk with raw milk for calf-rearing, so far as this can be
measured by growth-rates, would seem to be clearly demon-
strated. If this be accepted, then the greater measure of safety
against infection afforded by the pasteurized milk becomes
decisive in its favour.
Influence of Grit on Digestibility of Grain by Fowls.
Although the subject di occasional experiment for more than
150 years the grit question still remains a topic of controversy
among poultry-keepers. The invariable presence of grit in
the gizzards of birds living under natural conditions, and the
tough, homy nature of the gizzard lining seem almost to pos-
tulate that some useful purpose is being served by the com-
bination, and the most obvious purpose would seem to be
that of providing a substitute for the lack of teeth for grinding
up the hard grains. In a brief review of the subject, prepared
for the 6th World’s Poultry Congress, Hainan arrived at the
conclusion that “ although grit is not essential, its use is
desirable on account of its increasing the efficiency of utiliza-
tion of food materials and maintaining the normality of the
digestive tract. ’ ’ A further contribution to the subject appears
in the issue of the Archiv fuer Gefluegelkunde referred to last
montifi, in the form of a report on experiments carried out in the
IX2I
Notes on Feeding
Animal Nutrition Research Institute, University of Berlin.
These experiments consisted of determinations of the
digestibility of barley grain, with and without the addition of
grit. The experimental animals were four White Leghorn
pullets, six months old, which had been reared in the Institute
on diets entirely free from grit. Flint grit was used, but with
the object of reducing the risk of mechanical damage to the
soft-walled gizzards of the birds a little limestone grit was
given before passing on to the full allowance of flint grit.
That some damage was actually caused to the gizzard by the
grit was shown by the fact that the digestibility of the barley
was lower in the second half than in the first half of the period.
If the results with grit for the first half be taken as the more
normal they were practically identical with those obtained with-
out grit, the organic matter of the barley being digested to the
extent of 74.4 per cent, in the former instance, and 74.7 per
cent, in the latter. Rather curiously, the fibre of the barley
was rather better digested without than with the grit. From
these and previous experiments carried out at the Berlin
Institute the general conclusion is drawn that whatever
beneficial action the grit may have, it is not reflected in any
enhanced digestion of the food.
Digestion of Food by the Rabbit. In recent years an
increasing interest has developed in the commercial possi-
bilities of rabbit-keeping for meat production. As with other
forms of meat production the econorrycs of the process turn
largely upon food costs, and more particularly upon the
efficiency with which the food is converted into meat.
Advisory work in this connexion has hitherto been badly ham-
pered by the lack of data as to the extent to which the different
classes of food commonly used are digested by the rabbit. In
default of such information the digestibility data obtained for
these foods in trials with sheep and pigs have been used, but
this is obviously unsatisfactory and may be misleading.
The older agricultural literature contains accounts of a few
comparisons of rabbits with sheep which indicated that for
the foods tested the digestibilities were of the same order with
the two classes of animal. More recently (1934) similar
comparisons with artificially dried pasture herbage of five-
weeks growtii have been made by Watson & Godden at the
Rowett Institute. These showed the digestive powers of flie
rabbit for this class of food to be much inferior to diose of
1122
Notes on Feeding
the sheep, the average digestion coefficients of the total organic
matter being 48.6 and 77.2 per cent, respectively. This
general inferiority for digesting young grass was shown with
respect to each group of nutrients, the most striking difference
being in regard to the crude fibre, which was only digested to
the average extent of 26.0 per cent, by the rabbit as compared
with 74.5 per cent, by the sheep. A similarly low power of
fibre digestion by the rabbit was also found by Watson &
Horton in tests made in 1933 at Jealott’s Hill. With three
.samples of grass, sheep digested 72-78 per cent, of the organic
matter, whilst rabbits digested only 63 per cent. Of the crude
fibre the sheep digested 78-84 per cent. , the rabbits only 47-51
per cent. With a sample of marrow stem kale tlie corre-
sponding data for organic matter were 85 and 83 per cent. , and
for fibre 74 and 55 per cent, respectively. Only with protein
did the digestive powers of the rabbit prove to be about equal
to those of the sheep.
More comprehensive information on the digestion of a
variety of foods by the rabbit is now available from recent
German experiments (Brueggemann) published in the current
number of Die Tierernaehrung (Vol. 9, p. 374). The average
results are summarized in the following table, in which the
total fibre in the diy matter of each food used is also included.
The digestion coefficients have been rounded off to whole
Total
ITbre
Dige.stion Coefficients
Organic
Matter
Crude
IVotein
True
Protein
Crude
Od
Crude 1 “ Carbo- 1
Fibre | hydrates " 1
•
0/
O'
Of
Of
%
/o
<»
fO
/O
/o
Meadow Hay
3 - 2-9
47
60
43
i8
64
Lucerne ,,
27-0
Or
70
74
3 (>
39
73
Nettle
17*9
93
90
90
3-2
42
79
Green Lucerne , .
Green Sweet
23-6
81
80
87
71
00
88
Lupins
23*0
79
91
90
73
84
Maize Silage
31-4 i
55
79
37
90
(>9
Oats
; 17-9 '
04
79
79
90
18
72
Barley
10*9 ,
90
78
80
90
72
93
Wheat
8*1 ;
1 94
St
80
i 92
90
97
Mangolds
6*0 1
! 97
6(>
36 i
1 —
100
96
Steamed Potatoes
5*9 j
1 98 ,
, 58
54 :
' 300
1 '
xoo
99
Dried Grass* ..|
21*4 1
49
' 61
—
1 2O
26
II • •
Marrow Stem
22*0 !
77
75
4 <» i
49
i ^
Kalet . .
1 II -5 ‘
' i
83 1
!
86
84 j
i
55
; 88
!
• Watson St Godden. t Watson & Horton.
1123
Notes on Feeding
numbers. The British data referred to above have also been
appended.
The close correlation between the fibre-content of the food
and the rabbit’s power of digesting it is brought out clearly
by the data in the first two columns of the table. Thus,
whereas the rabbit digests only from one-half to two-thirds
of the organic matter of the highly fibrous hays, it digests
90 per cent, or more of the organic matter of the low-fibrous
grains. On these results oats compare unfavourably with
barley and wheat as a source of digestible food for the rabbit,
100 parts of oats supplying only 57 parts of total digestible
nutrients, as compared with 77 parts from the same weight
of barley, and 82 parts from wheat. It will also be noted
that, in the main, as the proportion df fibre in the food
decreases the digestibility of the fibre itself tends to increase.
That the rabbit is much inferior to the sheep in digesting
the more fibrous types of food was also confirmed in these
experiments by a direct comparison made with the meadow
hay used. The average results of such comparisons in the
British and German tests are summarized below : —
Digestion Coefticients
Dried tirass
Hay
\\'atson & Godden ' Watson & Horton
Brueggcmann
Rabbit j
Sliecp
j Habbit
Sheep
Rabbit
Sheep
% 1
%
1 Of *
1 /O
0 /
/O
%
%
Organic Matter . .
49 1
77
!
7«
47
(>7
Crude Protein
01 ,
77
77 1
7«
()0
tx>*
True Protein
73
75
59
Crude Oil
26 i
5^
40 j
52
43
3-2
Crude Fibre
20 i
74
49
So
18
72
Carbohydrates
50 1
1
81
00 1
7«
(>4
76
The Water Needs of the Rabbit. The same German report
furnishes information also on the consumption of water by
the five animals used for the digestion trials. This is the more
interesting as the question whether the rabbit needs a separate
supply of drinking water is a matter of perennial controversy
amongst rabbit-keepers. In this trial the answer was very
definitely in the affirmative, as may be seen from tlie following
summary of the average daily water-intake per head on the
various diets used in the digestion trials.
XI24
Notes on Feeding
Water
Additional
T'otal
Diet
contained
Water
Water
in Food
Drunk
Intake
c.c*
c.c.
c.c.
Meadow Hay , .
II
156
167
Lucerne „
17
144
161
Nettle Hay + Steamed Potatoes . .
156
Green Lucerne
235
—
235
Green Sweet Lupins . ,
394
—
394
Maize Silage + Meadow Hay
Oh
12
108
Oats
12
lOI
113
Barley 4 - Meadow Hay . .
10
T42
i6t
Wheat *f
19
121
140
Mangolds -f ,, „ . .
202
202
Steamed Potatoes -f Meadow Hay
160
—
160
* I pint = 567 c.c.
It will be noted that with the drier foods the rabbits took
a considerable amount of water from the drinking trough. In
these instances the average amount of water taken ranged from
loi to 156 C.C., and the total water intake (including moisture
in the food) ranged from 113 to 167 c.c. (=0.2 -0.3 pint).
With the succulent foods (lucerne, lupins, mangolds) the rabbit
clearly received in the food itself more water than was actually
necessaiy. Further, the water consumption on each diet varied
considerably as between different individuals, as is shown by
the following summary of individual water consumption on
the hay diet.
Rabbit ,
: No. I
No. 2
No. 3 No. 4
No. 5
Av. Daily Water con-
c.c.
c.c.
c.c. c.c.
c.c.
sumption . .
126
I4S
iiS 188
200
Range of Variation . .
106-173
123-197
102-178 125-228
148-248
These observations are in close agreement with those made
in 1933 by Christian at Reading, in which it was found that
rabbits on dry mash and water took from 80 to 100 c.c. of
water per head daily in ordinary conditions and rather more
in warm weather.
The broad general conclusion may be drawn, therefore, that
when the rabbit is entirely on " dry ” food it requires a water
supplement amounting on the average to about one-quarter
of a pint daily.
1125
PRICES OF FEEDING STUFFS
Description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
oquiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv
£
5.
i
s.
£
5.
d.
%
Wheat, British
8
12
0
9
8
3
72
2
3
I' 2 I
9'6
Barley, British Feeding
9
o§
0
9
8
II
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
,, Canadian No. 3
Western
8
12
0
9
8
3
7 ^
2
4
6*2
,, Argentine
8
0
9
8
3
71
2
4
125
6- 2
„ Persian
8
. 3 §
0
9
7
H
71
2
2
I* 16
6* 2
„ Russian
8
7 *
0
9
7
18
71
2
3
I '21
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
9
0
0
10
8
10
60
2
10
1*52
7*6
„ „ black and
grey
8
13
0
10
8
3
60
2
9
1*47
7-6
,, Scotch, white . .
9
TO
0
10
9
0
60
3
0
I *61
7-6
„ Canadian —
No. 2 Western
JO
10*
0
10
10
0
60
3
4
i '79
70
No. 3 Western
9
5 t
0
10
8
15
60
2
11
1-56
7'6
Mixed feed . .
8
7
0
10
7
17
60
2
7
1-38
7'6
^laize, American
7
3 t
0
7
6
16
78
I
9
0*94
7'6
„ Argentine
7
13
0
7
7
6
7 i^
1
10
O' 98
7 *b
,, South African —
No. 2 White . .
7
3 t
0
7
6
16
78
I
9
0-94
7-6
No. 4 Yellow
7
7 t
0
7
7
0
78
I
10
0*98
7-6
Beans, English, Winter
7
0
18
6
17
66
2
I
I »12
19*7
Peas, Japanese
22
2 t
0
15
21
7
69
6
2
3*30
i8'i
„ English, blue . .
II
o§
0
15
10
5
69
3
0
I *61
18' i
Milling Offals : —
Bran, British
8
2
0
17
7
5
43
3
4
l '79
9*9
„ Broad
8
10
0
17
7
13
43
3
7
1*92
TO'O
Middlings, fine,
imported
8
7
0
14
7
13
* 69
2
3
I '21
12' 1
WeatingsJ , .
8
7
i 0
15
7
12
5 b
1 2
9
i '47
1 I 0'7
„ SuperfineJ
8
15
0
M
8
I *
69
2
4
125
12* r
Pollards, imported . .
8
0
0
15
7
5
50
2
Ji
1-56
II 'O
Meal, barley . .
9
12
0
9
9
3
71
2
7
1*38
6*2
„ „ grade II
8
17
0
9
8
8
71
2
4
1-25
6'2
„ maize
7
17
0
7
7
10
78
I
ii
1*03
7-6
„ ,, South African
7
10
0
7
7
3
78
I
10
0*98
7'6
„ „ germ
7
15
0
II
7
4
84
I
9
0*94
10*3
,, locust bean
7
15
0
6
7
9
71
2
I
1*12
3 *b
,, bean
9
7
0
18
8
9
66
2
7
1*38
19*7
,, fish (white)
15
0
2
5
12
15
59
4
4
2*32
53-0
„ Soya bean
(extracted) J:
Q
10
T
II
7
19
64
2
6
1-34
38-3
Maize, cooked, flaked
8
7
0
7
8
0
84
I
11
1-03
9 ' 2
Linseed cake —
English, 12% oil . .
10
12 '
I
I
9
II
1
74
2
7 !
I ‘38
24*6
9 % » ..
10
0
I
I
8
19
74
2
5
1*29
24*6
9
15
I
I
8
14
74
2
4
1-25
24-6
Cottonseed cake —
English, Egyptian
seed, 4}% oil
5
10
0
19
4
11
42
2
2
I *16
17-3
iia6
PRICES OP FEEDING STUFFS {continued)
Description
Price
per
ton
i
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
Cottonseed cake —
£ s.
£ s.
£ 5 .
s. d.
d.
%
Egyptian, 4^% oil . .
Cottonseed cake.
5 2
0 19
4 3
42
2 0
1-07
17*3
decorticated, 7% oil
Cottonseed meal.
8 o|
I 10
6 10
68
I II
1-03
34*7
decorticated, 7% oil
8 5 t
I 10
6 15
70
I TI
I 03
36-8
Coconut cake, 6% oil
Ground nut cake.
7
0 19
6 13 ,
77
I 9
0-94
16-4
6~7% oil
Ground nut cake,
7 0*
0 19
6 I
57
2 I
1*12
27*3
decorticated 6-7% oil
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated,
8 12*
I 9
7 3
73
2 0
I *07
41*3
6~7% oil
Palm-kernel meal,
7 15
1
I 9
6 6
73
I 9
0-94
41*3
1-2% oil
b 15
0 13
6 2
71
I 9
0-94
i6*5
Feeding treacle
5 0
0 8
4 12
51
I 10
0-98
2*7
Brewers, grains, dried ale
Brewers’ grains, dried
6 7
0 II
5 16
48
2 5
I • 29
12-5
porter
6 0
0 II
5 9
48
2 3
I-2I
12*5
Dried sugar-beet pulp
From 5s.
1
od. to £5 15s. od. per ton ex-factory
(according to factory).
♦ At Bristol. § At Hull. f At Liverpool,
J In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisional.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transact lore have taken place in London, unless otherwise
stated, and refer to the price ex-mill or store. The prices were current
at the end of December, 1937, ^md are, as a rule, considerably lower
than the prices at local country markets, the diflerence being due to
carriage and dealers’ commission. Buyers can, however, easily compare
the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their local market
by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if linseed cake
is offered locally dX £11 per ton, then since its manurial value is £1 15.
per ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is £() igs.
Dividing this figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as given
in the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8d, Dividing
this again by 22*4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one
unit, the cost per lb. of starch equivalent is i ‘43d, Similar calculations
will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding
stuffs on 1 he same local market. From the results of such calculations
a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at
the prices quoted on his own markets. The figures given in the table
under the heading manurial value per ton are calculated on the basis of
the following unit prices : — N., 75. 6d, ; 2s. 'jd . ; KjO, 35. 8d.
1127
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow : —
Starch
Protein
Per
equivalent
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Barley (imported)
71
6*2
8 8
Maize . .
. . 78
7-6
7 13
Decorticated ground nut cake
• . 73
41-3
8 3
„ cottonseed cake
68
34*7
8 0
(Add I os. per ton
.in each instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2-26 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent 0-32 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The “ food values,"
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry’s
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
L s .
Wheat
7-2
, 9-6
8 6
Oats . .
60
7*6
6 18
Barley
7 ^
6*2
8 2
Potatoes
18
0-8
2 I
Swedes
7
0*7
0 16
Mangolds
7
0*4
0 16
Beans
66
19*7
7 15
Good meadow hay . .
37
4'6
4 5
Good oat straw
20
0*9
2 5
Good clover hay
38
7-0
4 8
Vetch and oat silage
13
1-6
Barley straw . . . .
23
0-7
mmU
Wheat straw
13
o- 1
Bean straw . .
23
1*7
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price 6(f., post free jd.
1128
AGRICULTURAL RETURNS OF ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1937*
Produce of Crops
The areas under wheat, barley, seeds and meadow hay, as
returned in June, 1937, were greater than those returned for
the same crops in June, 1936, but the acreages of other crops
were smaller than in the previous year.
The estimated total production of wheat, hay and potatoes
was larger than in 1936, but lower figures were recorded for
barley, oats, beans, peas, mangolds, turnips and swedes. The
reduction of oats, beans and peas, which showed higher yields
per acre than in 1936, was attributable to the smaller acreages
returned. The estimated yield per acre and production of
wheat showed very little change from 1936.
Only the yields per acre of mixed corn, hay, beans and
potatoes were higher than the averages for the past ten years,
the decrease for barley being particularly noticeable.
Preliminary Statement showing the Estimated Total Produce and Yield per
Acre of the Corn, Hay and Root Crops in England and Wales in 1937,
WITH Comparisons for 1936, and the Average Yield per Acre of the Ten
Years 1927-1936
1
Estimated
Total Produce
Acreage
Estimated Yield
per A ere
CROPS
J937
1936
1937
1936
1937
1936
Average
of the
Ten years
1927-1930
Thou- I Thou- j
sands ! sancls 1
of Tons OfTonsl Acres
Acres
Cwt.
Cwt.
Wheat . .
J.393
1.378
1.731.833
1,704,469
lO- 1
16*2
i 7'7
Barley
663
822,828
818,924
14-0
i 6*2
16-3
Oats
938
1,080
1,223,098
1,419,695
I5'3
15*2
15*8
Mixed Corn . .
75
75
91,808
96,994
I 0*2
15*4
i5*h
Seeds Hay* , .
2,141
1.674
1.4^6,783
1,3.38,849
29*2
25-0
26-4
Meadow HAVf
4.967
4.733
4.674.995
4.068,812
21*2
20*3
19-5
BEANSFORStOCk-
feedingorSeed
83
96,322
121.174
17*2
15*3
i 6 - 3 t
Peas for Stock-
feeding OR Seed
25
31
33,843
45,822
14*6
13*4
14-7+
Potatoes
3,126
2,814
455.296
456,5<»9
Tons
6-9
Tons
6-2
Tons
9*5
Turnips and
Swedes i
4.739
5.579
435.413
447.968
10*9
12-5
Mangolds
3.608
4.684
205,466
245,250
17-8
i 9 'i
mm
• Hay from Clover, Sainfoin and Grasses under rotation,
t Hay from Permanent Grass.
I Peas and Beans harvested a.s Com up to 193^.
♦ Published on December 22, 1937.
1129
Agricultural Returns, 1937: Produce of Crops
Corn Crops. Wheat. The area under wheat in 1937 was
1,731,833 acres, or 1.6 per cent, greater than in 1936, and the
estimated yield per acre was 16.1 cwt. compared with 16.2
cwt. in 1936. The increase in the acreage, therefore,
accounted for the increase in the total production from
1.378.000 tons in 1936 to 1,393,000 tons in 1937, or i per cent.
All counties, with the exception of those of the North-Western
Division and Northumberland, Durham, Dorset and Wales,
showed yields below the average for the preceding ten years.
The yield of 16. i cwt. for the whole of England and Wales was
1.6 cwt. below the ten years’ average.
Barley. Notwithstanding an increase of nearly 4,000 acres
under this crop, a reduction in 5neld from 16.2 cwt. in 1936 to
14.0 cwt. in 1937, resulted in a decline in the total production
from 663,000 tons to 576,000 tons, a decrease of 87,000 tons.
The yield of 14.0 cwt. per acre over the whole country was
lower by 2.2 cwt. than the yield returned in 1936, and 2.3 cwt.
less than the average of the preceding ten years. Some
fifteen counties in England and Wales showed very slight
increases in yields, but all other counties recorded yields below
the ten years’ average.
Oats. The total acreage under oats decreased from 1,419,695
acres in 1936 to 1,223,098 acres in 1937. The yield per acre
was estimated at 15.3 cwt. per acre, or o.i cwt. greater than
in the previous year, and the total production decreased by
142.000 tons to 938,000 tons, a reduction of 13 per cent. The
estimated yield for the whole country was 0.4 cwt. below that
of the average of the previous ten years; and all divisions of
England and Wales, except the South-Western and South
Wales, showed declines from the ten years’ average.
Mixed Corn. Although there was a decrease of 5,186 acres
in 1937, the yield per acre was estimated at 16.2 cwt., or 0.8
cwt. greater than in 1936. The increased 5neld resulted in the
total production, at 75,000 tons, remaining the same as in the
previous year. All divisions, except the South-Western and
the two divisions of Wales, recorded lesser yields than the
averages of the preceding ten years.
Beans. The figures for beans relate to the crop harvested
for stockfeeding or seed, the area of which fell from 121,174
acres in 1936 to 96,322 acres in 1937. The estimated yield
per acre rose from 15.3 cwt. to 17.2 cwt., an increase of 1.9
cwt. per acre; but the reduced acreage resulted in a decrease
in total production of 10,000 tons.
1130
Agricultural Returns, 1937: Produce of Crops
Peas. As with beans, the crop dealt with is that harvested
for stockfeeding or seed. The area was reduced from 45,822
acres in 1936 to 33,843 acres in 1937, or 26 per cent. The
estimated yield, at 14.6 cwt. per acre, however, was greater
than in the previous year by 1.2 cwt. per acre; but the total
production fell from 31,000 tons to 25,000 tons.
Hay. Seeds Hay. The area under clover, sainfoin, etc.
for hay was returned at 1,466,783 acres, as against 1,338,849
acres in 1936. This increase in acreage, together with the
increase in fte estimated yield from 25.0 cwt. to 29.2 cwt. per
acre, resulted in an increase in production of 467,000 tons over
that of the previous year. The yield of 29.2 cwt. per acre
was 2.8 cwt. higher than the ten years’ average, nearly all
counties in England and Wales having heavier crops.
Meadow Hay. The acreage under permanent grass for
hay in 1937 was 4,674,995 acres, or 6,183 acres more than in
the previous year. The yield per acre was estimated at 21.2
cwt. compared with 20.3 cwt. in 1936, and the total production
increased from 4,733,000 tons to 4,967,000 tons, an increase of
234,000 tons, or 5 per cent. The 5neld per acre over the whole
countiy was 1.8 cwt. greater than the ten years’ average of
19.5 cwt.; all divisions showed increases over the previous
year’s yields.
Potatoes. The area under potatoes showed a reduction for
the fourth year in succession, the acreage being returned at
455,296 acres, as compalred with 456,569 acres in 1936. The
estimated yield per acre, at 6.9 tons, showed an increase of
0.7 tons per acre, and as a result the total production was
increased by 312,000 tons to 3,126,000 tons, a rise of ii per
cent. Compared with the average yield per acre of the pre-
ceding ten years, the yield in 1937 showed an increase of 0.4
tons per acre.
The figures given above relate to seeds and chats as well as
ware potatoes, and include both first and second earlies as
well as the main crop.
Roots. Turnips and Swedes. The decline in the combined
acreage under these roots continued in 1937 » when the area
fell from 447,968 acres to 435,413 acres. The estimated
average yield per acre fell from 12.5 tons per acre to 10.9 tons,
and the total production from 5,579,000 tons to 4,739,000 tons,
1131
Agricultural Returns, 1937: Produce of Crops
a decrease of 17 per cent. The yield per acre of 10.9 tons was
lower than the ten years' average by 0.7 tons, and only the
South-Western division showed a veiy slight increase in 5dcld
over the ten years’ average.
Mangolds. The acreage returned under this crop in 1937
was 205,466 acres, compared with 245,250 acres in 1936. The
average yield per acre was estimated at 17.8 tons, or 1.3 tons
lower than in the previous year, and 0.7 tons less than the
ten years' average. The total production in England and
Wales is estimated at 3,668,000 tons, a reduction of 1,016,000
tons. With the exception of the North-Western division and
Wales, most counties shared in the general reduction in jdeld.
Sugar-Beet. The area under this crop was 305,690 acres,
compared with 348,147 acres in 1936, a decrease of 42,457
acres or 12.2 per cent. The average yield per acre of washed
and topped beet is provisionally estimated at 8.1 tons, or 1.6
tons less than in 1936.
1132
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The Agricultural Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for December is 132 (base December, 1911-13=100), or i
point lower than a month ago, but 6 points above that for
December, 1936. If allowance be made for payments under
the Wheat Act, 1932, and the Livestock Industrj^ Act, 1937*
the revised index for the month becomes 136. Compared with
November, average prices of barley, fat cattle, sheep and
pigs, and poultry advanced, while those of wheat, oats, eggs,
butter, potatoes and wool declined.
Monthly index ft umbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, {Corresponding
months of 1911-13 = 100.)
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
122
107
114
117
119
130
February . .
117
106
112
118
129
March
113
102
108
II 2
116
130
April
117
105
III
II9
123
140
May
115
102
112
III
115
133
June
III
100
1 no
1 III
116
131
July .. .. !
106
TOI 1
'
j II4
117
131
August . . . . !
! 105
J 05 :
II9
II3
119
133
September . . . .
1 104
107
II9
: 120
127
137
October . . . . ;
; 100
: T07
' II4
t 113
125
131
November , . . . j
1 101
1 109
1 II4
j 113
125
133
December . . . .
1 103
1 110
1
I 1T4
126
132
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Whedt Act \a) and for the Cattle subsidy (&).
Month
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
January
—
III
119
124
125
133
February . .
—
no
117
122
123
133
Marcli
-
106
132
II8
J22
134
April
109
II6
126
128
H 3
May
-
105
Ilb
117
120
136
June
104
i II4
117
I 2 I
134
July
—
104
II7
120
121
134
August
108
to8
122
120
124
136
September . .
108
111
125
128
133
142
October
104
H2
I 2 I
319
129
^34
November , ,
105
if 3
120
II9
129
137
December . .
107
1 14
120
120
130
13b
{a) Commenced August. 1932. (&) Commenced September, 1934,
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices of
individual commodities are shown for the months of September
1133
Miscellaneous Notes
to December, 1937, December, 1936, and December, 1935,
base, the correspon^ng months of 1911-13=100.
Commodity
1937
1936
1935
Dec.
Nov.
Oct.
Sept.
Dec.
Dec.
Wheat
116
120
^24
114
118
77
Barley
160
152
148
147
115
100
Oats
119
120
124
125
lOI
83
Fat cattle . .
113
113
III
115
91
91
„ sheep . ,
131
137
134
138
128
119
Bacon pigs . .
131
129
124
124
124
98
Pork „ . .
139
137
I3I
125
131
no
Eggs
121
1 2b
13b
141
106
no
Poultry
130
132
133
130
119
120
Milk
181
181
171
202
171
171
Butter
no
116
III
109
98
93
Cheese
120
121 i
122
124
103
87
Potatoes
152
156
J 53
147
1 220
185
Hav
79
79 1
86
95
i 98
84
Wool
117
133 1
140
146
1 118
91
Dairy cows
121
119 i
i 120
1 117
i III
1 04
Store cattle
112
107 1
!
I 113
98
92
,, sheep
I12
I16
129
i 138
T13
106
M pigs . .
159
167 '
164
153
156
I3I
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and to the
Cattle subsidy.
Wheat
135
132
1
^34 i
132
135 *
124
Fat cattle . .
IJ 7
128
126 f
130
1^5
105
General Index
136
137
134 i
142
130
120
* Superseding figure previously published.
Grain. Wheat was 6d. lower on the month at 85. 6d. per
cwt. and the index is reduced by 4 points. (If the deficiency
pa3unent under the Wheat Act, 1932, is taken into account
the index is 135.) Barley at an average of 13s. 2d. per cwt.
averaged 3ii. more and this, together with a reduction in the
base period, caused the index to move upwards by 8 points.
Oats at 8s. 4d. per cwt. realised id. per cwt. less money and
the index falls by 1 point. In December, 1936, wheat
averaged 8s. 8d., barley 9s. 6d. and oats ys. id. per cwt.
Live Stock. Quotations for fat cattle appreciated during
the month under review, the average for second quality at
40S. 4d. per live cwt. being 2 s. 6d. higher but, owing to a
similar movement in the base months, fee index remains im-
changed at 113. Wife fee addition of fee subsidy under fee
1134
Miscellaneous Notes
Livestock Industry Act, 1937, ^le index becomes 127. Fat
sheep at io\d. per lb. for second quality, averaged \d. more
than in November but, with a more pronounced rise in the
corresponding months of 1911-13, the index falls by 6 points.
Both baconers at 13s. xd. per score (20 lb.) and porkers at
15s. xd. showed increases of 2d. per score and the indices rise
by 2 points in each case.
Dairy cows and store cattle realized more money during
the month and the relative indices advance by 2 and 5 points.
Prices of store sheep also moved upwards but, on account of a
greater increase in price having taken place during the base
period, the index declines from 116 to 112. Store pigs were
cheaper and the index is lower by 8 points.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. No change occurred in the
regional price of liquid milk between November and December
and the index continues at 181. Butter at is. 4^d. per lb.
averaged ^d. less than in November, the index moving down-
wards by 6 points. Eggs at 20s. ^d. per 120 were lower in
price by is. xod. and the index is reduced by 5 points. The
average price of cheese was again unchanged at £4 iis. per
cwt. but, with a slight increase in the base months, the index
is I point lower. All classes of poultry sold at higher prices
but the combined index is reduced by 2 points.
Other Commodities. Quotations for potatoes were some-
what lower and the index moves downwards by 4 points.
Clover and meadow hay were practically unchanged in price
and the combined index remains at 79. Wool at is. 3|d. per
lb. was xld. cheaper than in November and the index recedes
by 16 points.
Handbook of Diseases of Animals Acts and Orders
(1937 Edition)
A new Edition of the Handbook of the Diseases of Animals
Acts, 1894 to 1937, and the Orders of the Minister of Agriculture
and Fisheries made thereunder has recently been published.
The format has been designed in such a way that the Hand-
book can easily be kept up to date by the insertion, within the
eyeleted covers, of new Acts or Orders as they are issued.
Ibe volume is indispensable to all whose duties or work
require their acquaintance with the regulations concerning
diseases of animals, or who are in any way connected with the
a dminis tration of the Acts and Orders.
1135
Miscellaneous Notes
The Handbook includes an introduction describing certain
diseases at present the subject of administrative action in pur-
suance of the powers conferred by the Acts, and giving a
description of each disease, the names of the classes of animals
that may be affected, the symptoms of such diseases, and in
some instances the post-mortem appearances to be looked for.
Copies of all the Diseases of Animals Acts now in operation
are included, including the amendments thereto enacted by
the Dogs Act, igo6, and the Exportation of Horses Acts of
1914 and 1937; together with copies of other Acts connected
with animals and poultry and having some bearing upon the
Diseases of Animals Acts, e.g., the Protection of Animals
Acts and the Slaughter of Animals Acts. The Orders con-
tained in the Handbook include those relating to: —
{a) the procedure for dealing with the notifiable diseases of animals :
(b) the importation of animals, carcasses, hay and straw, and poultry
and hatching eggs, dealt with from the point of view of the pre-
vention of the introduction of disease ;
(c) the regulation of the exportation of pedigree stock through the
Ivondon Quarantine Station ;
(d) the disinfection of livestock markets, sale^^ards, lairs and of railway
and motor vehicles used for animals ;
(e) the protection of animals and poultry from avoidable suffering
during transit by land and water ;
(/) the approval of disinfectants and sheep dips for animal disease
purposes ; and
(g) therapeutic substances.
The Handbook may be purchased from the Sales Offices
of His Majesty’s Stationery Office, through any bookseller, or
on personal application at the Minist^, 10, Whitehall Place,
London, S.W.i, price 7s. 6 d. (post free 8 s. id.).
Agricultural Machinery Testing Committee
The Ministry undertakes to test agricultural implements and
machinery with the object of furnishing accurate information
regarding the utility, efficiency and reliability of each machine
or implement tested. A leaflet (N0.A396/T.G.) giving an
outline of the scheme can be obtained, post free, from the
Ministry. Certificates and reports cmbod3ting the results of
each test are published in pamphlet form by His Majesty's
Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway, London, W.C,2.
Under this scheme the following tests have recently been
carried out.
The Clifton Electrically Heated Steam Boiler has been
tested for general dairy and farm use. Tests of the boiler
1136
Miscellaneous Notes
to determine the evaporation rate, heat balance, electrical con-
sumption and steaming efficiency were carried out by the
National Institute for Research in Dairying (University of
Reading), Shinfield, near Reading.
The Official Certificate of Perfonnance, together with the
Report of the test have now been published in pamphlet form
(Certificates and Reports No. 67) at the price of 3d.
The Halliday Oil-Fired Boiler and Sterilizing Chest has
also been tested for general dairy and farm use at the National
Institute for Research in Dairying. The tests for this plant
were in two series: (i) tests of the boiler only in which
evaporation rates, heat balance, fuel consumption and
steaming efficiency were determined, and (2) tests of the com-
plete equipment, under working conditions, in which measure-
ments were taken of operating times with (a) the chest filled
with tinned steel dairy utensils and (b) the chest filled with
glass bottles.
A pamphlet giving results of the tests is now in the press and
will be published shortly as Certificates and Reports No. 66.
The Darby Thatching Needle is the subject of the previous
pamphlet in the same series. Tests with this thatching needle
were carried out by the Institute for Research in Agricultural
Engineering, University of Oxford, and the Northamptonshire
Institute of Agriculture, Moulton. The main points investi-
gated were : (1) the best method of securing the stitch, and
(2) a comparison between thatching with the needle and the
usual hand method. ,
This pamphlet is published as Certificates and Reports
No. 65, at the price of 2d.
Wart Disease Immunity Trials, 1938
The Ministry will continue during the coming season to
test, at the Potato Testing Station of the National Institute
of Agricultural Botany at Ormskirk, Potatoes and Potato
Seedlings as to their immunity from or susceptibility to Wart
Disease on the same conditions as in recent years. (See this
Journal, January, 1937, pp. 1003-1005.)
The entry form (No. 345 H.D.), obtainable from the
Ministry, should be filled up and returned to the Potato Test-
ing Station, Ormskirk, Lancs, with the requisite fees. Samples
must be sent to that station as early as possible, but in any
case not later than March 5.
D 1137
Miscellaneous Notes
Stud Goat Scheme
This scheme was inaugurated in 1924 under the auspices of
the British Goat Society and with the approval and financial
assistance of the Ministry, with the object of improving the
productive quality of milch goats kept by small holders, cot-
tagers and other persons of similar position.
Before the introduction of the scheme, the he-goats whose
services were available were frequently of indifferent quality
owing to the owner’s difficulty in securing the use of a first-
class male at a low service fee. Under the scheme, the small
goat-owner now has the assurance that the stud goat approved
for his use has been examined by the British Goat Society’s
Inspector and found to be of high quality, and that conse-
quently the female kids by the goat should be well worth rear-
ing. A premium of 4.S. is paid by the Society to the owner of
each approved stud goat in respect of every female goat served.
The grant payable to the Society by the Ministry is in respect
of administrative expenses, travelling expenses incurred by
the Society’s Inspection Officer in the selection of stud goats
and the premiums paid by the Society to stud goat owners.
The maximum grant is £/($o per annum.
When the scheme was first introduced the maximum stud
fee charged was limited to 5s., but the maximum was reduced
to 4s. in 1932 and has since remained unchanged. The benefits
of the scheme are available to all owners of female goats, irre-
spective of whether they are members of the British Goat
Society or not, provided that they come within the category of
the small-holder or cottager class.
In the first season of operation, 73 goats were approved and
registered under the Scheme, 882 services were given, and the
premiums earned amounted to £i 8 y. For several years the
scheme expanded steadily, and except for the years 1932 to
1934 the position secured has been well maintained. In 1933
and 1934 the Ministry was obliged to make a temporary reduc-
tion in the amount of grant-in-aid p>aid to the Society owing
to the necessity for strict economy in public expenditure in
consequence of the general financial stringency and, in order
to meet this emergency the Society had to reduce the number
of stud goats approved for premiums. In 1935 the amount
of the Ministry's grant to the Society was restored to the 1932
figure and tiie number of stud goats entered and ffie amount
of premiums earned by them again showed an increase.
1138
Miscellaneous Notes
Particulars of the progress of the scheme since its commence-
ment are given in the following table :
No. of Stud
Total No. of
Premiums
Goats Entered
Services
Earned
i
1924 • •
73
882
187 -
1925 . .
89
1.115
229 1
1926 . .
104
1,603
301 at 5s.
1927 • •
113
1,609
301 1 per
1928 . .
r •
108
1.844
323 j service
1929 . .
105
1,982
367
1930 . .
104
1,614
31 1
J93I • •
104
>. 79 «
336
>932 . .
97
i,f)90
279
>933 • *
89
1,716
270 at 4s.
>934 • •
76
>.379
220 V per
>935 . •
92
258 service
> 93 ^ • •
lOT
1.826
In his report on his tour of inspection last season the
Inspector of the Society referred to the many expressions of
gratitude by cottagers for the assistance they had received from
the Ministry and the Society, and also to the general improve-
ment noticeable during the last few years in the quality of
the young stock in the districts served by the approved stud
goats.
For the current breeding season, which terminates on Febru-
ary 28, 102 stud goats have been approved and registered;
these are standing at various centres throughout the country,
including 10 in Wales. The conditions of service and any
other information regarding the scheme may be ascertained
on application to the bounty Agricultural Organizers at their
respective County Education Offices, or from the Secretary of
the British (loat Society, The Cottage, Roydon, Diss, Norfolk.
APPOINTMENTS
Dr. K. W, Kusscll has been apjxmitcd Goldsmiths Company's Soil
Physicist at the Kothamsted Ex{)erimental Station m succession to
Dr. G. \V. Scott Hlair who has been ap{x>inted Head of the Dair\* Chemistry
Department at the National Institute for Research in Dairymj.!:, Shinfield,
Heading.
Dr. H. L. A. r arr, who during the past four years has been in charge of
the investigations on the Brot^d Diseases of Bees at the Kothamsted
Experimental Station, has l^een appointed to the Sir William Dunn
Institute of Pathology, Oxford University.
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STAFFS ; ENGLAND
Hampshire : Mr. M. T. Cowland Cooper, R. Sc. (Agric.) has been
appointed Assistant Dairy Officer, eicc Mr. H. Hirst, N.D.A., N.D.D.
D 2 1139
FARM WORKERS’ MINIMUM RATES OF WAGES
Farm Workers’ Minimum Rates of Wages. — A meeting of the Agri-
cultural Wages Board was held at Kings Buildings, Smith Square, London,
S.W.i. on January 17, 1938.
The Board considered notifications from Agricultural Wages Committees
of decisions fixing minimum and overtime rates of wages, and proceeded
to make the following Orders : —
Essex. An Order cancelling the existing minimum and overtime rates of
wages for male workers and minimum rates for female workers and
fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor, came into operation on
January 23, 1938, and continues in force until January 28, 1939. The
minimum rates m the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over
are 34s. bd. (instead of 32s. bd.) per week of 41 J hours in the weeks in
which Easter Monday and Whit Monday fall, and 50 hours in ain^ other
week in summer, 31 hours in the week in which Christmas Day and
Boxing Day fall and 48 hours in any other week in winter, with over-
time unchanged at c)\d. per hour on weekdays (including Easter Monday,
Whit Monday, and Boxing Day) and lo^d. per hour on Sundays and
on December 27, 1938. The minimum rate for female workers of
21 years of age and over remains unchanged at b\d. per hour for all
time worked.
Lincolnshire (Holland). An Order cancelling the existing minimum and
overtime rates of wages and fixing fresh rates in substitution therefor,
came into operation on January 30, 1938, and continues in force until
further notice. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of
21 years of age and over are 37s. bd (instead of '^bs,) per week of 39J
hours in the week in which Christmas Day falls and 48 hours in any
other week in winter ; 41 hours in the weeks in which Easter Monday,
Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday fall, and 50 hours in any other
week in summer. Tn the case of horsemen, cattlemen and shepherds
of similar age additional weekly sums are fixed to cover all time worked
in excess of the number of hours mentioned above, except employment
which is to be treated as overtime emjiloyment. The overtime rates
in the case of male workers of 21 years of age and over are unchanged
at IS. i\d. per hour on Sundays and Christmas Day, gd. per hour on
Easter Monda3% Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday, and io\d. per
hour for all other overtime employment. The minimum rates for
female workers of 15 years of age and over are unchanged at bd. per
hour with overtime unchanged at jd. per hour for all employment in
excess of 5^ hours on Saturday or other agreed weekly short day, on
Sundays and in excess of 8 hours on any other day.
Lincolnshire (Kesteven and Lindsey). An Order fixing minimum and
overtime rates of wages for male workers and minimum rates for female
workers, came into operation on January 30, 1938 (i.e., the day following
that on which the existing rates expired) and continues in force until
January 28, 1939. The minimum rates in the case of male workers of
21 years of age and over are (i) Wagoners : 41s. bd. (instead of 405.)
per week of 521} hours in the weeks in which Good Friday and Boxing
Day fall, 50 hours in the weeks in which Whit Monday and August
Bank Holiday fall, 58 hours in any other week in the period from May 14
to October 14 and 61 hours in any other week during the remainder
of the year ; (ii) Shepherds : 395. bd. (instead of 38s.) per week of
45i hours in the weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and
August Bank Holiday fall, 55 hours in any other week in summer,
1140
Farm Workers' Minimum Rates of Wages
47 J hours in the week in which Boxing Day falls and 56 hours in any
other week in winter with additional payments for the lambing season ;
(ill) Stockmen : 40s. bd. (instead of 39s.) per week of 46! hours in the
weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday
fall, 56 hours in any other week in summer, 49^^ hours in the week in
which Boxing Day falls and 58 hours in any other week in winter ;
and (iv) Other Male Workers : 345. bd. (instead of 335.) per week of
41 hours in the weeks in which Good Friday, Whit Monday and August
Bank Holiday fall, 50 hours in any other week in summer, 39 J hours
in the week m which Boxing Day falls, and 48 hours in any other week
in winter ; with overtime in the case of all classes of male workers
unchanged at io</. per hour on weekdays and is. on Sundays.
Provision is made for cin adjustment of the hours in respect of which the
minimum weekly wage is payable in the week in which Easter Monda^^
falls to meet cases where a holiday is given in that week instead of in
the week in w^hich Good Friday falls. In the case of female workers of
17 years of age and over the minimum rate is 6d per hour for all time
worked (instead of 5^^.).
Suffolk. An Order varying the existing minimum and overtime rates of
wages for male workers and minimum rates for female w^orkers, the
rates as varied coming into ojieration on January 23, 1938, and con-
tinuing in force until further notice. The minimum rates in the case
of male workers of 21 years of age and over are 34s. (instead of 325. 6d.)
per week of 50 hours in summer, except in the weeks in which Good
Friday and Whit Mondav fall when the hours are 41 J, and 48 hours in
winter, except m the weeks in which Christmas Day and Boxing Day
fall, when those days fall in separate weeks, when the hours are 39J,
and in the week in wdiich Christmas Day and Boxing Day fall together
w^hen the hours are 31, wnth, in addition, in the case of horsemen,
cowmen and shepherds of 18 years of age and over a sum of bs. per
week to cover employment up to 10 hours per week in connexion with
the immediate care of animals. The overtime rate for all male workers
of 21 years of age and over is unchanged at 9^^/. per hour. The minimum
rate for female workers of 21 years of age and over is bd. per hour
(instead of ^d ) for all time worked.
(•
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. — During the month ending
January 12, 1038, legal proceedings were taken against three employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fi.xed by the Orders of the
Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow' * —
! 1
Committee , t'ourt Fines
Area ; 1 Imposed
1 Arrears of 1 No. of
Costs 1 Wages 1 workers
Allowed ordered involved
1 \ i d
Carmarthen ; Llangadock ; (A)
Gloucester I Whitmiiister ,900
Y^^rkshire i E.scnck . . 1 0 0
/p T> \ _
1 s. d. 1 s. d.\
5 5 0 107 4 5 i 5
0 h () 788, I
1
^9 1 1
1 1 10 0 0
5 II 6 I 14 13 I i 7
(A) = Dismissed.
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
Foot-and>Mouth Disease. — Since the last issue of the Journal the
following areas have been released from restrictions : —
West Sussex (Petworth) ; Essex ; Soke of Peterborough, Northampton
and Huntingdon; Cheshire (Churtoii) ; and Northumberland (Morpeth).
Ninety-one further outbreaks of disease occurred during the period
December 21 to January 19 inclusive.
Outbreaks which occurred at Lyndhurst, Hampshire, on December 23 ;
Rowde, Wilts, on December 26 ; Stratton St. Margaret, Wilts, on
December 29 ; Trowbridge, Wilts, on January i ; Marnhull, Dorset, on
January 2 ; Spettisbury, Dorset, on JanuarA?^ 14 ; and Hatherton, Hants,
on January 16, necessitated extensions of the existing Dorset, Wilts, etc.
Infected Area, in which area 75 outbreaks were confirmed during the
period under review. This area now comprises a combined area of
approximately 15 miles round the infected places at IVtarnhulI, Spettisbury
and Hilton, Dorset ; Trowbridge, Wood borough and Upavon, Wilts ,
10 miles round Hatherden, Hants ; and 5 miles round Stratton St.
Margaret, Wilts.
Five further outbreaks also occurred in the Kent and East Sussex
Infected Area. This area has, however, been contracted so as to compri.se
two separate areas of approximately 5 miles round infected places at
(1) Stone-cum-Ebony, St. Mary in the Marsh and Stanford, Kent ; and
(2) Clayton and Burgess Hill, East Sussex. It is hoped that on January zz
the latter area will be released from restrictions and the former will be
contracted so as to comprise an area of approximately 5 miles round St.
Mary in the Marsh and Stanford, Kent.
On December 25, disease was confirmed at Laleham, Middlesex, but
as no further outbreak was confirmed in this area the restrictions were
withdrawn on January 16.
Other outbreaks which were confirmed necessitated the declaration of
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Areas as follow’^ : —
Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex. Approximately 15 miles round the
infected places at Brundish, Suffolk ; ICenninghall, Norfolk ; and
Shelland, Suffolk. This area has since been contracted so as to comprise
two .separate areas of approximately 5 miles radius round the infected
places at Kenninghall and Shelland. These areas will be released from
restrictions on January 23 and January 25 re.spectively.
Somerset and Dorset. Approximately 15 miles round the infected
places at Limington and Wedmore, Somerset, and 5 miles round Beer
Crocombe, Somerset.
Derby and Yorks {W.R.). Approximately 15 miles round an infected
place at Dore, Sheffield. This area will be contracted to one of approx-
matcly 5 miles radius on January 22 and released on January 29.
Berkshire, Oxford and Wiltshire. Approximately 15 miles round the
infected places at Steventon and Milton, Berks.
The dates given above for contraction or release arc dependent upon
there being no further outbreaks in the areas concerned.
1142
WIRELESS TALKS, FEBRUARY, 1938
Station and
Date
Time *
p.nt
Speaker
Subject
National :
Feb. 2
b 20
Mr. A Hurd
Whete Does Farming Stand ?
.. 9
6.20
>• f »
Marketing Schemes.
,, i(>
9.20
Mr A Hurd and Mr
Haxton
The Milk Scheme (Discu.ssion.)
f>.20
Mr A Hurd and Mr
Fox
The Pig Scheme. (Discussion).
North ;
Feb 1 1
b 40
Prof J A Hanley and
Mr W Lyle Stewart
Sheep Diseases (Discussion )
(>.40
Mr James Strachan
Turnips and Swedes
Midland :
Feb 3
() 0
IVmcipal Henry Robin-
son and Mr J R
The Agricultural Workers
(Discussion )
J .ambley
iH
West:
(> 40
Mr. W A Stewart
Spring Feeding
Feb 3
A Young Farmer and
Mr. H. W. Tomlinson
Lambing and the Management
of the Ewe Flock.
M 10
8.0
1 Mr A. W Ling
Review of Past Year
.. 17
(*•45
A Young Farmer and
Mr. W. D. Hay
Cirass Land.
24
y 15
Mr Kearns and Mr.
, A. W Ling
Insect Pests
Welsh :
1
Feb 1 1
1
7 30
1
Mr J L Lloyd and
1 Messrs \V Jones, D J
Rees and H Williams
Labour on the Land
(Di.scus.sion )
Scottish :
Feb 3
0 JO
1 Mr S J Edwards and
Mr h' A Bell j
Mastitis (Discussion )
.. 1 1
h 50
Mr Alan F'razer 1
—
7 50
Mr W. J Campbell
Seed Potatoes
- -^4
Northern
Ireland :
‘5 ,
Mr W Smith |
1
1
Spring Manuring
Feb 7
7 3«
Mr P. Fitzpatrick
Farmers’ Work and W’orry.
,, 14
7 30
(1 )iscussion)
Creameries.
7 30
Mr P. Fitzpatrick
Farmers' Work and Worr}".
7 30 1
Debate
Young Farmers
.. 2 S
730 ,
Mr H. O’H D’Neill
i
Problems in Byre and Dairy.
1143
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Changes in the Economic Organization of Agriculture. A Comparative
Study of Conditions in the Eastern Counties of England in 1935 and
1936. Farm Economics Branch Report No. 24. {Cambridge : School
of Agriculture. 1937. Price is. 6i. ; post free is. 8^^.)
This report is the second of a series of which the object is to examine
changes occurring from year to year in the organization of farms in the
eastern counties of England. Its predecessor (Report 23, reviewed in this
Journal for August, 1936) was concerned with conditions in 1933 and
1935. The present report compares conditions in 1936 with those in
over an identical group of 200 farms. This sample comprises commercial
diversified livestock and crop farms over 20 acres in area, and has been
selected at random from four important “type of farming" districts
within the eastern counties. The report suggests that the results shown
in it are probably reasonably representative of the financial and economic
changes that have taken place within the types of |arming covered : but
it is not claimed that they describe conditions throughout the province
as a whole.
The report shows that the average profit obtained in 1936 by the 200
farms was better than in the previous year, but that the improvement
was confined almost entirely to one of the four " type of farming "
districts. On the Central Norfolk medium loams there was a decrease
in profits ; on the arable clays of North Essex and South-west Suffolk
and on the South Essex pasture clays, only a small improvement was
recorded ; profits on the South Cambridge chalklands alone show a
substantial increase. The report hazards the opinion that, for the province
as a whole (excluding the Fens), farm profits in 1936 were similar to those
of 1935-
The careful studies in this report and the technique of iiupury and
analysis of data will be of interest not only to students of the Eastern
Counties but to all those interested in farming condition.s throughout
the country.
Economic Botany, a Textbook of Useful Plants and Plant Products.
By A. F. Hill. Pp. xxi -f 592 and 22§ figures. (New York and
London : McGraw Hill Publishing Company, Ltd. 1937. - 4 ^ )
This book is the latest addition to the well known and useful publications
of the McGraw Hill Publishing Company in the agricultural and botanical
sciences. In the introduction the author, who is research assistant in
economic botany at Harvard University, deals in general with the import-
ance and nature of plant products. He shows how the three great
necessities of life — food, clothing and shelter — as well as a host of other
useful products are supplied in great measure by plants, and states that
from the earliest times plants have been intimately bound up with human
existence and have not only played an important part in the everyday
life of mankind but have had a profound influence on the course of history
and civilization.
The volume consists in the main of four sections — " industrial plants and
plant products," " drug plants and drugs," " food plants" and " food
adjuncts." These are followed by an appendix in the form of a systematic
list of the species discussed, and a bibliography and full index. Under
" industrial plants and plant products ” are fibres, forest products and
resources, tans and dyes, rubbers, gums and resins, essential oils, fatty
oils and waxes, sugars, starches and cellulose products. Insecticides, such
as pyrethrum, derris, and cube (Lonchocarpus) are under medicinal plants,
1144
Notices of Books
while a separate chapter “ fumitories and masticatories includes, of course,
tobacco. The section on food plants and food adjuncts includes chapters
on major and minor cereals, legumes and nuts, vegetables, fruits, spices
and beverage plants. The treatment of each species or product throughout
the work varies in length according to its importance. A full treatment
of each would have necessitated a work of several volumes. About 800
species are dealt with in all, an attempt having been made “ to include the
most important plants of America and other parts of the world insofar
as they enter into international commerce.” Greater stress has perhaps
been laid on those plants that are of particular importance in the United
States or of American origin, but the book is intended to be used as a
text-book for American students. Material of a technical nature has been
a'* oided as far as possible, so the work should have an appeal to the
ordinary reader, for, as the writer states, ” a knowledge of the industrial,
medicinal and edible plants cannot fail to broaden one's outlook.” It is
certainly one of the best general treatises on economic botany that have
so far appeared.
The Preservative Treatment of Estate and Farm Timber. By R. C. B.
Gardner. Pp. 36 and 6 Figs. (London . British Wood Preserving
Association, 48, Dover Street, W.i. 1937. Price (yd.)
This useful pamphlet, now in its second edition, explains in simple
non-technical language various practical methods of preserving timber,
giving details of the preservatives recommended, with cost of plant,
preservatives and treatment. The importance of the subject is still
insufficiently realized. In the event of loans being raised for timber
structures, more advantageous terms are offered when the timber is
treated with a preservative, a fact which is in it.self significant. The small
farmer's labour is usually fully occupied, and it is therefore more practical
that he should purchase his timber already creosoted, or otherwise treated
with preservative. 'JTie cost of plant for the more elaborate methods of
treating timber will be found prohibitive except on the largest estates, but
the ordinary vertical butt-drum for fencing posts and the horizontal tank
for cold steeping should be within reach of all. The final appendix
contains references to published work on the subject, which should prove
very helpful as a guide to further study.
*
The Biochemistry of Cellulose, The Polyuronides, Lignin, etc. By A. G.
Norman, Ph.D., D.Sc. Introduction by Sir E. John Russell.
Pp. ix. -f 232. (Oxford : Clarendon Press. 1937. Frice 15s.)
A fattening bullock of ii cwt. live-weight, subsisting on a ration com-
posed of meadow hay, oat straw, silage, sugar beet pulp and concentrates,
may consume as much as 6 lb. of fibre daily. The question of the part
which cellulose and lignin, the essential components of fibre, play in the
nutrition of animals is, therefore, one of extreme importance to the
feeder of live-stock. Is the function of the bulky, fibrous food merely
that of filling the capacious rumen of cattle and sheep, conferring thereby
the desired feeling of contentment and repletion after f(*eding ? Or, on
the other hand, is the fibrous constituent of feeding stuffs able to undergo,
during digestion, transformation into nutrients capable of contributing to
maintenance and production in the animal ?
Kellner has supplied the answer to these questions. By means of
experiments with bullocks in respiration chambers he has shown that if
1 lb. of pure, finely-divided cellulose be added to the maintenance ration of
a bullock, it will form as much fat in the body of the animal as w^ould
be produced by feeding i lb. of starch or other forms of digestible poly-
saccharide. The starch equivalent of digestible cellulose is unity.
1145
Notices of Books
The explanation of this equivalence between cellulose and starch has so
far eluded the scientific worker. The solution lies in a more complete
understanding of the complex make-up of the cellulose molecule and the
changes that it undergoes in the digestive tract of the ruminant animal. A
vast amount of research has been carried out in recent years on the
chemical and nutritional aspects of cellulose, not only by the pure chemist
and the bio-chemist, but also by the technical chemist, for no substance
finds more applications in industry than does this primary constituent
of the plant world.
Dr. Norman has earned tlie gratitude of all chemists and physiologists
by the concise and able manner in which he has brought together in one
volume all the manifold results of recent research in this difficult domain.
The student is now spared the onerous task of reading through an enormous
number of publications in a wide range of scientific journals in his attempts
to arrive at the present position of knowledge in relation to the chemistry
of cellulose and such related compounds as hemicelluloses, pectins,
pentosans, mucilages, gums and lignin.
The author's treatment of the subject leaves nothing to be desired, and
amply justifies Sir John Russell's assertion in the foreword : “ Dr. Norman
has the triple qualification of wide knowledge of the subject, a sound
critical faculty that enables him to put the material into proper perspective,
and a gift of lucid exposition." The volume is sure of a warm welcome
from the research worker and the general student of science.
Pork Production. By William W. Smith, M.S.A. Revised edition.
Pp. xxii 4 - 575 and 88 Figs. (London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1937.
Price 1 6s.)
The American expression " pork production " means, in English, " pig
production," and it must not be imagined that this is a manual on the
production of what is known in this country as pork, as distinct from
bacon and hams. The publication is a revised edition of the book which
Professor Smith first publi.shed m 1921, but it is now nearly twice the
original size and has been practically rewritten. In addition to the
original material it now summarizes the experiijiental feeding data that
have accumulated in the llnited States since 1921, and attempts to apply
the results of the extensive fundamental studies in nutrition of the last
twenty years. As a work of reference fof professional teachers and
scientific workers it will be found comprehensive and up to date. For
British workers, however, it will have the disadvantage that it deals
exclusively with American conditions. The outstanding part played by
maize in the production of American pigs is evident on almost every
page, and rather overshadows the relative importance of other factors.
The highly-documented summaries of experimental work are in the
best tradition of this class of work, and the chapters on management are
also to be recommended. There is an excellent study of the factors
affecting litter size, and the fundamental principles of nutrition receive
careful and detailed attention. Professor Smith is to be congratulated
on dealing scientifically with the use of food refuse, a subject almost
invariably passed over in English books with the suggestion that swill
feeding is to be avoided at all costs. In the United States it has been
shown that i ton of swill will produce 50 lb. of live-weight gain in times
of prosperity, but only 24 lb. when times are hard and less is thrown into
the swill tub.
All aspects of production are covered in this interesting book, but in
some chapters there is such a wealth of figures from experimental results
that it is to be regarded as a work of reference for specialists, rather than
as a consecutive description of pig production for the average farmer.
1146
Notices of Books
The XXIInd Annual Report of the Experimental and Research Station,
Gheshunt, pp. 104. Illustrated. (Issued by the Nursery and
Market Garden Industries' Development Society, Ltd., Turner's Hill,
Cheshunt, Herts.)
This Report records the results of experiment.s with tomatoes, cucumbers,
lettuce and mushrooms, and of investigations in connexion with plant
diseases, animal pests and manurial treatments. The year was note-
worthy for the inauguration of a campaign to improve” the quality of
tomatoes, details being given in the report. Among other interesting
matters may be mentioned an account of an invader of mushroom beds,
new to Britain, viz., the truffle fungus, Pseudohalsamia microspora ; a
record of a new disease of the tomato caused by Aftguillulina dipsaci ; and
a comprehensive article on “ Water-spot " of tomato fruits.
Land Glassification in Dorset. By L. Ellis 'J'avener, M..^. In.st. of Brit.
Geographers, Publn. No. Vi. Pp. vi f 61 Maps and diagrams.
(London : (ieorge Philip & Son Ltd. J937. Price 75. bd,)
Surveys, of one sort and another, of the agricultural land of this country,
relating to districts or to the whole country, have become quite the fashion.
So much \vork has been done, that it is indeed time to decide upon the
best method to adopt and then to collate the results of the various surveys
on that method or expand them into conformity with it.
Mr. Tavener has pointed out how badly a complete survey is needed,
'there is a fundamental problem in the country, the interpretation
of research findings in terms of the most efficient use of our national
resources. Lack of exact knowledge of the present u.se of the land, which
has resulted from the accumulated experience of working farmers gained
through centuries of trial and error, prevent the immediate application of
new^ .scientific data to the modification of that use. Such modification,
perhaps in the w^ay ol change in use, perhaps onh in intensified use along
the same lines, would, Mr. Tavener seems to imply, come more rapidly
if the geographer possessed the detailed knowledge of the agricultural u.se
of our land that he ought to^have.
With such knowledge it should be ])ossible to define, or at least to
outline, the mo.st profitable types of development for any particular area,
and thereby to provide a basis for any agricultural piolicy endeavouring to
meet changing .social and economic conditions. For these reasons Mr.
Tavener emphasizes the necessity, at the present time, for a complete set
of county surveys which could be made available to those responsible
for advising on profitable changes in agricultural policy and land
utilization. Few^ w'ill not sympathize with this desire for exact knowledge
and its use.
Mr. Tavener's own work is in a sense an attempt to implement his own
suggestion so far as the county of Dorset is concerned, and his survey is
an example of a valuable method, but not perhaps the only method, which
might be adopted if such county surveys were to be initiated. As might
be expected he found that the boundaries of the types of “ land-use ” units
in Dorset correspond closely with those of natural land types, and this
will probably prove true of other counties if they are surveyed on the same
principles. This does not inhibit the value of such a series of surveys,
which would be likely, as Mr. Tavener avssumes, to provide the data for
the more rapid application of the findings of the various departments of
agricultural science.
1147
Notices of Books
Su^ar: A Case Study of Government Control. By John E. Dalton.
Pp, X + 311. (London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1937. Price 12s. M,)
The author of this book was Chief of the Sugar Section of the Agricultural
Adjustment Administration in the years 1934 ^rid 1935 when the adminis-
tration of the Jones-Costigan Sugar Act was in its early stages, and so was
well qualified to undertake this survey of the United States sugar industry
with particular reference to the measures for Government control that
have come into force under the Roosevelt administration. The author
has subsequently been Professor of subjects pertaining to business and
government in the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration,
and in this capacity he found that the Case of Sugar ** presented an
excellent illustration of some of the issues which arise when the central
Government attempts to formulate and administer plans for the assistance
and regulation of industry ; accordingly, in the final chapter of this book,
some of the wider questions as to the relationship between government
and industry are discussed in the light of exi>ericnce of the jmrticular
problems of the sugar industry.
The author stresses the complexity of the United States sugar industry,
which consists of (i) the beet sugar industry of the western States, (ii) the
cane sugar industry in Louisiana and Florida, (iii) the cane sugar industries
in the various Insular Areas, viz., Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the Philippine
Islands, and in Cuba, all dependent to a different degree politically and
economically on the continental United States, (iv) the sea-board refiners
in the continental United States. Each section of the industry has its own
peculiar organization, and the interests of the several sections arc often
at variance. One common factor, however, has been their dependence
on Government assistance, at different times and in different degrees, for
the maintenance of the immense resources of capital and labour invested
in the industry.
Up to 1933 that assistance had been given bv means of a tariff, and
Mr. Dalton outlines the reasons why in 1933 a simple tariff was deemed to be
inadequate to deal with the particular problems of the American sugar
industry. A voluntary’' stabilization agreement was drawn up by the
industry in 1933 under the provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act,
but this was rejected by the Secretary of Agriculture. The greater part of
the book is devoted to a review of the working of the Jones-Costigan Sugar
Act of 1934, which filled the gap left by the rejection of the industry’s own
scheme. This Act provided for the division of the market for sugar in
the United States between continental beet and cane producers, the
various Insular Areas, Cuba and other foreign countries, by a (luota
system. The Secretary of Agriculture has to determine the consumption
requirements of the continental United States, and the figure determined
has a considerable influence on the internal price of sugar. The Act also
provides for the production control in the continental United States and the
Insular Areas and a system of benefit payments to producers w^ho reduce
their output (these pa5^ments were subsequently invalidated by a decision
of the Supreme Court). In addition there is a tariff on foreign sugar with
a preference for Cuba. The author estimates the total amount of assist-
ance which the sugar consumers of the United States give to the industry
at approximately $250,000,000 per annum.
There is no index to the book, but this deficiency is partly compensated
for by a fairly full list of contents at the beginning.
Milk Consumption. By K. A. H. Murray. Pp. 64. (Oxford : Issued by
the Agricultural Economics Research Institute. 1937. 2S. fid.)
This brochure by Doctor Murray will be invaluable to students of the
milk industry, particularly those concerned with problems of consumption.
1148
Notices of Books
It is divided into three sections. The first gives a useful summary of
existing analyses of the factors affecting milk consumption. The second
describes a house-to-house survey of the consumption of milk and milk
products carried out in Oxford during the summer of 1936. The informa-
tion acquired has been treated to detailed statistical analysis. Part
three summarizes the results of the inquiry and gives the Author’s con-
clusions.
Although it would not be claimed that Oxford is typical of the country
as a whole in regard to its consum])tion of milk, Doctor Murray’s inquiry
and his conclusions cannot fail to be of interest to all students of the
.subject.
The inquiry showed that the consumption of milk in different households
varied over a very wide range, from no milk at all m some instances to 59
pints a week in one house. The rate of consumption per head was even
more variable, ranging from nothing to over 14 pints a week, the average
being about 4 pints. Information of this character, though limited to one
town, will probably be of general interest, and Doctor Murray’s treatment
of the subject will, it is to be hoped, be found useful and suggestive to
other inquirers in this intcr(*stmg and important field of research.
Conservation of the Soil. By A. F. Gustafson Pp. xviii -f 31^ and
197 Figs. (London McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Ltd. 1937.
Price 18.9.)
The lengthening list of new books on different aspects of soil
conservation is a proof of the serious attention being given to this problem
in the United States of America. The American nation has become
“ soil conscious,” and, although the steps that are being taken to combat
the menace of soil deterioration are to some extent party-political in
character, there is a general agreement that the soil must be protected
against further losses.
The main facts of the ])roblcm and the principles of soil protection are
fairly w'ell established. Yet it is an advantage to have the subject treated
by diherent authors from their own viewpoints. Professor Gustafson
writes on the subject with the aid of a long field experience of soils and
their behaviour, and his book will be interesting and profitable even to
those who are already familiar with other works on the subject
'The first three chapters ai*e devoted to a statement of the nature and
results of soil erosion. In the next four chapters the factors affecting
erosion are systematically treated. I'hese factors fall into five groups,
namely : (i) nature and amount of rainfall ; (ii) sloyie ; (lii) character
of soil ; (iv) vegetation covxjr ; and (v) cropping and tillage. The section
on rainfall contains remarkable data, shown diagramatically, on the
expectation of different intensities of rainfall m different parts of the
country. For example, m the coastal regions near the Gulf of Mexico
a rainfall of 3 • 5 in. in an hour may be expected once in 25 years. It could
be wished that the section dealing with the influence of the soil itself were
fuller. Unfortunately our knowledge of this asjiect of the problem is still
insufficient. The effect of organic matter in iliminishing liability to
erosion is well known, but it is probable that this effect is qualitative as
well as quantitative. The structural stability of .soil newly-ploughed out
of prairie or grass land is probably not a simple function of the actual
amount of organic matter present. 'Ihe main body of the book, nearly
200 pages, deals with methods of soil conservation. These methods are
described and discussed in a readable and interesting manner, free from
unnecessary detail. The concluding chapters deal briefly with erosion
on highways and with flood control. The latter problem is closely bound
up with the problem of soil erosion : a satisfactory control of erosion
1149
Notices of Books
would inevitably reduce the severity of floods. One of the most desirable
consequences of such control would be a reduction in the burden of
suspended matter in rivers and a check to the silting up of reservoirs
and the perilous raising of river levels.
The book is written in an attractive style and is lavishly illustrated
with excellent plates and diagrams. Whilst soil conservation in the sense
of the present book is not a serious problem in this country, British
agriculturists will derive instruction and profit by learning how American
agriculturists are dealing with their most serious problem. To agriculturists
in our overseas Empire the importance of such a work as this is obvious.
Prosperity and Depression. By G. von Harberler, Pp. xv + 3 b 3 .
(Geneva : League of Nations. ^937. ys. 6 d,)
This book has been prepared by Dr. von Harberler for the Economic
Intelligence Service of the League of Nations, and represents a first step
in co-ordinating the research work that is being done in many countries
upon the problem of the trade cycle. Its main purpose is to examine,
classify and synthesise the existing theories of the causation of the trade
cycle, and of its course and phases, preparatory to the detailed statistical
analysis which will follow. In the first half of the book Dr. von Harberler
reviews all the more reputable theories now extant, not in order to accept
or dismiss any of them, but chiefly to discover and classify the re.semblances
and dissimilarities that remain after removing differences of terminology
and the like. Tn the .second half he attempts a general synthesis, which
is based largely on the common elements in the theories reviewed; but
this is not a mere patchwork, and sufficient judgment has been u.sed t()
combine the common elements into a coherent whole.
Although the book is best read with the advantage of some previous
acquaintance with the subject of the trade cycle, it is by no means intended
for specialists only. The general reader will particularly jirofit from
what is perhaps the outstanding feature of the work — its exposition of the
subject in a form that makes the most of the (juite extensive common
ground among almost all economists.
4
A Study of Fluid Milk Prices. By J M. Cassels. l^p. xxvii -f 304, and
46 Figs. (Oxford University Press. Cambridge, Mass. . Harvard
llniversity Press. 1937 Price 17s.) .
This book is a study of milk prices in some of the most important eastern
markets of the U.S.A. during the period 1917 to 1932, although the price
.structure in certain markets has been dealt wdth from 1910 to 1932. The
work thus omits any reference to the fluid milk programme of the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration. The early part of the book is a
theoretical study of demand and supply factors in their relation to milk
prices and, as such, is not of particular interest to the average producer.
Chapter VI is one of the most important sections in relation to England
and Wales as it deals with the various price plans adopted to distribute
the returns from the sale of milk equitably between producers who form
a group or those who supply a particular market. Three price plans are
discussed, the class-price plan, the base-rating plan and the classification
and rating plan.
In the section dealing with consumption and demand, it is pointed
out that the per capita consumption of liquid milk and ifresh cream in
cities in the United States increased from 38 • i to 40 • 8 gal. between 1921 and
1929. The most important factors that gave rise to this increased consump-
tion are said to be higher incomes ; improvement in the quality of milk ;
advertising and educational work, especially in schools ; and prohibition.
The statement is made several times that the demand for milk is inelastic,
1150
Notices of Books
although this conclusion is apparently based on small price changes —
generall5r i cent per quart — and is thus less conclusive than the writer
suggests. Demand is, however, less inelastic among the lower income*
earning classes than the higher, and for shop purchases than for door- to
door deliveries.
Further sections deal with distributive margins and transport costs,
both of which tend to be much more rigid than cither wholesale or retail
prices. An interesting chapter compares the gross returns of producers
from the sale of fluid milk in ten cities with the computed returns for
milk of the same quality used for manufacturing purposes. The returns
for liquid milk were higher than those for manufacturing milk, by margins
varying from over 50 per cent, down to 16 per cent., and averaging about
20 to 25 per cent.
The two main reasons for the higher gross returns for liquid milk are
said to be the greater cost of producing milk for the liquid market owing
to the higher sanitary standards required, and the bargaining power of
the producer-organizations selling fluid milk.
Compared with conditions under the English scheme it might be noted
that : —
(1) The advantages of the pooling system are only shared by producer-
members of milk organizations.
(li) Organized groups may be in direct competition with each other.
(iii) Prices fixed by agreement between producers' organizations and
distributors may be undercut by non-member producers.
As, however, the margin between the prices of milk sold for liquid
consumption and for manufacture are smaller than in this country, the
effects of undercutting are less serious.
Farming England. By A. G Street. Pp. viii -{ 120, and 135 I'igs.
(London . B. T, Batsford, Ltd. 1937 Price 7s. 6 ( 1 )
'I'he literature of tanning, w^ntten expressly for the purp'iose of informing
our urban population, grows by leaps and bounds. Some of it is very
amateur, but A. G Street’s position as a farmer wdio know’s and loves his
profession at once removes anything he wTites out of that category. His
earlier Writings arc widely knowm and appreciated, but in this book he
has once again left the romantic aspect of farming in order to write a
critical survey of its practice in the different parts of our country.
The book is wTitten clearly, and emphatically, and, following as it does
Regional Types of British Agriculture, a book written l)y a gniup of advisory
and other officials, it invites comparison with that work ■ but a comparison
IS nevertheless difficult. One man travelling the whole country cannot
hope to secure so intimate an acquaintance with the details of farm
management in any particular area as an adviser whose life has been spent
there and whose work demands that he shall be acquainted with all the
idiosyncrasies of that district. Nevertheless, in general outline Mr. Street
has seemingly achieved this impossibility. Whatever district he describes
he seems to have got at the heart "of the’ matter, and his .simple,
unembellished .style of writing makes his readers feel that they too have
been told all that he has learned.
Farming surveys are extremely useful at this pre.sent time, and, when
written with so much character as this one, serve a purpose greater
than that of informing the general urban public of the situation of the
rural people, their ways and their days • the book brings into perspective
the different branches of farming and is not too kind to governmental
policy ; nevertheless it can unhesitatingly be recommended to all who are
interested in one of the foremost problems in our national economy, the
problem of our agriculture and the p(»ople who arc engaged in it
Notices of Books
Overseas Plant Products. By J. H. Holland. Introduction by Sir Arthur
W. Hill, K.C.M.G., Sc.D., F.R.S. Pp. vii + 279. (London ;
John Bale, Sons & Curnow, Ltd. 1937. Price 65.)
The items enumerated in this volume comprise all natural products
of vegetable origin imported on a commercial scale into this country.
Samples of such products are frequently received for identification at
Kew from business houses, generally accompanied only by names used
in their country of origin, these affording little clear indication of identity.
While the author was on the staff of the Royal Botanic Gardens his duties
included the identification of such specimens, and the results of his labours
in this direction are now published in book form. Trade and vernacular
names are correlated with the botanical (specific and family) names and
the trade sources or countries of production, and some indication is given
as to uses. There is a bibliography of drugs, medicinal and culinary herbs,
and a commendatory introduction by the Director of the Royal Botanic
Gardens at Kew, under whose auspices the work appears.
Records of a Yorkshire Manor. By Sir Thomas *Lawson-Tancred, Bt.
Pp. X -f 384, and 6 Maps. (London : Edwin Arnold & Co. 1937.
Price 2 IS.)
The editor of these documents confesses that he has not been able to
transcribe them in full, but he has tried to give a selection of extracts that
would be an indication of the history of the manor from early medicrval
times until the nineteenth century. It is always unsatisfactory when an
editor makes selections of documents, but historians must be grateful to
any editor who undertakes to print a long series of documents that is not
readily accessible to the ordinary" student.
Only a small section of this publication deals directly with agricultural
histo^>^ and that not very directly with farming processes. It would
probably be difficult to interpret even such documents as may not have
been printed here in such a way as to learn exactly how the farming was
done in the manor, but from the point of view of the agrarian historian
such an attempt would have been of great value.
This mild criticism is not intended to depreciate the value of what is
printed, which is of great interest both from a social and administrative
point of view. In connexion with the former an interesting inventory of
the contents of Boroughbridge Hall in 1718 is printed. This indicates
not only the contents of the house, but the number of rooms and their
uses. On the administrative side, practically the whole of the documents
could be called upon to supply evidence, and it is to the student of local
and central administration that this book will, on the whole, make the
most appeal.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty’s Stationery Office,
By William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Vol. XLIV No. 12 March, 1938
NOTES FOR THE MONTH
Agricultural Research Council
Fanners and others interested in agriculture have some-
times expressed the view that insufficient information is
available about the activities of the Agricultural Research
Council. To meet what they recognize as an important need,
the Council have issued a booklet entitled " Constitution and
Functions of the Agricultural Research Council.''*
The booklet contains an interesting account of the methods
that have been adopted by the Council to fulfil the task
entrusted to them in 1931 when they were established by Royal
Charter. The work of the Council is carried out under the
direction of a Committee of the Privy Council, of which the
Lord President is Chairman, and the Council are responsible
for tendering advice to the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, the Department of Agriculture for Scotland and tiie
Development Commissioners on the expenditure on agricul-
tural research of State funds amounting to more than four
hundred thousand pounds yearly. The Council are also
charged with the scientific supervision of subsidized agricul-
tural research, and in addition they have Research Officers
of their own engaged in the investigation of particular
problems. A recent development has been the acquisition
by the Council of an estate at Compton in Berkshire for use
as a Field Station. Here problems .such as those involved in
certain diseases of animals will be investigated on a field
scale when the necessary experiments in the laboratory and
with small numbers of large animals have been done at the
Research Institutes. The Institutes will also be able to obtain
* Obtainable on written application to the Secretary of the Council
at 6 a, Dean’s Yard, Westminster, S.W.i.
A
1153
Notes for the Month
from the Station a supply of animals that have been raised
in isolation and are free from disease.
In addition to advising on research in progress, the Council,
through numerous technical or special Committees, on which
they enlist the help of a large number of scientific workers
not themselves members of the Council, plan and co-ordinate
such immediate extensions of the research programme as
seem necessaiy to secure a more intensive attack on problems
of special urgency, especially in the field of animal and plant
diseases.
A New Index Number of Agricultural Prices
At the monthly meeting of the Royal Statistical Society
on Tuesday, January i8, 1938, Mr. C. T. Houghton, an
Assistant Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, read a paper dealing with the changes that will be
made in the Ministry's Index Number of Agricultural Prices
in a new series that will be published shortly.
After describing the nature and history of the old series
of index numbers, Mr. Houghton stated that owing to the
changes that have taken place in home agriculture since the
War, these index numbers have become to some extent defec-
tive. The most important change affecting index numbers
was in the make-up of the agricultural output, in consequence
of which the weighting used for calculating tlie general index
for agricultural produce as a whole was no longer appropriate
to present-day conditions.
To assist in dealing with the problem of revision the Minister
of Agriculture and Fisheries appointed an ad hoc Advisory
Committee, which was constituted as follows: —
Mr. C. T. Houghton [Chairman)
Mr. F. Grant
Mr. E. F. Nash . .
Mr. J. M. Ramsay. .
Mr. D. A. £. Harkiiess
Mr. H. Leak
Mr. J. H. Wain . .
Miss C. G. Gatey . .
Mr. W. Holmes
Mr. T. H. Hodgson
I Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
/ Department of Agriculture for Scot-
( land.
I Ministry of Agriculture for Northern
I Ireland.
Board of Trade.
National Farmers' Union.
National Union of Agricultural
Workers.
( Agricultural Workers' Section of the
Transport and General Workers'
Union.
1x54
Notes for the Month
I Department of Agricultural Eco-
Prof. A. W. Ashby . . . . | nomics, University College of
( Wales.
Prof. A. L. Bowlev • Emeritus Professor of Statistics,
^ ■ ■ 'I University of London.
Mr. R. H. Mares (Secretary) . . Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
The Committee had presented unanimous recommendations
which the Department had adopted.
In view of the purpose of the agricultural index number,
which is to measure the influence of price changes on the
value of the agricultural output, the arithmetical average would
continue to be used. The base period of the new series would
be changed from 1911-13 to 1927-29, the latter period being
the most stable period of agricultural prices since the War.
The principal factor that had led to the need for revision
was the weighting of the general index number. The weight-
ing of the old series was based on the agricultural output of
1908. In consequence of the changes in the agricultural out-
put since that date the old index now gave an excessive weight
to farm crops and livestock and an insufficient weight to daily
products, poultry, eggs and vegetables; sugar beet and glass-
house produce were not represented at all. For comparisons
of price movements in the relatively recent past the use of
weights based on the pre-War agricultural output was clearly
inappropriate. If, however, there were adopted a new system
of weights, based on a fixed collection of goods representing
present-day output, and the actual output of the agricultural
industry continued to chjinge, the weighting, although satis-
factory for the present time, would become less and less
representative of contemporary output as time went on, and
the problem of revision would again present itself, involving
a further break in the series. Such periodical revisions and
breaking of series were undesirable. A system of moving
weights had, therefore, been adopted, under which the weight-
ing would be changed annually so as to correspond with the
average output of the previous five years. The object of
adopting tile five-year average was to eliminate the influence
of changes due to weather conditions. When this had been
done the changes in the output from year to year were com-
paratively small; consequently the new system would enable
short-period comparisons to be made with accuracy; it would,
at the same time, provide as correct a method as possible for
making any comparisons in the series over a long period. It
was hoped, therefore, that the new series could be continued
A 2 «55
Notes for the Month
indefinitely unless radical changes in the make-up of the agri-
cultural output took place.
In future, two series of monthly index numbers would be
published, one showing the actual changes in prices from month
to month, and the other showing such changes corrected for
seasonal variation. In the old series of monthly index num-
bers a correction for seasonal variation had been made by com-
paring prices each month with the price in the corresponding
month of the base period. Experience had shown that
this system was in some respects defective. Under the new
system the index numbers showing actual price changes of
certain commodities would be corrected for seasonal variation
by the application of an index of seasQnal variation, based
in respect of each commodity on ten-year moving averages
of the actual monthly prices of that commodity; to keep these
indices of seasonal variation up to date they would be cal-
culated annually on the basis of the latest ten-year period.
Varieties of Cereals for Spring Sowing
The following note has been communicated by the National
Institute of Agricultural Botany: —
Seed time is with us and the National Institute of Agricul-
tural Botany wishes once again to urge upon farmers the
necessity for growing the right variety of crop, both from his
own point of view and in the national interest. As far as
cereals are concerned the Institute has been conducting field
trials for many years and knows that the differences in yield
of grain between good and poor varieties may easily be 20
per cent., while characteristics like the standing power of the
straw may make or mar the harvest. Recommendations made
on the results of these trials are issued from time to time in
leaflet form and can be obtained free of charge through all
Agricultural Organizers or direct from the N.I.A.B. The brief
summary given below should be a guide for this season's
spring sowings.
While not encouraging the growing of spring wheat, since
it is seldom a profitable crop, the Institute’s experience shows
that if spring wheat is grovm, the most satisfactory varieties
are Little Joss if drilled by the middle of February, Red
Marvel or A.i for the first half of March, and thereafter until
the middle of April, April Bearded.
The improvement of varieties in recent years has been par-
ticularly marked among spring oats, and many farmers could
1156
Noras FOR THE Month
profitably change the variety of oats they grow. The Institute
recommen(k Eagle, Star, Onward, Victory, Golden Rain and
Golden Rain II, the last two essentially for home consumption,
as the small size of their grain and its yellow colour frequently
reduce the selling value. Marvellous is recommended for
early sowing on good soils, as is Resistance, which though
primarily a winter variety also produces high yields when
sown early in spring.
In barleys the Institute restricts its recommendations to the
well-known varieties Plumage Archer and Spratt Archer.
The “ 1935 ” Plumage Archer has given better results than
the “ 1924.” Where late sowing cannot be avoided Svalof
Victory or the Danish Kenia and Maja deserve trial.
Whichever variety is chosen, early sowing almost always
pays. English-grown seed gives just as good results as
imported seed, if the standard of purity and germination is
the same. A further leaflet dealing in general terms with
choice of seed, in which such points as purity, germination,
variety, origin and price are dealt with, has been compiled
by the Institute, and those who obtain it (gratis) either from
County Organizers or direct from the Institute should find it
of considerable use when deciding what seed to buy.
Acreage of Winter Wheat
From the returns received by the Ministry in December,
1937, from two-thirds of the occupiers of agricultural holdings
of over I acre, it is estimated that the total acreage of winter
wheat sown, or to be soWn, in England and Wales is 1,807,000
acres.
This area is approximately 75,000 acres more than the total
wheat area in 1937, and allowing for the acreage yet to be
planted with spring wheat, it would appear that the total
acreage devoted to wheat in 1938 will be at least 100,000 acres
greater than the area last year. The estimated area of winter
wheat alone is, in fact, greater than the total wheat area in
England and Wales in any year since 1922.
The extension of the wheat acreage is very general through-
out the country, the greatest increases over 1937 being recorded
in tile Eastern division (7 per cent.), the South-Eastern divi-
sion (6 per cent.) and the North-Western division (13 per
cent.). In tiie North-Eastern division the increase is only
2 per cent. , but in this area the sowing of spring wheat is likely
to be more common than in other districts.
1157
Notes for the Month
Grey Squirrds
Since the Grey Squirrels (Prohibition of Importation and
Keeping) Order, 1937, came into force on July 31, 1937, as
noted in the August, 1937, issue of this Journal, the animal
has had a good deal of publicity, and its status as an agricul-
tural pest can now be said to be generally known. County
Councils have been urged to take such steps as they can to
bring prominently before persons in their areas, on whose
land grey squirrels exist, the desirability of the extermination
of the pest; to encourage measures of destruction: to conduct
general propaganda against the animal; to deal effectively
with the animal on lands, such as public parks, under their
own control; and to urge other local authorities within County
areas to take similar action. Suitable opportunities are also
being taken by the Ministry to bring to the notice of large
numbers of individual occupiers of holdings in England and
Wales the wisdom of destro5dng the animal if it occurs, or
should in future make its appearance, on their land.
Official propaganda has been ably supplemented by the
National Anti-Grey Squirrel Campaign, a voluntary organiza-
tion, the secretary of which is Mr. Laurance Swainson,
Moorlands, Boxmoor, Herts.
The present time, when the cover of foliage is denied to the
animal, is ideal for intensive measures, and it is hoped that
the publicity that has been given to the subject in recent months
will result in substantial diminution m its numbers during
the present period of relative vulnerability.
It should be noted that the carripaign is directed solely
against the grey squirrel. Agriculturists have relatively
little cause of complaint against the indigenous red squirrel.
The Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips and its C<mtrol
The following note has been communicated by Mr. W.
Buddin of Reading University : —
In the April, 1937, issue of this Journal, an article under
the above title emphasized the importance of hygiene, and of
the elimination of affected material as soon as this disease is
noticed in a nursery. It was shown that reasonable control
of the disease in forced bulbs could be obtained by planting
the tulips with their “ necks " projecting from the soil, and
covering the boxes for the rooting period with some loose
1158
Notes for the Month
material, such as long straw. Experiments that were
described showed that very fair control of the disease could
be obtained by mixing a non-mercurial fungicidal powder,
the effective constituent of which was believed to be a chloro-
nitrobenzol preparation, with the surface soil in the boxes,
immediately around the noses of the bulbs.
Mixing a powder witli the soil to be placed round the necks
of the planted bulbs necessitates a certain amount of fore-
thought and labour, and involves the availability of boxing
soil in reasonably dry condition. During this last forcing
season experiments were therefore carried out to determine
whether the same degree of control could be obtained by
sprinkling an equivalent quantity of the chemical on top of the
contaminated soil in the boxes after planting had been com-
pleted. Approximately i oz. of the powder was sprinkled
over 10 sq. ft. of the surface of the soil, which just covered
the noses of the bulbs (variety Wm. Copland) in the boxes.
To obtain more even distribution, the chemical was mixed
with an equal weight of diy talc. The bulbs and soil were
watered as soon as the sprinkling was completed, and Ihe
boxes were then placed in the ash bed alongside bulbs planted
in the same contaminated, but untreated, soil. Other boxes,
in which the same quantity of powder was mixed with the
surface soil as in previous years, were included for purposes
of comparison. After about g weeks the whole batch was
transferred to the glasshouse, and flowered early in January.
Two different lots of contaminated soil were used in the
experiments; both had’previously carried crops affected with
the Grey Bulb Rot disease, but one lot was more heavily
contaminated than the other. Bulbs planted in clean soil
gave 100 per cent, of blooms, but lOO bulbs planted in the
badly contaminated soil gave only 14 marketable flowers.
As in previous seasons, a reasonable control of the disease was
obtained when the powder was mixed with the surface soil;
50 bulbs in boxes so treated 5/ielded 45 flowers, i.e., 90 per
cent. On the other hand, merely sprinkling the chemical
on the surface of the soil after planting gave quite unsatis-
factory results, for only 61 marketable blooms were obtained
from 150 bulbs so treated. The low percentage — 40.5 — of
flowers indicates tliat this labour-saving method of treatment
cannot be recommended.
The results were fully confirmed by those obtained when
the less severely contaminated soil was used.
1159
Notes for the Month
Progress of the Land Fertility Scheme
The number of applications for contribution imder the Land
Fertility Scheme received from occupiers of agricultural land
in the United Kingdom now exceeds 110,000. The quantities
of lime and basic slag in respect of which these applications
have been made are approximately 611,000 tons of lime and
330,000 tons of basic slag.
In the last issue of the Journal reference was made to a
memorandum (L.F.C.4) issued by the Land Fertility Com-
mittee explaining the procedure for giving approval to
Associations that desire to make bulk purchases for redistri-
bution to their members. Over 350 Associations have
received their certificates.
In December, a memorial was presented by producers of
lime substantially representative of the industry, praying that
the prices approved for the purpose of the Scheme might be
increased. Messrs. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell and Co. were
appointed to cany out an investigation into the matters
referred to in the memorial, and their report is under con-
sideration.
Farmers who are experiencing difficulty in obtaining supplies
of basic slag will be interested to know that inquiries
made by the Land Fertility Committee show that the quantity
of slag delivered since the date on which the Scheme came into
operation is considerably in excess of deliveries during the
whole of the preceding year, and that the estimated quantity
that will be available for deliveries upder the Scheme in the
current fertilizer year ending on May 31, 1938, is 478,000 tons,
i.e., double the deliveries in the previous year. It is antici-
pated that additional supplies that will materially ease the
situation will become available in the next fertilizer year.
The scime comparison is not possible regarding lime supplies,
but there is no doubt that these have considerably increased.
1160
LAND DRAINAGE: AN ACCOUNT OF IMPROVE-
MENT WORKS IN PROGRESS AND COMPLETED
IN THE RIVER NENE CATCHMENT AREA
The River Nene Catchment Board was constituted as the
result of the Land Drainage Act, 1930, on March 9, 1931.
Before that date the control of the River Nene was vested
in six authorities, and whilst one authority controlled the
banks and another was responsible for the maintenance of the
channel of the river, none of them had sufficient revenue for
the proper maintenance of works.
The catchment area of the Nene is approximately 920 square
miles, of which a little over 600 square miles are above Peter-
borough, which was until recently the limit of tidal influence.
The remainder of the area is fen land, below the level
of high water at ordinary spring tides, from which it is
protected by embankments. The Catchment Board's liabi-
lities include 170 miles of “ main ” river, 34 locks and 10
staunches, besides sluices and other controls. As the old
authorities had only very limited funds available for main-
tenance, the channels had gradually become almost impassable
and the locks and controls were in disrepair, in many
instances very little short of derelict. These conditions, in
addition to the number of mills on the river, most of which
still function, complicated the discharge of water, especially
in time of flood.
In order to have full information of the condition of the
river, the Catchment Board promptly had a survey made,
and upon this was based a comprehensive scheme of improve-
ment — ^including strengthening of banks, reconstruction of
locks, sluices, weirs, bridges and resectioning of channels.
The estimated cost of this scheme is £748,000, towards which
the Ministry is contributing a 55 per cent, grant under Section
55 of the Land Drainage Act, 1930.
From the sections taken during the survey it was evident
that the river from the sea up to about 3^ miles below Wisbech
was in satisfactory condition, but that could not be said of
the rest of the river.
ii6z
Land Drainage— R. Nene Catchment Area
Works below Wisbech. The 3^ miles of river below
Wisbech were shoaled up, giving a quite inadequate sectional
area. This part has been dealt with by dredging in the centre
of the river a channel 60 feet wide, to &e required grade,
keeping well away from the toe of the banks in order to
limit the risk of causing slips. The dredging was carried out
by a bucket dredger, the excavated material being deposited
into barges, which were emptied by a suction dredger pumping
the material ashore to a spoil depot in an enclosed site on
the adjoining marshes. This part of the scheme, which was
carried out by contract and involved approximately 96,000
cubic yards of excavation, has been completed.
Improvement Works, Wisbech. From above Wisbech
Bridge up to Bevis Hall, the river for a length of two miles
has a marked deficiency in sectional area as well as a high
bed level. This naturally causes a holding up of the dis-
charge of flood water, and an increase of velocity that
endangers the banks. These banks have been maintained
over a long period by the deposit upon them of stone that
gradually sank into the silty bed of the river. From time to
time, as this occurred, further stone was placed on the banks;
tills has had the effect of causing slips and of forming extensive
shoals of stone. (See Fig. i.) Borings that have been taken
along the banks reveal that throughout this length there is
a bed of sand and silt, in places 40 ffeet in deptii, the top
generally being about the level of low water at ordinary
spring tides. The difficulties of this situation can be
appreciated when it is realized that on the top of both banks
there are narrow roads that must be kept open for heavy
traffic. The problem is further complicated by the presence
of buildings with frontages very near to the edge of these
roads, affording little working space for plant. After much
consideration it was decided to improve this length by sup-
porting the banks by piling and afterwards dredging the
channel to the required section. In 1937 a contract was
entered into for two experimental lengths of 100 yards of
river to be piled by different methods. In view of the fact
that sand and silt were known to be present below the level
of low water, it was necessary to provide for sheet piling to
be used throughout.
For the first zoo yards length, a short distance above
Wisbech Bridge, the proximity of houses along the rQa<i^ 011
Zl6a
7 0 J(f(f 1 1<'2
Pig I — River Nene near Wisbech, showing Bank-^ and Shoalr^ of Stone at Low Water
l'i(^ j H Dragline l^redger at wcirk on llie t onsti Rti tl Lluinnel
in 1924. [Centre) Diagrammatic Section, looking Downstream, show mg
improvement made in 1924 and in 1936-37 [hottoni) Duimg ])rogr(‘ss
of 1936 -37 Works.
^ J Joublft Slimes aiiil Lot k, Hood i omlit loir
(liofiojn) The same, iiomud londilioiis
J' jf, 4 — Flood Kolicf W'orks, Northampton [Top] Site ol n'‘\v flood cluinmd
bfloro fxcavatioii (JioUom) l£x(avation com[dd('d.
The Ministry is indebted to the River Nene Catchment
Board for the use of the photographs printed in this inset.
Land Drainage — R. Nene Catchment Area
top of the banks makes it difficult to use ties. This was over-
come by the use of reinforced concrete sheeting piles, secured
by king piles of the same construction, both being tied by a
reinforced concrete capping beam, the whole in section taking
the form of an inverted “ V. " The piles were cast with jetting
tubes incorporated and were driven with a water jet to reduce
vibration on adjacent buildings.
The second experimental length was started on the north
side of the river, about two-thirds of a mile above Wisbech
Bridge, outside the built-up area of the town. Steel sheet
piling was used, and tied back with steel tie rods to a con-
tinuous reinforced concrete anchor wall. In the light of the
experience obtained, it was resolved to carry out the whole
of the work on the lines of the first loo yards length in rein-
forced concrete. It is intended to re-use the existing stone,
when dredged from the bed of the river, as pitching on the
banks above the capping beam, and as far as possible to main-
tain the present amenities. The magnitude of the works
contemplated on this comparatively short length of river can
best be judged from the amount of the contract, which is
;£256,656.
Improvement Works, Bevis Hall to Peterborough. The
river from Bevis Hall up to Peterborough Bridge is i6J miles
in length, and here again the sectional area was shown to
be obviously insufficient to carry the quantity of water
coming down in a minor flood. When the Catchment Board
realized this state of. affairs they, with very commendable
enterprise, immediately made arrangements for improving the
cross-sectional area of this length, although grants under
Section 55 of the Land Drainage Act, 1930, were not available
at the time. A contract was settled and work was started
in September, 1933, and continued up to April, 1935, when
the present scheme was approved, by which time 3^ miles
of tile river had been completely re-sectioned to Guyhime
Railway Bridge. The North Level Barrier Bank is situated
very close to the north edge of the channel and has in many
places little or no berm. It is being strengthened at the
river edge by the placing of a rubble toe and reforming the
side with faggoting to line up the channel where necessary.
As particular care had to be taken not to endanger this
bank, all work to widen and deepen the channel had to be
qndertaken pn the south side. Starting under the scheme at
1163
Land Drainage — R. Nene Catchment Area
Guyhime Railway Bridge, the initial part of the widening
was carried out by means of dragline excavators working from
the south bank and depositing spoil on the Washes. The
main part of the excavation was taken out by a bucket
dredger, and the excavated material was pumped to spoil depots
as described previously. Between Guyhirne and Dog-in-a-
Doublet Bridge depots were made close behind and parallel
to the North Level Barrier Bank, and some 400,000 cubic
37ards of material were pumped into positions to be readily
available to strengthen the bank. The whole of this improve-
ment up to Peterborough Bridge is now completed. A dia-
grammatic comparison of sections taken at different periods
is given in Fig. 2 {centre). The earlier sections were illustrated
in the October, 1924, issue of this Journal^ after the first use
was made of dragline dredgers on large river improvements
for land drainage purposes.
A very serious obstacle to the improvement of this same
length of river was the Northey Gravels, a high bar of hard
gravel that extends along nearly half a mile of the bed,
approximately two miles below Peterborough. A perpetual
injunction was obtained in 1865, which prohibited the removal
of this bar, it being held that its retention was necessary to
preserve the fresh water supply for Thomey, the intake for
which is at Dog-in-a-Doublet, some three miles below. In
order to give the river the full capacity for which the scheme
provides, it was essential that the Northey Gravels should be
removed, but of course provision had to be made to maintain
the Thomey water supply. This has-been effected by the
erection of a set of sluices with a lock, a short distance above
Dog-in-a-Doublet Bridge, with a re-arranged intake for the
water supply. The structure is built of reinforced concrete
on a foundation base of concrete, varying from 9 feet thick
at the upstream end to 6 feet at the downstream cill, with
reinforcing bars in the bottom and top lifts of concrete. Two
steel sluice gates, each 30 feet wide, are placed on the south
side, separated by a pier 7 feet wide.
The lock is on the nortii side, the main pen being 145 feet
long and 26 feet wide; it is arranged to accommodate craft up
to 133 feet long with a beam of 22 feet and a laden draught
of 9 feet. In order to lessen the waste of water, the pen has
been divided by a third gate for passing smaller vessels through
a pen 88 feet in length. The three lock gates are all of the
steel vertical lifting type with 15 feet head room when fully
1164
Land Drainage— R. Nene Catchment Area
raised and are designed to resist pressure from either side, for,
in addition to an estimated tidal difference in height of 13
feet when all the improvement works are completed down-
stream, it is possible in times of drought for the upstream level
to be reduced below high tide levels. As in the latter event
the head is reversed, provision is made for filling the lock
from upstream or downstream. The use of vertical gates
also enable the lock to be used as an additional sluice. The
sluice and lock gates are each operated by 8-h.p. electric
motors, which enable them to be raised or lowered at a speed
of 8 feet per minute; they can be brought into action from
the control cabin placed near the lock or from the superstruc-
ture of each gate, where manual operating gear is also
provided.
The concrete dished apron is 80 feet long, beyond which
protection is extended a further 25 feet by the laying of fascine
brushwood mattresses. The toe of the south bank is also
protected against scour by mattresses for a length of iio feet,
and another mattress 40 feet wide was placed across the
chaimel immediately above the sluices. These mattresses
were sunk into position by weighting with granite blocks dis-
tributed at about i ton per square yard.
The intake for the Thorney water supply is taken through
the upstream wing wall of the lock to the Thomey river
through a length of 400 yards of duplicate 18-inch cast iron
pipes. In case water levels are considerably lowered in
time of drought, arrangements can be made to pump water
through one of the pipes. The set of sluices, etc., took two
years to erect under very difficult conditions and cost approxi-
mately ;^3,ooo; the opening ceremony took place in July,
1937, and was performed by Sir Donald Fergusson, K.C.B.,
Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries in the unavoidable absence of the Minister. See
Fig- 3 -
The existing road bridge at Dog-in-a-Doublet immediately
below the sluices was found to be an obstruction, both as to
height as well as line of river, and it has now been recon-
structed.
Whittlesey Washes Improvement Works. The Whittlesey
wash lands have an area of 3,500 acres and extend from
Guyhime to Stanground on the outskirts of Peterborough.
The wash acts as a reservoir for flood waters when adverse
1165
Land Drainage— R. Nene Catchment Area
tides restrict the discharge into the tidal portion of die river
below Dog-in-a-Doublet sluices. Before any of the Catch-
ment Board's improvement works had been carried out in the
river channel, the washes would flood very easily, a condi-
tion that is not desirable, since it is obvious diat a reservoir
of this nature should be kept empty until its use becomes
absolutely necessary. The capacity of the charmel from
Bevis Hall to Peterborough has been so greatiy increased that
it now carries all normal floods. At Northey Gravels a weir
178 feet long has been constructed in reinforced concrete, and
is capable of adjustment as to height to pass flood water on
to the wash at a predetermined level. The old inlet sluice at
Stanground, which was once in poor condition, had a gate
9 ft. 4 in. in width, and to replace this a new structure in
reinforced concrete has been erected with a steel central lifting
gate 15 ft. in width to open the full depth, with side gates
both 20 ft. wide, one opening 4 ft., the other 3ft., from the
top of the sluice. This will permit of a greater control of
flood water in conjunction with the weir at Northey Gravels.
The outfall for flood water from the wash is through Guyhirne
sluice, the structure of which was in bad condition. A new
sluice has been built, the opportunity being taken to increase
the width of the gate from 9 ft. to 15 ft. , thus ensuring a more
rapid discharge when river conditions permit. The new sluice
is in reinforced concrete with steel pointing gates on the tidal
side and a steel gate of vertical lifting t5^e on the upstream
side.
It is interesting to note here that in the extremely wet winter
of 1936-37, the improved channel below Peterborough was
able to discharge all flood water without utilizing the wash
until March 14, 1937. On that day there was an adverse
combination of heavy flood with an unusually high spring
tide backed by a strong north wind, which it was reported
gave the highest water level at Wisbech for 30 years. The
water then flowed on to the wash, but did not reach a high
level, owing to the fact that the wash was empty until the
emergency for which it was needed.
Improvement Works from Peterborough to Northampton.
Above Peterborough the river winds its 66-mile way down
from Northampton through a narrow valley with very quick
“run off,” making it subject to sudden rises in level after
even local rain; it is divided into levels by 44 locks and
1166
Land Drainage— R. Nene Catchment Area
staunches with a total fall of i6o ft. The condition of the
channel itself, apart from the controls, was deplorable, being
overgrown with trees and obstructed with fallen timber, shoals,
and weed growth, making it impossible for even the Board’s
own small craft to move on the river. The scheme provides
for the forming of an adequate width of channel with a normal
depth of 6 ft. of water. From Peterborough Bridge to
Woodston Staunch, in a length of about half a mile, the river
is crossed by no fewer than six railway and road bridges,
there being little room on the bank for deposit of dredgings;
a contract has been let for this to be dredged in the same
manner as below Peterborough, the spoil being moved to a
convenient depot.
Above Woodston Staunch the improvement to the channel
is being carried out by administration, with the use of drag-
line excavators and floating grab dredgers. Pontoons are
provided for use in conjunction with the dragline excavators
to facilitate crossing the river when necessary, while they
may be converted into floating dredgers when fitted with grab
instead of dragline bucket. Dredging operations are in
progress in different parts of the river, and started in each
place as follows : — Above Woodston Staunch, above Wansford
Lock, above Warmington Lock, above Barnwell Staunch,
above Wellingborough Lock and above Northampton Lock.
Altogether a length of about 26 miles of river channel improve-
ment has been completed and four new cuts made on the
river Nene. The one large tributary of the river Nene is the
river Ise, which joins it at Wellingborough and is the cause
of much local flooding; great improvement has resulted from
the resectioning and regrading of the lower 3J miles, on which
21 new cuts have been made.
In dealing with the reconstruction of the controls on this
length of river, it was necessary to take into consideration
the conservation of water in time of drought as well as the
discharge of flood water. In this connexion, many of the
existing staunches will have to be replaced by locks, but it
has been found possible to eliminate some by lowering the
downstream cill of the next upstream lock. This will have
the effect of more efficiently draining the adjoining land, as
the normal water level between the site of Ihe staunch and
the lock above will be much lower. The old locks were in
poor condition generally, some indeed in a grave state
of dilapidation, and the dimensions did not conform to any
1167
Land Drainage — R. Nene Catchment Area
standard. Twenty-one locks have now been reconstructed to
the same measurements for the lock pen as those recently built
on the Grand Union Canal, i.e., 83 ft. 6 in. long, 15 ft. wide,
with 6 ft. of water over the cills. These locks will now
accommodate one standard loo-ton craft or two narrow canal
barges side by side, with little waste of water, an important
factor in time of drought. The construction of these locks is
in mass concrete with a facing of blue brick to withstand the
wear in die lock pen. The upper gates are of the mitre tim-
ber type, and those at the lower end are of the vertical steel
lifting type. This combination of mitre and lifting gates was
adopted so that the locks could be used as sluices to
full capacity in time of flood.
In view of the relatively high level at which the river has
to be maintained, owing to the existing mill rights, it is essen-
tial to provide additional means for the rapid discharge of
water during flood periods and at the same time keep up the
water to the correct level for the operation of the mills. In
order to effect this, tilting or lifting gates var3dng from 2 to
3 ft. in depth have been or are to be installed on weirs where
found to be necessary. The weir crest is first cut down by
the depth of the gate and a gate fixed with the top at the
same level as the original weir crest. By lowering the gate
in time of flood the water level upstream can be maintained
and an increased discharge is obtained.
The Catchment Board has very wisely adopted the policy
of acquiring the water rights at mills wherever possible, when
opportunity occms. Having obtained full control of the water
where this has been done, it is possible further to regulate the
flow both in drought and flood periods. At present the Catch-
ment Board have either acquired or are negotiating for these
rights at seven mills on the river.
In the vicinity of !^rthampton much flooding was
experienced, owing to so* extent to building operations and
the general raising of the level of the areas that were apt to
flood. A flood relief scheme was designed, and here again
the Catchment Board undertook, with the assistance of the
Northampton Corporation, to proceed with its execution
before grants became available. The works then carried out
included the making of a new channel for flood relief, this
tidcing flood water when required through two tilting gates,
16 ft. wide and 2ft. 6 in. deep, electrically operated by remote
control from a station about half a mile distant. A new
1X68
Land Drainage — R. Nene Catchment Area
sluice has been constructed at Nunn Mills, and work is
in progress on deepening the channel below Northampton
Bridge, this channel taking the full flow of the river from
above the town, where other relief works are contemplated
under the Scheme (see Fig. 4).
In order to cope with the maintenance of plant, etc., under
tile scheme, the Catchment Board has had to increase the
capacity of the workshops at its main depot at Oundle.
Incidentally, the mitre timber gates for the locks are entirely
made at this depot, it being found cheaper to make them
there than to have them made elsewhere; and it is pleasing to
record that the workmanship displayed on them reaches an
extremely high standard. There is equipment in the fitters',
carpenters', and blacksmiths' shops for the repair and con-
ditioning of the dredgers, barges, and other plant in use on
the scheme.
The Catchment Board have also two other grant-aided
schemes in progress, one for the reconstruction of the South
Holland Sluice, and one for the provision of pumping plants
to supplement the discharge of water from the extensive North
Level area, when gravitational flow is retarded. Thus the
whole of the drainage improvement of this Catchment Area
is being undertaken, and its completion will confer direct
benefit upon some 196,000 acres of low-lying land.
1169
HfiPORt OP THE POULTRY TECHNICAL
COMMITTEE OF GREAT BRITAIN
The Report of the Poultry Technical Committee* for Great
Britain was published on February 8. The Committee was
appointed in September, 1935, by the Secretary of State for
Scotland and the Minister of Agriculture, with the following
terms of reference :
To consider the present methods of supply and distribution of hatching-
day-old chicks, and breeding stock in Great Britain, both generally and
with particular reference to the reduction of poultry mortality ; and to make
recommendations for the improvement of those methods.
In the course of the investigations by the Committee the con-
ditions of the industry were studied in many poultry areas
of the country, but it was soon found that it was unnecessary
to extend these investigations, “ for the position in every area
was similar; the burden of the story told us was always the
same — one of an industry not only hard hit by economic con-
ditions, but struggling under an almost impossible handicap
of disesised or weakly stock.”
It was decided that further visiting was not only superfluous
but definitely to be deprecated, ” for the state of the industry
can only be described as one of emergency, and it would be
a disservice to delay bringing this indubitable fact to the notice
of our appointing Ministers. The urgency, in fact, is such
that we have hastened the submission of our recommendations,
knowing that in some matters of detail our report may be
regarded as incomplete, but convinced that the expediting of
our main suggestions is sufficiently important to outweigh that
demerit.”
The Mortality Position. A chapter under this title in the
Report reveals that deaths at egg-laying trials rose from 6.6
per cent, in 1926-27 to 17.7 per cent, in 1936-37. This
increased mortality is reflected throughout the poultry flocks
of the country, a fact borne out by the results of surveys of
poultry farms made by agricultural economists in several
areas. In Wales, for example, a survey of 49 farms showed
that in 1936-37 the original number of hens in the laying flocks
was reduced by 55 per cent, by deaths and removals. The
financial losses involved were considerable, and added three-
pence to the cost of producing one dozen eggs. A similar
picture is provided in Yorkshire, where a depletion of over 60
per cent, was recorded in a survey of 26 farms.
* Published by His Majesty's Stationery Office. Price is. (by post
IS. 2d.).
1170
Poultry Technical Committee Report
The Conunittee found in all the areas visited, and from par--
ticulars supplied from other areas, that instances akin to these
quoted were occurring with lamentable frequency; and they
express their anxiety that the appointing Ministers should bear
in mind the tragedy confronting the poultry-keeper of limited
capital, faced with such losses. In their opinion it is essential
that steps should be taken without delay in an effort to protect
the industry from disasters of tliis magnitude.
Causes of Increased Mortality. The Committee state that
this position is associated with the unprecedented demand for
stock, hatching-eggs, and day-old chicks in post-war years
arising from the too rapid expansion of the poultry population,
under the stimulus of high egg prices. Stock of low vitality
and stamina, due to unsuitable breeding methods adopted in
an effort to meet this demand, has permeated the industry.
The expansion has also led to overcrowding, with its attendant
ill effects; to bad methods of husbandry,, particularly on the
part of “ new comers ” with insufficient knowledge and poultry
experience; and to specialization in many directions, especially
in the hatching of day-old chicks for supplying to the commer-
cial egg producer. The position has been aggravated by the
extent to which the poultry keeper has come to rely on Press
advertisements as a guide to the purchase of stock of all descrip-
tions; and further by the increased use of auction markets,
subject to inadequate control, as a medium for the purchase
of day-old chicks, hatching eggs, and even breeding stock.
The rise in the scope and importance of the industry has
not been accompanied by an increase in scientific research on
a scale at all commensurate with the requirements. Particularly
is this true of research into mortality, the provision for
which has been, and is, gravely inadequate. As an indication
of this, it is stated that by far the heaviest, mortality losses now
being experienced by poultry keepers are due to a group of
ailments the cause of which is unknown, and for which no
curative or control measures can be advised.
Recommendations. Drastic and urgent measures to cope
with the present position are recommended. The distribution
of diseased or debilitated stock of all descriptions must be
stopped. Steps must be taken to secure an all-round improve-
ment in the quality of breeding stock. Efforts must be made
to build up foundation stock of guaranteed history, particularly
from the standpoints of health and stamina, for introducing
into the pedigree breeding flocks of the country. The opera-
1171
Poultry Technical Committee Report
tions of hatcheries, of dealers, and of auction sales must be
controlled. Unscrupulous advertising must be checked.
Simultaneously, research into the causes of mortality must be
prosecuted on a much greater scale, and educational facilities
must be extended to secure the more general adoption of sound
methods of husbandry.
To secure these objectives requires the establishment of an
independent organization, with statutory powers, and so con-
stituted as to ensure that the various sections of the industry
affected are not only consulted in the formulation of schemes,
but are closely concerned in the administrative functions
involved in carrying the schemes into effect.
These measures will involve statutory control, and finan-
cial assistance from the State on a fairly substantial scale. The
Conunittee are satisfied that the industry cannot, by its own
efforts and within any reasonable period of time, bring about
the radical improvement that is needed. They are equally
satisfied that in existing economic conditions the majority of
breeders cannot afford to adopt the highest standards of hus-
bandry and breeding.
In fte Committee’s judgment, a compulsory control system
to be successful must be simple to operate, and must have as
its objective, not an unwarranted interference with the methods
of competent breeders, but the elimination — as distributors —
of those who, whether wilfully or in ignprance, are distributing
stock in any form which no competent poultiy keeper would
regard as worthy to replenish an industry dependent for its
continued existence on a high standard of health and stamina.
The Committee believe that commercial egg producers would
unanimously support their view that they are entitled to claim
protection from the distribution of inferior or diseased stock;
and only by statutory control can this protection be afforded
them.
It is recommended, therefore, that statutory control of dis-
tributing centres* be instituted forthwith; and that all such
centres (subject to such exemption, by reason of small numbers
of birds or otherwise, as the Controlling Authority might allow)
be required to register; and that the Controlling Authority be
♦ By " distributing centres " is understood centres from which stock,
hatching-eggs or day-old chicks are distributed. By stock ” is meant
ali live chickens, pullets, hens, cockerels and cocks not sold for immediate
slaughter. Ducks and other domestic poultry might be included later
at the discretion of the controlling authority as and when found desirable
and practicable.
117a
Poultry Technical Committee Report
given powers, inter alia, to suspend or revoke the registration
of any distributor, on grounds (a) of the existence of disease
to an extent or of a nature rendering the continued distribution
of stock, hatching-eggs or day-old chicks from that centre
undesirable; or (&) of the obvious unsuitability of the stock
for breeding purposes; or (c) of manifestly unhygienic condi-
tions. Dealers, i.e., persons buying stock, hatching eggs or
day-old chicks, for immediate resale, should also be required
to register, and be required to have their registration suspended
or revoked if found to be consciously responsible for tiie dis-
tribution of diseased or unsuitable stock. The Committee
consider further that auction sales need to be brought under
stricter control; this matter, they suggest, the Controlling
Authority should be required to examine.
Superimposed on the system of compulsory registration,
die Committee recommend that there be established a volun-
tary grading scheme, aiming at the production of higher quality
stock, and that breeding centres approved under this scheme
should receive free services in the form of veterinary and
general inspection (including post-mortems and culling) and
in addition a premium from State funds. The precise form
and amount of this premium should, it is suggested, be recom-
mended by the Controlling Authority; the Committee's pro-
visional view is that a premium at the rate of is. per head of
approved female breeding stock remaining at the end of the
breeding season, in the case of “ commercial ” breeders, and
2s. per head in the case of " pedigree ” breeders, should
suffice, with the advertising value of official " approval ” to
persuade a gradually increasing number of poultry breeders
to enter the scheme. The conditions of approval would be
laid down by the Controlling Authority, and would be made
more stringent as the scheme progressed. The Committee
estimate that the total cost of premiums at the rates suggested
might ultimately amount to £50,000 a year, and that as and
when the economic position of the industry justified the course
they might be progressively diminished, and eventually with-
drawn.
It is considered that the primary aim of the grading scheme
for “ pedigree " breeders should be to secure that such detailed
records were kept sis would furnish a guide to the extent to
which desirable qualities such as hatchability, rearability and
livability were present in the progeny of individual birds and
families. The Committee realize that the expression of these
1173
Poultry Technical Committee Report
qualities may at times be cloaked or inhibited through
unfavourable environmental conditions, which may be
accidental in origin, such as an outbreak of some disease.
It is felt, however, that more attention on the part of breeders to
the keeping of such records will assist them in their aim of
building up families of birds that can prove their capacity to live
as well as to lay eggs, and to produce progeny which are easily
reared, and which in turn demonstrate their ability to live
for normal periods, and to give satisfactory production under
normal conditions.
Hatcheries securing hatching eggs only from approved
breeding farms would also be approved under the scheme, sub-
ject to reflations relating mainly to the hygienic condition of
the hatchery premises. For some time this could only apply
to a minority of the hatcheries. The Committee recommend,
therefore, that in addition to the normal registration require-
ments for hatcheries, they should be required to fulfil certain
conditions, to be imposed by the Controlling Authority,
including the submission of satisfactory schemes for the culling
of the breeding stock on their supplying farms and the blood-
testing of such stock for B.W.D. with effective disposal of
reactors.
The Controlling Authority should also be given powers to
require, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for
Scotland and the Minister of Agriculture, the compulsory
application of preventive measures in respect of any specified
disease, if considered desirable in the interests of disease control.
The Committee refer particularly, of course, to the blood-
testing of stock for the control of bacillary white diarrhoea.
There remains the question of providing for the further
building up of stock quality, and for this purpose the progeny-
testing station is essential. Progeny-testing is a long and
scientific business, which private breeders can only be expected
to conduct on a limited and incomplete scale, but tiie Committee
believe that much more comprehensive operations are neces-
sary for the production of the highest-quality foundation stock,
of known history and character. This, the Committee suggest,
is a financial responsibility which should properly be assumed
by the State, and they recommend that provision for it
should be made in the system of control, and that the Con-
trolling Authority should be charged with the duty of pre-
paring a scheme. It is possible that an initial capital outlay
of £25,000, and maintenance expenditure of £$,000 pef
Poultry Technical Committee Report
annum, might be required, though these figures are
conjectural.
The Poultry (Stock Improvement) Commission. The
Committee are satisfied that any controlling organization must
be such as to secure complete uniformity of administration
throughout Great Britain, bearing in mind that the main
problem is to prevent the distribution of debilitated and
diseased stock in an industry in which stock is transported
frequently and for long distances and often from one country
to the other. An equally important requisite is that the
organization should command tlie goodwill and confidence of
the industry.
They recommend the establishment of a Poultry (Stock
Improvement) Commission for Great Britain, to be appointed
by the Secretary of State for Scotland and the Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries, with Advisory Councils for England
and Wales, and for Scotland, appointed by the respective
Ministers, and with a Standing Executive, also appointed by
the two Ministers, consisting of the Vice-Chairman of the Com-
mission, the Chairman of the two Advisory Councils, and two
other members, to which would be referred the numerous
difficult problems arising in the course of administering the
policy of the Commission.
The suggested composition of the Commission is set out in
full detail in Chapter V of the Report, which also reviews the
procedure that the Committee considers should be followed.
This is succeeded by a chapter that deals with the control
scheme in operation as* visualized by the Committee.
Cost. The total annual cost of the proposals for control is
tentatively estimated at something of the order of £110,000.
This figure, it is stated, should be considered in relation to
the annual value of the output of the home poultry industry,
which may be estimated at £30,000,000; to the loss from
disease, estimated by the National Veterinary Medical Associa-
tion to be over £4,000,000 per annum for adult laying-birds
in England and Wales alone; and to the Committee's con-
sidered opinion, drat the incidence of mortality is one of the
most vital factors affecting the prosperity of the industry.
Review of the Principal Diseases of Poultry. The Report
concludes with a valuable Appendix containing Ihe latest
available technical information regarding the syinptoms,
methods of dissemination, incidence, methods of detection, and
suggested treatment of the main diseases of poultry.
T175
AGRICULTURE ACT, 1937: PART IV (DISEASES
OF ANIMALS)
In the December, 1937, issue of this Journal (pp. 828-830)
a note on this subject included the text of a circular letter
addressed by the Ministry on November 12, 1937, to local
authorities concerned in the application of Part IV of the
Agriculture Act, 1937. That letter dealt mainly with the field
organization of the State Veterinary Service, the procedure
in regard to the transfer of functions under the Act in so far
as staff arrangements are concerned, and the date (April i,
1938) on which the Minister expected to be in a position to
assume responsibility for the functions to be transferred. The
Minister has now appointed the Superintending Inspectors
who will be in charge of the 22 Areas into which the 78
Divisions in Great Britain have been grouped, and also the
Divisional Inspectors to take charge of Divisions. A con-
ference of Superintending Inspectors was held on February 9,
which was addressed by the Minister and Sir Donald
Fergusson, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry. The
Minister referred to the importance of the occasion — ^the
lavmching of a great national service— and expressed confi-
dence in the future of the State Veterinary Service, which is
being inaugurated with the goodwill of all concerned. Sir
Donald, in welcoming the officers appointed from local
authority service, referred to the great tradition of public
service inherited and enhanced by Sir John Kelland and his
colleagues.
The Minister’s proposals in regard to the performance of
veterinary duties under the Diseases of Animals Acts and
under enactments relating to milk and dairies on and after
the “ appointed day ” were communicated to local authorities
in the following further circular letter addressed to them on
February 8. It will be noted that while it is proposed to defer
for a further short period the making of an Order under
Section 34 (3) of the Agriculture Act, 1937, bringing Part IV
of the Act into operation, arrangements for the transfer of
functions are proceeding on the assumption that the "appointed
day " will be April i, 1938.
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
February Sth, 1938.
Circular Letter to Local Authorities concerned in the
Application of Part IV (Diseases of Animals) of the
Agriculture Act, 1937
Sir,
1. I am directed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries to refer
to the Circular Letters addressed to local authorities on the 28th July
and 12th November last on the subject of the transfer of veterinary
functions under Section 19 of the Agriculture Act, 1937, to say that
the Superintending Inspectors to take charge of the 22 Areas into which
the 78 Divisions in Great Britain will be grouped, have now been selected.
A list of these officers, showing their present appointments and the areas
and stations allotted to them, is contained in the Appendix. The Minister
expects to be in a position at an early date to announce the names of
of&cers selected for appointment as Divisional Inspectors.
2. It is hoped that, subject to the willingness of local authorities to
lend to the Ministry the services of the officers concerned until the
“ appointed day ” (under the arrangements proposed in the Ministry’s
Circular Letter of the 12th November), the Superintending Inspectors
will all take up their stations on the 14th February and the Divisional
Inspectors not later than the 28th February, so that they can proceed
to make arrangements in their respective Areas and Divisions for the
transfer of functions on the ” appointed day,” which it is contemplated
will be the 1st April, 1938.
3. The Minister’s proposals for the performance of veterinary duties
under the Diseases of Animals Acts, 1894 to 1937, under enactments
relating to milk and dairies when Part IV of tlie Agriculture Act, 1937,
comes into operation have recently been discussed with representatives
of the County Councils Association, the Association of Municipal Cor-
porations, the Association of County Councils in Scotland, the Convention
of Royal Burghs and the Association of Councils of Cities in Scotland,
who have expressed general approval of the proposals. These are set
out in broad outline below. The Superintending Inspectors and Divisional
Inspectors will have instructions to discuss with the appropriate officers
of the local authorities in their Areas and Divisions the local application
of the proposed arrangements and to explain any matters upon which
further information may tAj desired.
Tuberculosis Order
4. Draft Order. The Minister is advised that no Order to replace the
existing Tuberculosis Order of 1925 can be made under the extended
powers conferred by Section 22 of the Agriculture Act, 1937, until Part IV
of that Act is actually in operation. It will therefore be necessary
to defer the actual making of the Order until the ” appointed day.” A
final draft of the Order, in the form in which it will then be issued, will,
however, be circulated to local authorities at an early date in order that
they may have due notice of its provisions. The Order will provide for
the slaughter of affected animals, and for the payment of compensation
therefor, by the Minister, and will follow generally the lines of the existing
Order with the necessary consequential amendments. A separate circular
letter will accompany the draft Order. It is proposed to make the
following arrangements in regard to microscopical and biological examina-
tions of samples of milk, etc., and the salvage of carcases when the Order
comes into operation.
5. Microscopical Examinations. It will be regarded as a general
principle that veterinary inspectors should carry out their own micro-
8CO|)ical examinations of milk, etc., for diagnostic purposes. Each
Divisional Office will have a small laboratory attached to it for this
1177
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
purpose, and other arrangements \vill bo made in the case of whole-time
inspectors stationed at a distance from the Divisional Office.
6. Biological Examinations, At the present time biological examinations
of samples of milk taken for diagnostic purposes under the Order of 1925,
are carried out at a large number of laboratories throughout the country,
and it would be impracticable and uneconomic for the Minister in
organizing the service on a national basis to utilize all these laboratories.
It would also be impracticable, in the short time available, to formulate
and bring into operation any permanent arrangements for this work.
In the circumstances it is proposed that Superintending Inspectors shall
be instructed to review the existing arrangements in their Areas with a
view to securing, as far as possible, that samples from each Division are
sent to one laboratory only within the Division. Subject to this considera-
tion, where samples are now sent to a local authority laboratory, con-
sideration will be given to the continued use of such a laboratory, provided
that suitable financial and other arrangements can be made with the
local authority concerned. Any arrangements made, however, would
be without prejudice to future consideration of ..policy in regard to this
particular service.
7. Salvage of Carcasses. Wide differences exist in the practice of local
authorities in regard to the salvage of carcasses of animals slaughtered
under the present Order. In some cases, owing to special local circum-
stances, no salvage is attempted ; in others, carcasses are salvaged either
through knackers or butchers according to the condition of the live
animal ; while in others the local authorities concerned, for various
reasons, do not select any animals for salvage through butchers. In
some areas in Scotland it is the practice for the slaughter of affected animals
to be carried out only at public abattoirs, salvage usually being arranged
by an abattoir official or by the veterinary inspector. It appears to the
Minister that it would be impracticable at this stage to establish a uniform
system for the country as a whole and it is proposed for the present to
continue, as far as practicable, the system at present in operation in
each local authority area.
8. Surplus Equipment, Local authorities Jiave already furnished in-
formation in regard to microscopes, centrifuges, etc., supplied for the
use of their veterinary officers which will not be required by the local
authority after the “ appointed day." The Minister will be prepared to
consider the purchase at a reasonable valuation of suitable surplus equip-
ment, and this matter will be referred to Superintending and Divisional
Inspectors in the first instance.
Functions of Veterinary Inspectors under the Milk and Dairies
Acts and Orders and other Enactments relating to Milk
9. Routine Veterinary Inspection of dairy herds other than herds licensed
for the production of " designated " milks, (a) Careful consideration has
been given to the policy to be pursued in regard to the frequency of
routine inspection of dairy herds on a national basis. It is proposed to
aim at a maximum of four inspections per annum in the case of flying
herds (i.e. herds replenished by purchase of cattle in the open market)
and two inspections per annum in that of self-contained herds (i.e. herds
maintained by breeding within the herd). It will not be possible to attain
this national maximum for some considerable time after the " appointed
day," and it is, therefore, proposed at the outset to continue the existing
practice of local authorities subject to a maximum of four inspections per
annum in the case of flying herds and two per annum in that of self-
contained herds. Where no regular inspection is carried out at present
it is proposed to arrange at least one inspection per annum as soon as
circumstances permit.
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
(d) *Veteriiiary inspectors will be instructed that, where in the course
of their inspection they find a milch cow in a pathological condition
liable to infect or contaminate the milk, they should hand to the owmer
a copy of their report describing the animal and the condition found. A
copy of the report will also be sent to the local authority, with whom will
rest the responsibility for such action (if any) as they consider necessary,
under the Milk and Dairies Acts and Orders. In the case of an animal
coming within the scope of the Tuberculosis Order, or of any other Order
under the Diseases of Animals Acts, the veterinary inspector w^ould, of
course, deal with the animal under that Order.
10. Clinical Inspection and Tubercuhn Testing of herds licensed for the
production of “ designated ** milks. It is proposed that the Ministry's
veterinary inspectors shall carry out the prescribed veterinary examina-
tion and tuberculin testing of herds licensed under the Milk (Special
Designations) Orders, including the post-addition tuberculin testing of
added animals where required, but not pre-licence examinations and tests
which will be the responsibility of the applicant for licence and will be
carried out by private veterinary surgeons subject to the requirements
of the Orders. Where, however, within the pre.scribed period before
application for licence is made, a veterinary examination and/or tuberculin
test of the herd has been made on behalf of the Minister by a veterinary
inspector a certificate of such examination and/or test will be furnished
for the purposes of the application. No fee will he charged, either to the
local authority, or to the owner, for any veterinary examination or test
carried out by a veterinary inspector under this paragraph. Arrangements
will also be made for the local authority to be kept informed of the results
of clinical inspections and tuberculin tests of licensed herds carried out
by a veterinary inspector.
11. Vetennary Inspection of Dairy Cattle under Section 4 of the Milk
and Dairies (Consolidation) Act, 1915, and Section 4 of the Milk and Dairies
(Scotland) Act, 1914. Where a Medical Officer of Health (A) has reason to
suspect that tuberculosis is caused, or is likely to be caused by the con-
sumption of certain milk, and on ascertaining the source or sources of
supply has given notice to the Medical Officer of Health (B) of the county
or county borough (large burgh in Scotland) in which the cows from
which the milk is obtained are kept, it is contemplated that Medical
Officer of Health (B), having no longer a veterinary inspector at his disposal,
wdll communicate the information received by him to the Ministry’s
Divisional Inspector. The latter would then arrange a veterinary in-
spection of the cattle in the dairy and proceed as if he had received notice
of suspected disease under the Tuberculosis Order, infonning Medical
Officer of Health (B) of the result of the enquiry in due course. No charge
will be made to the local authority in respect of the veterinary inspector’s
services, or in respect of the examination of any samples of milk that he
may consider it necessary to take in connection wuth his inspection.
12. Veterinary Inspection of Dairy Cattle in connexion with other
disease in human beings. WTiere in connexion with illness of humaji
beings suspicion attaches to milk and the Medical Officer concerne(d
desires the co-operation of a veterinary inspector in regard to the
veterinary examination of cattle in the dairy supplying the milk, the
Ministry’s Divisional Inspector will, on request from the Medical Officer,
arrange the necessaxy'^ veterinary examination without charge. It is
♦ Where in this letter or in any memorandum issued by the Ministry
the term ” veterinary inspector " is used without qualification, it refers
generally to the Ministry's whole-time and part-time vcterinaiy'
inspectorate.
1179
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
contemplated that in cases of this kind the Medical Officer would normally
accompany the veterinary inspector at the inspection.
13. Inspection of Farm Buildings for the purposes of the Milk (Special
Designations) Order, 1936. (N.B. — ^This paragraph applies to England
and Wales only.) In response to representations made by the County
Councils Association, the Minister has agreed that where so desired by a
local authority which for various reasons has utilized the services of its
veterinary inspectors in connexion with the inspection of farm buildings
for the purposes of the Milk (Special Designations) Order, 1936, he will
be prepared to allow veterinary inspectors in the course of their routine
inspections of dairy cattle to include the farm buildings in their inspection.
It will be appreciated that the Minister has no power to take over from
local authorities the function of inspection of farm buildings. The above
arrangement is solely for the purpose of securing continuity in the areas
concerned and cannot be extended to the areas of local authorities which
have other arrangements in operation for the performance of such work.
14. Collection of Milk Samples, etc. The veterinary inspectors of
certain local authorities collect and/or examine samples of milk for the
purposes of the methylene blue reduction test under the Milk (Special
Designations) Order, 1936, and undertake the marking of animals on
behalf of owners. These duties will not be carried out by veterinary
inspectors of the Ministry.
15. General Co-operation with local Public Health Authority. Where so
desired the Ministry's veterinary inspectors will, as far as possible, continue
existing arrangements for co-operation between veterinary inspectors and
the local authority, e.g. by calling attention, informally, to any obvious
breaches of the Milk and Dairies Acts and Orders found in the course of
routine inspections. Any such arrangements would not, of course, in any
way affect the obligations of the local authority under those Acts and Orders.
16. Local Tuberculosis Schemes. A few local authorities have introduced
schemes for assisting producers, by the provision of free or assisted tuber-
culin testing of cattle and free advice, to eradicate tuberculosis from their
herds. These schemes will, in effect, be replaced by the national scheme
for the eradication of tuberculosis under th^ Agriculture Act, 1937,
including the Tuberculin Test Survey which will reveal the self-contained
herds that are comparatively free from tuberculosis. Those that contain
less than about lo per cent, reactors will qualify for financial assistance
for further testing under the Attested Herds Schemes, in connection with
which any necessary advice as to eradication measures would be given
by the Ministry's veterinary inspectors. In the circumstances the Minister
does not propose to continue the local schemes at present in operation.
Veterinary Inspection of Animals and Poultry in Markets
17. The present practice of local authorities in regard to the veterinary
inspection of animals and poultry in markets varies so widely that it
is proposed to postpone consideration of the general question of such
inspection to a later date and meanwhile to give instructions to Divisional
Inspectors to follow generally the existing practice in their Divisions
pending such review.
Further Circular Letters
18. In addition to the Circular Letter on the subject of the draft
Tuberculosis Order referred to in paragraph 4 above, further Circular
Letters will be addressed to local authorities as soon as possible dealing
with (a) arrangements under Section 19 (3) and (4) of the Agriculture Act,
1937/ services of veterinary inspectors to be made available in
Scotland in connexion with meat inspection, and (b) amendments to the
general Orders of the Minister under the Diseases of Animals Acts relating
to notifiable diseases of animals (other than tuberculosis).
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
The Appointed Day
19. It is proposed to defer for a further short period the making of an
Order under Section 34 (3) of the Agriculture Act. 1937, bringing Part IV
of the Act into operation, but arrangements for the transfer of functions
are being proceeded with on the assumption that the " appointed day
will be the ist April, 1938.
Note on Part IV of the Agriculture Act, 1937
20. I am to take this opportunity to forward a reprint of a note on
Part IV of the Act that appeared in the Ministry's Journal for November,
1937. A limited supply of this reprint is available, and the Minister will
be pleased to arrange for further copies to be supplied to local authorities
on request. 1 am. Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
[Signed) Donald Fergusson.
Appendix to Circular Letter T.A. 47694/C.L. Dated February 8, 1938
Agriculture Act, 1937
Part IV — Diseases of Animals
Areas and Stations of Superintending Inspectors
(o) ENGLAND
Area
No.
Comprising
Superintending
Inspector
(present appointment
m brackets)
Station
Divisions
Nos.
Counties
i
1
Northumberland
Mr II. B Allan. M.R.C.V.S..
Newcastle-on-
D.V S M.
Tyne
2
Cumberland
(Chief Veterinary Officer,
3
Westmorland
Durham (Co.))
4
Durham . .
2
5
Yorks.. N.R.
Mr. J. 0. Powlev,
Wakefield
b
„ ER.
M.R.C.V.S.
7
„ W.R.
(Superintending Inspector
of Ministry)
3
8
Lancaster ’
Mr. H T. Matthews,
Preston*
9
Chester
B.V Sc., F.R.C.V.S.
(Chief Veterinary Officer,
Liverpool)
4
10
Derby
Capt H. L. Torrance,
Nottingham
11
Nottingham
M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M.
12
Lines. (Lindsey)
(Chief Veterinary Officer,
13
,, (Kesteven)
Nottingham (Co.))
14
,. (Holland)
5
15
Norfolk
Capt J, D. Broome,
Cambridge
16
Suffolk (East)
M.R.C.V.S.
17
M (West)
(Superintending Inspector
18
Isle of Ely
of Ministry)
19
Cambridge
n
r Rutland
Capt. W. L. Sheffield,
Leicester
•< Peterborough
M.R C.V.S.
L Huntingdon
(Divisional Inspector of
Leicester
Ministry)
Northampton
[HHI
Warwick
Subsequently changed to Chester.
1181
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
Area
No.
1 Comprising
Superintending
Inspector
(present appointment in
brackets)
Station
Divisions
Nos.
Counties
7
24
Stafford
Mr. A. B. Fewings,
Stafford
25
Salop
M.R.C.V.S.
26
Hereford
(Superintending Inspector
27
Worcester
of Ministry)
8
28
Cloucester
Mr. G. Durrant, B.V.Sc.,
Oxford
29
Oxford
M.R.C.V.S.
30
Buckingham
(County Veterinary Ofticer,
Leicester (Co.))
9
31
Bedford
Mr. S. B. Vine, M.R.C.V.S .
Hertford
f Hertford
(County Veterinary Officer,
32
Middlesex
Kent
1 London
33
Essex
10
34
Kent
Mr. H. Gooch, M.R.C.V.S.,
Kingston-on-
1
35
Surrey
(Superintending Inspector !
Thames
3 <J 1
Sussex (East)
of Ministry)
37 1
(West)
i
i
11
38
Berks
Mr. E. Brown, M.R.C.V.S., 1
'1‘rowbridge
39
Southampton
' (Superintending Inspector j
40
Isle of Wight
of Ministry)
41
Wilts
12
42
Somerset
Capt. J. Box., M.C., !
Taunton
43
Dorset
M.R.C.V.S.
(Divisional Inspector of
Ministry)
13
44
Devon
Capt. G. Atkinson,
Exeter
45
Cornwall
M.R.C.V.S.
(Divisional Inspector of
1
Ministry) i
(b) WALES
Area
No.
Comprising
Superintending
Inspector
(present appointment in
brackets)
Station
Divisions
Nos.
Counties
..
Anglesey
Capt. T. G. Millington,
Ruthin
Caernarvon
M.R.C.V.S., D.V.H.
Denbigh
(Superintending Inspector
Flint
of Ministry)
Merioneth
Montgomery
i
1
15
52
Radnor
Mr. A. D. J. Brennan,
Carmarthen
53
Cardigan
1 M.R.C.V.S.
54
Brecknock
1 (Divisional Inspector of
55
Monmouth
Ministry)
Glamorgan
; i
57
Carmarthen
1
5S
1 Pembroke
1
I
1182
Agriculture Act, 1937, Part IV
(e) SCOTLAND
Comprising
Superintending
Area
Inspector
Station
No.
Divisions |
Nos.
Counties
(present appointment in
brackets)
16
59
1 Caithness
Mr. C. Maepherson,
Inverness
f Sutherland
M.R.C.V.S.
Oo
Ross & Cromarty
(Divisional Inspector of
61
Inverness
Ministry)
17
O 2
Shetland
Mr. W. J. Young,
Aberdeen
OJ
Orkney
E.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M.
r Banff
(Superintending Inspector
64
-{ Moray
Nairn
of Ministry)
Aberdeen
18
60
t Angus
^ Kincardine
Mr. J. N. Ritchie, BSc.,
M R.C.V.S , D V.S.M.
(Chief Vetennary Surgeon,
Department of Agricul-
ture for Scotland)
Perth
67
4 Clackmannan
68
) Perth
^ Kinross
19
b(j
Argyll
Major J. G. MacGregor,
Paisley
70
{ Stirling
^ Dunbarton
M.R C.V.S.
(Chief Veterinary Ofticer,
j Renfrew
iBute
Stirling (Co ))
20
7 ^
-\yr
Major A Douglas,
Ayr
73
Wigtown
M.R C V.S , D.V.S M
74
Kircudbright
(Chief Veterinary Inspector,
Ayr (Co.))
21
75
Lanark
Mr. A. B. Kerr, M.R C.V.S.,
Hamilton
70
Dumfries
D.V.S M.
(Chief Vetennary Ofiicei,
i
1
Chester (Co.))
f East Lothian
1 Major D. S Rabagliati,
Edinbui gh
22
77
J Mid-
O.B.E.,BSc.,F.KC.V.S.,
West
D.V.S.M.
1
1 1 Peebles
(Chief Veterinary Ofticer,
1
[Selkirk
Yorks (West Riding))
78
< Roxburgh
(^Berwick
t Major Rabagliati will also act as vetcnnary liaison ofticer between the Ministry’s
Headquarters in I^ndon and the veterinary organization in Scotland on matters ol
generzd importance.
1183
APPLE SCAB SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN THE
WISBECH AREA— IV*
W. F. Cheal,
Horticultural Superintendent, Isle of Ely County Council
The control of Apple Scab, especially on Bramley’s Seedling,
is still a matter of difficulty with some growers; and samples
of fruit in the markets frequently tell their own story. It
may, therefore, be of interest if some of the more important
points that have arisen from advisory and experimental work
in a particularly bad scab area during the past three years
are described.
Scab control is now largely a matter of following the spray
programme advised for the particular Iqcality, and only
occasionally do orchards present special conditions requiring
the adjustment of other factors. One example of such
problems is that of orchard ventilation; the trees may require
more room and their branches require better spacing. Good
drying conditions are of prime importance in fighting fungus
diseases. If a grower is in doubt regarding this, he should
select two or three infected scab fruits on a tree and enclose
them in paper bags or some such receptacle, and compare the
rate of growth of the scab colonies inside the covers with
those colonies on apples that are exposed and subject to drying
atmospheric currents. The effect will soon be apparent.
This experiment ought to be made by every student fruit
grower.
Another example of subsidiary factors that may be of
importance is that of grass undergrowth requiring more atten-
tion from the mower.
The fungicide to be used depends not only on the presence
of other diseases and pests, but also on the spray tolerance
of the variety. Lime sulphur is now the most popular fungi-
cide on account, among otiier things, of its value in controlling
Red Spider.
The timing of spray applications is of primary importance,
not only in the West Country, where its value was first recog-
nized, but also in most parts of the Eastern Counties, where
there is less rainfall.
From trials conducted under various seasonal conditions —
including 1937 with its wet June and July — there is no doubt
* Previous articles under this title appeared in this Journal for
February, 1933, December, 1933 and March, 1935.
1184
Apple Scab Spraying Experiments
whatever that the key to successful scab control, not
only on wood-susceptible varieties, but also on some
other varieties, including the important Bramley’s Seedling,
consists in two heavy pre-blossom applications of HmR sulphur.
There are still some growers who hesitate to carry out the
pre-blossom spraying twice, or fail to use a sufficient quantity
of lime sulphur per acre at this time of the season. The appli-
cations must be heavy ones; sparing use of fungicide has
been a common cause of failure. Another fault more fre-
quently made, and one that is very excusable, is delay due
to the hesitation of the grower as a result of the leaf bud
unfolding slightly later than the flower bud. There appears
to be very little green foliage to which to apply the spray,
and there is a tendency to delay the first application by a few
days. This is fatal in a bad scab year.
The following results of field observation on Bramley's
Seedling trees in the Wisbech fenlands during the past four
years, emphasize these points.
In 1934, scab colonies were abundant on Bramley’s Seedling
leaves by May 10, when only 20 per cent, of ffie blossom
was open. From our knowledge of the time that it takes
such colonies to grow, it is quite certain that this infection
took place before the pink bud stage.
In 1935, the first scab colonies observed on Bramley's
Seedling were found on April 29 in a grass orchard near
Murrow, 5^ miles distant W.S.W. of Wisbech, and in a cul-
tivated garden near Upwell, 6 miles S.E. On April 30, scab
colonies were common on young Bramley's leaves at Newton,
3 miles N. The blossom buds at Upwell were more advanced,
but it will be noted that all these outbreaks — a considerable
distance apart — ^were found at the pink bud and pre-pink
bud stages. Green flower stage was general by April 25,
pink bud by May 2, and petal fall was reached by May 22.
It is clear that, allowing a period of 12 days for scab colonies
to grow to a size visible to the naked eye under ordinary field
conditions, a spray application, even at the green flower stage,
April 25, would hardly have been soon enough in 1935 -
Further, to make the first application as late as the pink bud
stage. May 2, when scab colonies were already established,
would have been far too late. Fungicides are mostly preven-
tive in their action, and are of little use once the organism
has penetrated the plant tissues.
In 1936, a scab colony on a leaf of a flower truss of Bramley’s
n • 1185
(m Clean Fruit CZl Bad Scab
Hi Pin Spot Scab Hi Bag Apple Scab
Apple Scab Spraying Experiments
Seedling growing in a grass orchard i mile W. of Wisbech,
was found as early as April 28 (advanced green flower stage).
A bad outbreak was found on May 4 at Guyhime, 6 miles
S.W., and, on May 5, well developed colonies were con-
spicuous on young Brkmley’s leaves at two farms at Wisbech
St. Mary, 3^ miles S.W., at Tydd St. Giles, 6 miles N., and
at Upwell, 7 miles S.E. Trees were in the pink bud stage by
May 4, and petal fall by May 25. It should be noted that the
period from green flower to pink bud was very prolonged in
1936; green flower stage was reached by April 4. This again
emphasizes the need for extra pre-blossom treatment.
In 1937, the first scab colony was again found on Bramley’s
Seedling trees, i mile W. of Wisbech, when the tree was only
in the pre-pink bud stage on May 3. Green flower stage was
reached on April 21. More colonies were found on May 3
at High Fen, Murrow, 7 miles S.W., and at Guyhirne, 6 miles
S.S.W. (trees just in the pink bud stage). On May 4, out-
breaks were found at Leverington Common, 3 miles W., and
at Wisbech St. Mary, 4 miles S.W. On May 6, a heavy out-
break of large colonies was found at Coldham, 5 miles S.
Pink bud stage was generally reached by May 5, and petal
fall by May 25. Throughout the blossoming period more
scab outbreaks were found in gardens that had received their
initial spray treatment only at the pink bud stage.
Field observation for the past four years on the initial
appearance of fungal colonies on the leaves, has thus shown
beyond all doubt that an additional pre-blossom spray has
been necessary for the successful control of scab on Bramley’s
Seedling around Wisbech
The results of spraying trials begun in 1931, and some of
which have already been described in this Journal,* have
fully supported this evidence under very varied seasonal con-
ditions, and shown the increased commercial value of the
improved fruit from the adoption of a better programme.
The diagram opposite represents the percentage yields of
scab-graded fruit obtained from experimental plots of
Bramley’s Seedling trees in to,? 4. 1936 and 1937, sprayed as
follows ; —
Plot (A) I . . 2 ami 2 pobt-blobsoni applications.
„ (B) 2 . . 2 pro- and i post-blossom applications.
,, (C) 3 . . IJnsprayed.
,, (D) 4 . . I pre- and 2 post-blossom a]>plicalions.
♦ This Journal , Vol. XLT, No. 12 (March, 1933)* further details
of the same plots of trees and the treatments given.
B 2
1187
Apple Scab Spraying Experiments
Witib the exception of 1934, the streng& of the lime-sulphur
in the post-blossom sprays was i in 80, and all the sprays were
again applied with a hand-power machine. Frost destroyed
the entire crop in 1935.
It will be seen diat there has not been a steady increase of
scab affecting the fruit of the unsprayed plot during tiie four
years during which it has received no fungicides; there is thus
no evidence of any accumulation of a possible wood infection
on Bramley’s Seedling.* Plot 2 , receiving only one post-
blossom spray, did remarkably well in the 1937 season of
an abnormally wet June and July. A programme of two
pre- and one post-blossom sprays lias given consistently good
results, even where a hand machine is the only sprayer
available.
♦ The writer has not observed wood scab pustules on this variety.
THE EFFECT OF MANURES ON THE SIZE OF
MAIN CROP POTATOES
H. V. Garner, M.A., B.Sc.,
Rothamsted Experimental Station
It is only on the richest soils and under very intensive cul-
tivation that growers have to reckon with a proportion of
potatoes too large to be acceptable to the retail trade. In
ordinary circumstances the aim is to secure as bold a sample
as possible, more especially since the coming into operation
of the Potato Marketing Scheme in 1934, under which
minimum riddles are prescribed, as necessary, to meet
changes in market conditions. The effect of the regula-
tions is to exclude from the ware market all tubers that
do not conform to the requirements. As a result of
four years’ working of this scheme, consumers have begun to
appreciate and look for a higher standard, and this
tendency will no doubt continue. Although tuber size is by
no means the only criterion of quality it is the one of immediate
practical importance, and the factors governing the percentage
of ware are, therefore, worthy of consideration. The variety
of potato grown, the riphness of the soil, and the size of the
original “ seed " are among these factors, while manuring
is also known to affect the result, some evidence of which
is collected below.
When the riddle regulations of the Potato Marketing Board
came into force in 1934, the determination of the percentage
of ware potatoes for all the experiments carried out at
Rothamsted, and its associated centres, was begun, and it soon
became clear that large and statistically significant effects on
tuber size were frequently produced by fertilizer treatment.
Examination of the older Rothamsted and County series, for
which the necessary data had been recorded, showed similar
effects, which were undoubtedly real, although the design of
experiments in those days did not lend itself to statistical
interpretation.
The following is a brief summary and discussion of some
of the main fertilizer effects observed in the modem experi-
1189
The Effect of Manures on Main Crop Potatoes
ments published in the Rothamsted Station Reports for the
three years 1934-36.
There were 40 trials in all, covering a wide range of soils.
Sands, light loams, limestones, clays, warp, strong fens and
light fenland were represented. Examination of the results
of experiments giving marked fertilizer responses, both in
yield and tuber size, showed that total yield and percentage
of ware tended to move together, the treatments that gave high
yields usually producing a high proportion of large tubers.
This may be illustrated by the figures given in Table I for an
experiment carried out at Rothamsted in 1935.
table I
Potatoes ; Rothamsted I935
Treatment
Total Yield
Ware
Ware
Farmyard
Artificials
Tons
Per cent
Tons
Manure
per acre
per acre
No dung
Nil
3-9
52
2*0
it
N
2-8
36
1*0
it
PK
5-8
68
3*9
»»
NPK
9-0
74
6-7
With dung
Nil
6*2
74
4-6
ft
N
7*7
78
6'0
PK
7-4
76
5*6
t*
NPK
10*4
Si
8.4
Thus, sulphate of ammonia used
alone gave
the lowest
3deld, 2.8 tons, and the lowest percentage ware, 36 per cent,
while the complete fertilizer in presence of dung gave the
highest yield, 10.4 tons, and the highbst proportion of ware,
81 per cent. When the pairs of figures are combined as in
the last colunm of the table to give the yield of ware in tons
per acre, the association of total yield and tuber size comes
out in the big range of values recorded. Thus, the best treat-
ment gave over eight times as much ware as the worst, but not
quite four times the total crop.
The extent to which any factor, such as manuring, can affect
the percentage of ware will naturally depend upon the actual
amount of ware in the untreated crop. Thus, if the crop with-
out fertilizer has a high proportion of ware, owing either to
the special qualities of the crop itself or the use of a small-
sized riddle, tiie degree of improvement is restricted. If the
original amount of ware is small the extent of possible
improvement is considerable. In Table II below will be
found the effects of each type of manure used in the experi-
1190
The Effect of Manures on Main Crop Potatoes
ments grouped in relation to the proportion of ware in tiie
untreated crop: —
TABLE II
Initial per
Increase in ware due to
Total No,
cent. Ware
No Manure
N
P
K Organics
Dung
NPK of Expts.
Over 90
- 0*4
— i*i
-1-0-6 -0-3
9
80-90
-f 1*2
— i*i
+ 1-5 - 1 - 0-7
34
70-80
4- 2-6
+ 3-6
+ 8*7 — I'o
+ 5‘5
+ 4*0 29
60-70
+ 0-7
+ 6-8
-I-8-4 +2-8
+ 15-2
+ 4*4 29
50-60
16 • 8
4 - 5*9
-f- 15-8 —
+ 25-9
+22*4 9
Under 50
—
—
+ 20-3 —
+ 34-2
— 3
When the ware stands at 8o per cent., or over, the increase
in size following the use of manures is quite small in the
experiments under review, but as the initial size falls the extent
of improvement becomes very marked, so that when the unfer-
tilized potatoes yield under 50 per cent, of ware, increases of
20 to over 30 per cent, are recorded. The figures in Table II
also indicate the types of manures that exert the biggest effect
on tuber size under the prevailing conditions. Potash, dung,
and complete artificial mixtures stand out as particularly
effective in this respect. We may now pass on to discuss the
action of the individual nutrients and their combinations.
The Effect of Nitrogen. Two types of nitrogenous
manures were tested in these experiments: (i) Inorganic
nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia, the form almost universally
used in mixed fertilizers; and (2) Organic nitrogen, usually
as dried poultry manure, but occasionally also as malt culms,
fish meal or rape cake.
The effects on yield and percentage of ware may be sum-
marized as follows: —
No. of increases in : —
Form of No, of Yield Per cent. Ware
Nitrogen Expts. Total Significant Total Significant
Sul./Amm. . . 34 33 23 23 9
Organic Manure 15 15 9 S 4
The well-known effect of nitrogen on yield showed up well
in these experiments, and in approximately two-thirds of Ae
experiments with sulphate of ammonia and half those with
organic nitrogen the percentage of ware also showed an
increase. This increase was statistically significant in about
one-quarter of the experiments. That fte percentage of ware
is affected in the same direction as the 5aeld may be seen from
the fact that 12 out of the 13 statistically significant increases
1191
The Effect of Manures on Main Crop Potat(»es
in size were accompanied by significant increases in total
yield.
The combined effect of the increase in peld and file per-
centage of ware was to produce the rather surprising result
that &e increase in weight of ware actually exceeded fte total
increase in crop produced by nitrogen. In one experiment,
for example, the plots without nitrogen gave 13.63 tons of
total crop wifii 82.1 per cent, of ware, and the addition of
2 i cwt. of sulphate of ammonia raised file totad crop to 14.85
tons with 89.7 per cent, of ware. The actual weights per
acre of ware amounted to ii.ig tons without nitrogen, and
13.32 tons with sulphate of ammonia. The increase in ware
was 2.13 tons, while that of the total crop was only 1.22 tons.
The nine experiments showing definite increases in percentage
of ware gave an average increase of 1.72 tons in total crop
and 1.91 tons in ware, the dressing of sulphate of ammonia
being usually about 3 cwt. p)er acre.
The organic manures, although generally beneficial, were
not quite so active either in respect of yield or ware as equiva-
lent nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia. The
results from eleven experiments comparing the two types of
nitrogen were: —
Increases, Mean of ii experiments
0*6 cwt N per acre Yield, tons Ware per cent.
As sulphate of ammonia . . -f i • 6 + i • 6
As organic manure . . -j- i 4 - 0*4
This result is in harmony with the ^ndings of many other
experiments in which the first years’ effects of the above types
of nitrogenous manures have been compared on farm crops.
Effect of niosphate. In 23 experiments superphosphate
was the form chosen; one only compared superphosphate with
basic slag and the slag proved inferior both in its effects on
yield and percentage of ware. The results may be sum-
marized as follows: —
No. of increases in : —
No. of Yield Per cent Ware
Experiments Total Significant Total Significant
23 22 12 15 2
Superphoshate showed more effect on total 3deld than on
the dze of the potatoes. The effect on percentage of ware was
on the whole pc^itive with the two instances of significant posi-
tive effects giving increases of 18.3 and 8.5 per <»nt. respec-
XZ92
The Effect of Manures on Main Crop Potatoes
lively. In eight instances tiie effect on ware was negative,
and one of these was significant, but these were the experi-
ments in which the yield effects of superphosphate were
smaller.
•
Effect of Potash. In all but two of the experiments
sulphate of potash was the form chosen. Its action on per-
centage of ware was more striking and consistent than that
of tiie other nutrients, especially when used in the absence
of farmyard manure as shown below : —
No, of No. of increases in : —
Experiments Yield Per cent. Ware
Without dung Total Significant Total Significant
17 17 10 15 12
In 8 of these trials potash increased both yield and per-
centage of ware significantly, the mean result of these 8
experiments being an increase of 3.25 tons per acre of total
crop and 3.46 tons of ware. The quantity of sulphate of
potash ranged from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre. In five experiments
having a basal dressing of dung, pratash was markedly less
effective than in the absence of dung, but even in presence
of dung the effect of potash tended to be positive. The most
conspicuous effect of potash was on the light fenland soils,
on which increases of 22 per cent, of ware were recorded.
Even on the heavy loam at Rothamsted the ware was increased
by 18 per cent. Potash on the heavy fenland soils had little
influence either on yield or ware.
Effect of Dung. The early county experiments showed
that dung had a pronounced effect on the size of the tubers, and
this was confirmed in the three instances in which it was pos-
sible to include dung as an experimental treatment on small
replicated plots. Thus at Rothamsted dung increased the
ware by amounts up to 34 per cent. , depending on the nature
of the basal dressing, the dung effect being much less in
presence of potash than in its absence. On a light fenland soil
the figures were: —
Percentage increase due to Dung
Total Crop Per cent. Ware
No Potash . . . . . . +52 +
With Potash +17 +4
In one of the experiments at Rothamsted dung was sig-
nificantly letter both for yield and ware when put in the ridges
/ 1193
The Effect of Manures on Main Crop Potatoes
in spring than when spread and ploughed in on the flat in
autumn.
Effect of Complete Artificials. As might be expected,
when complete mixtures of artificials of the type commonly
used for potatoes were employed, substantial increases in yield
and moderate but significant increases in ware resulted. These
effects were much larger in the absence of dung than in its
presence.
Summary. The experiments show that fertilizers exert
an appreciable effect In the proportion of ware potatoes,
especially when in their absence the ware forms less than 8o
per cent, of the total crop. In general, the action on total
yield and ware is in the same direction, a substantial yield
increase is likely to be accompanied by a moderate increase
in percentage of ware. Potash is advantageous in promoting
flie formation of large tubers, phosphate is more variable in
its action, but, none the less, shows a tendency to increase
the percentage of ware. Nitrogen takes up an intermediate
position, and sulphate of ammonia was more effective than
organic manures when used on an equal nitrogen basis.
Dung was very effective, partly no doubt on account of its
content of readily available potash, and also because of the
presence of all three nutrients. The addition of dung greatly
reduced the influence of potash on ware, an effect already
familiar in respect of yield.
1194
A NATIVE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE IN RHODESIA
Mrs. E. G. Boddington
Domboshawa is a pitetty name meaning literally, in the
native language, “ Red Rock,” though actually the granite
hill thus indicated takes its colour from a yellowish-red lichen
that grows on it.
Near this hill (situated about 20 miles from Salisbury, South-
ern Rhodesia) is one of the two Government Schools for
training natives in various branches of agriculture. The site
was chosen for the very unusual reason that it provided neither
good situation nor suitable soil for the growing of crops, and
that it lacked easily obtainable water. This choice was made
so that the natives should be taught how to farm under difficult
conditions, and turn a barren track of sand veld into fertile
farm.
Here, too, natives arc taught to utilize all the natural pro-
ducts of their country to the best advantage. Agriculture is
taught them on the latest scientific lines, and the value of a
rotation of crops is demonstrated every year. In the past
year an average yield of 21 bags* of maize was grown over
an acreage of 75 acres that had been under a good rotation.
This is a really remarkable return from sand veld.
Brick making, building, blacksmith work and carpentry
are carefully taught. In the carpenters’ shop natives are
taught to make their* own tools whenever possible. Axe-
heads that do good work have been made out of old motor-car
springs, and wooden mallets are smoothed and finished with
broken glass. Plumbs, levels and gauges are all made by the
pupils themselves. All the buildings on the property, except
the new Beit Hall to be mentioned later, have been erected
by the pupils themselves, under the direction of African
teachers and European instructors.
Elementary educational training is given in reading, writing,
arithmetic and geography, and first-aid is not neglected. The
pupils' handwriting, good English and earnest desire to learn
might be a lesson to many European youtiis.
Chiefs have been invited this year, from their kraals, as an
experiment, to see for themselves how their young men are
ri95
* I bag =|i 83 lb. including sack.
A Native Agricultural College
being trained. They will stay six months, living in a model
village diat has been built to show how natives can improve
their own homes. Some of the Chiefs’ councillors are very
keen to learn brick-making and brick-laying, rather to the
embarrassment of the white Instructor in charge, who is chary
of reproving them in front of other pupils, earnestly hoping
they will make better councillors than they do masons. How-
ever, thei^ is little doubt that in time brick-built buildings will
take the place of the mud huts now used in native kraals,
except perhaps in partially uncivilized areas.
The principal aim of the Chiefe’ course is that they may,
with understanding, co-operate with the Native Agricultural
Demonstrators whose training forms an important section of
the School’s activities. The Demonstrators spend all their
time on practical farm work, except for a few lessons on
agricultural science.
The main school consists of Standards to II to VII. Time per
week is divided equally between academic work and industrial
pursuits. In the former, the standards are kept as far as pos-
sible equivalent to those of European schools. In the latter,
work and training varies between building, carpentry, and,
mainly agriculture. Only after Standard IV are pupils
allowed to specialize in one of the three industrial subjects.
The native youths themselves are intensely keen on learning,
and, if their relatives cannot afford to pay their fees, they will
go to work for a year and then come back and take a year’s
schooling with the money earned, and continue to do this
until such time as their course is completed.
It is a mistake to imagine that the tuition given is competitive
with white labour. The method of teaching is such Aat the
natives can learn to improve their own conditions and set up a
higher and more hygienic standard of living in their own
Reserves.
Natives are very keen on animal husbandry, and at Dombo-
shawa they are being taught to improve their cattle. All native
cattle are hardy animals, but small, and at present are being
crossed with a South Devon Bull to grade up size and form,
and later they will be crossed back again with an Afrikander
strain to keep the hardihood necessary for the Rhodesian
climate and maintain resistance to the various ailments to
vdrich cattle in Africa are susceptible.
When I visited' Domboshawa a particularly interesting sight
at the school was the beautifully kept cattie pens, each bearing
I'ic. 2 Inslriutiuii III tiK’ ni I'lir Building in the
background is the Dairy.
To t<^ce p. 11 go.
‘UlL
Fig. 4.- Constructing Scluiol BrncUrs and licnF in Ihc ('arpcntry Sli(»j).
A Native Agricultural College
the name of its occupant over the stall. So spotless were the
pens that one man in the party involuntarily apologized to the
Inspector of that Department for dropping his cigarette ash on
the floor 1
Under the trees were rows of ploughs, harrows and culti-
vators. All were in perfect condition, freshly painted; and
spare parts had been put in, or repairs done so that everything
was in order for the next time they were required. The
Instructor in charge, an enthusiastic Irishman, said tire imple-
ments were tire pride of the pupils, and if only a few benefited
from the instruction it would spread in the Native Reserves
and the work would not be in vain. At present it is not only
natives who are deplorably careless in this respect; only too
often on farms under European direction may be seen imple-
ments l 3 dng about; and at the last moment, when an urgent
call comes, it is found that much overhauling is necessary.
The forestry training of the school is another excellent insti-
tution. Every care is taken to preserve indigenous trees. A
belt of exotic trees, moreover, is evidence of instruction being
given in the production of other types of wood. The Eucalyptus
is predominant, but attention is now being paid to better types
of timber trees, including Toon, Syringa and varieties of Pine.
Many decorative and flowering trees are also grown, notably
the lovely Jackaranda. The school and forest nursery certainly
provide many a useful lesson on the culture of trees, just as the
tree-belts themselves provide the school wifli much of the timber
needed for its building construction.
Every Sunday moftiing the pupils fall in for uniform inspec-
tion, and a march past the School-house, and then they attend
an undenominational Church service, which is taken by Salis-
bury ministers or visiting missionaries. There is a small private
chapel for those who wish to attend Holy Communion, or
services under their own denomination.
During the past year the school received the distinction
of being the first native Institution to receive benefit of funds
from the Beit Trustees to build a Beit Hall, costing ;^ 2 , 500 , and
judging from the finished plans it will be a very fine structure.
The Hdl is provided with a large platform suitable for Church
services or Concerts. The building was designed by Mr. Lyim
Driver Jowitt, and the Hall, with a tower at one end, will be
the central feature of the new school block. At the moment
of writing two offices and one classroom are in process of
construction adjoining the Hall.
1197
A Native Agricultural College
Some very fine plaques decorate the outside of the building,
the work of Meyerowitz, depicting scenes of agriculture, pig,
cattle and poultry farming.
There are 260 pupils at Domboshawa, but over 100 applicants
have had to be refused owing to lack of accommodation. In
September, 1936, over 160 applications for entrance in the
following year had been received. Fees are fp, per a nn u m ,
below Standard V, and £4 los. per annum above. Naturally
these cover but a small percentage of the cost of the school.
The Southern Rhodesian Government, which meets the rest
of the expense, however, has a type of school for African
natives of which it may well be proud.
The domestic and recreational sides of tlje pupils’ lives arc
well organized. The dining hall is spacious, and is furnished
with benches and tables made by the pupils themselves. Open
arches, all round, take the place of glass windows, and on
the walls are some fine pictures of Rhodesian hunting and
Rhodesian scenes, painted and presented by Col. Essex Capel,
D.S.O.
Adjoining the dining hall is a large kitchen where maize or
mealie-meal (the natives’ staple diet) is cooked in huge boilers;
for savouries they alternate meat, monkey-nuts and beans. In
addition to the school supply, each pupil can have a patch of
land on which to grow his own vegetables; pumpkins and
onions being first favourites.
The new dormitories, which are gradually replacing the old,
are models of hygienic cleanliness. Ruthless war is waged
against bugs, the pest of the kraals, and only the privileged
prefects are allowed mattresses of sacking filled with straw.
Everything is aired all day in the sun, and only cement shelves
are allowed for personal belongings.
Last, but far from least, all kinds of sport are indulged in.
The Principal of the School, himself a keen athlete, supported
by an enthusiastic European and African staff, has taught the
natives all the tricks of the games, and made them almost
invincible in matches against other schools and missions. This,
together witii the massed physical drill for which the school
has in past years acquired a reputation, adds considerably to
the esprit-de-corps of Domboshawa, and has indeed done much
to spread its name amongst the million odd natives of the
Colony, and far beyond.
CROP HUSBANDRY IN THE 18 TH CENTURY:
NORTHAMPTON AND LEICESTER
G. E. Fussell,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
For Northampton there is comprehensive evidence as
early as 1712, and, while some progress in farming was made
during the century, the county was reported to contain very
little waste land at that date,'* and neither Ernie® nor the
Reporter to the old Board of Agriculture was very impressed
by the position at the end of the century. Morton thinks the
county was specially fertile and of the greatest note for grain,
which was obtained with moderate labour of the husbandman.*
The soil in the county is very various, and in the inclosures
of Peterborough continuous cropping for from seven to ten
years was practised, the land then presumably being used for
rape and allowed to fall down till restored.
On the common fields the usual three-course rotation seems
to have been followed,* and very little inclosing had been done
in the county. Wheat, and beans or peas, were cultivated
in suitable land, but on the land between sand and black
clay maslin was grown in several places, or lammas wheat
and mixed peas and beans. The sandy soil, which was known
as the Ryeland, was sown with barley, rye and peas, while on
the " stoney or kealy ” soil, rye seems to have been general.
On the limestone soils some sainfoin was grown. Of wheat,
the varieties were chiefly the white and red lammas, but other
types were used; bo^ Spratt and long-eared barley were
grown, and some “ rath-ripe ” seed was imported from
Wiltshire and Oxford, and black oats were preferred because
of their early ripening.* Ellis, indeed, claims for the county
the first use of sainfoin for gravelly sandy soils, and says that
it was introduced to Kent from here.'
In Morton’s time colliery waste was applied as a manure,®
and lime was also used; indeed, the farmers represented to
the writer of the revised report their indignation at the writer
of the first for sa5dng that none was used.* Hale also tells us
that on the sandy lands in this county and in Huntingdon,
the land was ploughed deep, rags, skins and hoofs were
buried and the land was then dunged; alternatively, heavy
dressings of clay were given so that the soil was changed to
a loam; a strong loam full of sea shells (creach in Suffolk)
• For Referena's see p. 1203.
1199
i8th Century Crop HusbandSY
was also used. The coleseed grown in Lincoln and Northamp-
ton, he says, are little known elsewhere, but the crop was
general in the Fens. He also complains that potatoes were
veiy little regarded in the county, although tiie soil of the
northern edge was very suitable for them.* The wheat stubble,
both in this county and Leicester, was left high in order to
protect the com lying “ in gripp,” as the sheaves were bound
by the reapers," and in both counties the farmers made a
pra,ctice of building their bean ricks near water in order to let
their hogs feed on them after Michaelmas."
When Young passed through the county in 1771, he found
some turnips in fte inclosures, and wheat, barley, lye, oats,
some clover and tares fed off to horses. Coleseed was
also grown, and the hogs were still fattehed with beans to a
great size at Naseby. One improver grew cabbages for
cattle, and stated he had grown them for twenty years. The
open fields were under the three-course system, but in the
inclosures the Norfolk S57stem had been adopted. Some
hollow draining was done, but this was not in the grass land,
which was all in broad ridge and furrow. The ploughs were
both of the swing and wheel type, whereas only a few years
before Mordant had said that the drag plough without wheel
or foot was used. Young did not fed a great deal of
improvement when he visited the county again in 1785, and
Bo}^ speaks of the " infamous '' three-field system in 1793.“
An interesting statement made by Mordant is that a draining
plough, costing three guineas, was usually bought out of the
town stock or at the charge of the parish for fte purpose of
a very moderate kind of main draining. T.Q., who passed
through the county between the dates of Young's visits,
found the road via Kettering to Northampton more or less
deserted, the inclosures being mainly pasture and the arable
sluggishly cultivated, not manured and drained as inclosures
ought to be; but from Northampton towards Oxford via
Towcester and Brackley, he found uninclosed arable, more
fully populated, and what he is pleased to call the evil genius
of field (i.e., open-field arable) inclosing, had not yet exerted
its influence, so different is his view from ffiat of the really
agricultural observers."
Morton tells us that in his day Plot's Natural History of
Oiefordshire (1676) would serve indifferently well for all the
middle part of England," and this is confirmed at a later date
by Mar^all, although he seons to deal more particularly with
Fig 2 — A Further Selection of Plouglis from Messrs Jlunfoixl’s Manufaittitv
No 4, Trench Plough for Dram Cutting No a, 1'renih IMoiigh for Skimming
old Turi No (J, Horse-hoe Plough
lUuhtrations from A Gtncrfll Vum' of the Agrtculunc . . .1 eicester, IK9*
iim Century Crop Husbandry
Waiwick and Leicester.^ The farms in the county were of
moderate size, part of them being in the hands of yeomen,
who either owned estates of some £300 a year or less, or
rented farms to that extent. The average open-field farm was
about 130 acres, and in the inclosed districts from 180 to 200
acres. Such tenants as there were, were chiefly from year to
year, but a few leases for terms of 7, 14 and 21 years were
granted.“ Donaldson does not add much to what we have
learnt about the crops cultivated in the earlier part of
the century, although he says that one-third of the tillage
lands was regularly under fallow and another third regularly
under wheat, of which a very great quantity was annually
exported from the county, and a few potatoes were grown."
It is true that he says there was little rye, which Pitt opposes,
as he also does the question of potatoes, of which a good many
were grown near Cottingham. According to Pitt, rye was
used for bread, and turnips and field cabbages were grown
on all the light soils, while the courses were very various in
spite of the prevalence of the three-course system on the
open fields." Few new implements had, however, been adopted
in the county by the end of the century: there were a few drills,
but Pitt neither saw nor heard of the threshing machine.”
For Leicester there are snippets of information scattered
in the memoranda of Edward Lisle, who died in 1722, after
farming at Crux Easton in Hampshire for nearly thirty years.
He also had estates in Wiltshire and was by marriage con-
nected with a Leicestershire family. For at least the major
portion of the century it seems that the inclosed lands in the
county were under &e alternate system of husbandry. In
Lisle's time they were accustomed to take four successive
crops without dunging or folding, the first three being barley
and the fourth wheat, and then to lay the land down to
grass;* and long leys were still customary in Marshall's time,
but the cropping had then been modified. It was oats, wheat,
winter fallow for barley and seeds, then grass for six years.
On the light lands turnips were sown between the wheat and
barley,* but the common fields were under the three-field
S5^tem and were heavily cultivated, five ploughings being
given for wheat and oats and four for barley.® Lime wm
used at the rate of 5 quarters an acre, unslaked, in Lisle's
time, and he also mentions the use of soot as a manure for
wheat. The barley, oats and wheat were rolled, unless folded,
and some peas, many beans and some rye were sown, while
. 1201
iSth Century Crop HusbAndsy
turnips were not unknown, for migratory labour from Newtown
(Wales) boed the crop in 1707.“
As early as 1724, when Defoe published his Tour, Ihe county
was more particularly engaged in breeding and feeding cattle,
drough he exaggerated the size of the farms, saying that it
was not uncommon for graziers to rent from £500 to £2,000
a year.** Young does not report any farms larger that £goo
of i8s. land, and those of the open fields were from £50 to £80
of los. land in his day. The course on the open fields had
been modified in some districts, turnips and clover being
introduced in 1771. There was then little sheep-folding, and
the grass land was pared and burnt for turnips, and in some
places lime was added. Some blackihom drains were found,
and Marshall thinks this method of under-draining had
probably come from Lancashire via Stafford.
The graziers. Young thought, were foolish not to cultivate
cabbages, as they were often forced to buy turnips from ‘ near
an hundred miles off ’ for winter keep.® The coimty was one
where yeomen were numerous, and it was the yeomen who
were canying out what improvements there were, the tenants
lieing restricted in their methods by their leases.® Bray,
indeed, complains that there were not many gentlemen's houses
of note in the county,” and the County Reporter estimates
that the farms, though of all sizes, lie between 80 and 500
acres.® The Reporter states definitely that the arable was
less in proportion than in most other counties, and that in the
south-east and middle of the county there were many farms
without any whatsoever, which, if the »topographers may be
trusted, goes to show that a change had been taking place
here. The earlier report indicates tiiat the alternate system
was still in force in some places, but the later suggests that
the ley had been curtailed. The new crops, turnips and
clover, had removed tiie necessily for a bare fallow, and
though the Norfolk course was followed by some farmers, it
had been lengthened by others. More barley than wheat was
grown, and rye was only cultivated as a catch crop for spring
feed for sheep. The oats area was wide, but peas were few
and beans were going out of favour at the end of the century.
Young's advice also seems to have been taken, for cabbages
were “ considerably cultivated," as were potatoes. The
manures were still marl, linae, soot, ashes and compost."
Some developments had taken place in Ihe implements used
in the county. The plough was the common plough used all
1202
i8th Century Crop Husbandry
over the midlands, but by Marshall’s time the Rotherham
or Dutch plough had been introduced, as well as a double-
furrow plough that was originally brought from Worcester,
but was now being made by Bush of Hurley in North
Warwick, who seems to have driven a good business, as he
also supplied Northampton. There were other types of
plough, but, apart from their size, there was nothing out of
the ordinary about the harrows. A simple roller was used,
although there was a spiked roller at Lord Moira’s. Between
the date of Marshall’s stay in the county and that of Pitt's
report, the principal farmers had adopted Cooke’s drill and
several kinds of horse hoes. Shufflers or cultivators were
used on the turnips and other fallows, and threshing machines
had been fairly introduced into the county, while winnowing
machines were made in it or nearby. Little is to be learnt
of the wagons, but carts and tumbrils were used besides
wagons."
References
^ John Morton : Natural History of Northamptonshire, 1712, p. 16. —
® English Farming, Past and Present, pp. 236, 244. (See also W. J. Ashley :
Bread of our Forefathers, 1928, p. 30). — ^Op. cit., pp. 9, 13. (See also
Meager: The Mystery of Husbandry, 1697, p. 68), — * Morton: p. 14.
John Laurence : New System . . 1726, pp. 45, 83 . — ^ Morton, op, cit.,
PP- 477 i 479, 480, Ellis : Practical Farmer, 1733, p. 9- Modern
Husbandry, Oct. I ff. — ® Chiltern and Vale Farming . . i733> P- ^73 —
Op. cit., p. 14, — *T. Hale : A Compleat Body of Husbandry, 1756, p. 8.
W. Pitt : Report, 1809, p. 175. — ® Op. cit., pp. 19, 44, 453, 502- — Edward
Lisle: Observations in Husbandry, 2nd ed., 1757^ P- 326. John Mills:
New System . . ., 1767, p. 398, — John Mordant : Complete Steward,
1761, p. 151 . — Eastern Pour, 1771, I, pp- 29-79. Complete Steward,
1761, p, 275. Annals, IV (1785), p. 151 ; VI (1786), pp. 45^5°^^ XIX
pp. 121-123, 137. — Gents. Mag., XLIV, p. 411. — ^^Op. cit., p. 476. —
Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, 1790* — James Donaldson :
County Report, 1794, p. 13. W. Pitt : Ibid., 1809, pp. 21, 33, 45. — Op. cit.,
pp. 14-17, 23. — ^^Op. cit., pp. 74, 76, 77, 83, 93, 95, 97- Op. cit.,
pp. 50, 53, 55.— *0 Lisle: Op. cit., I, p. Rural Economy of the
Midland Counties, 1790, I, pp. 184, 187. (See also Wm. Bray : Sketch
of a Tour into Derbyshire . . ., 2nd ed., i783» P- 95- J®^^ Laurence :
New System . . ,, 1726, p. 83). — Lisle : Ibid., I, p. 94- Laurence :
Ibid., p. Ibid., 1 , pp. 38 » 73. 74. 255. I9i. 270 ; II, PP- 29, 32.
(See also Thos. Comber : Real Improvements in Agriculture , 1772. P- 4”
— Tour, 5th ed., 1783, II, p. 373. (Sec also Present State of England,
1750, p. Eastern Tour, 1771, I, PP- S0-104. Midland ComUie^
1790, I, pp. 189, 225, 226, 272. Annals, XVI (179O. PP- 55i. ] -^I-^
(1793), pp. 125-137, — 5?® Taylor : Decline . . ., 1904. P- 33-^ Introduction . . .,
1905, p. 293. (See also Marshall : Ibid., I, pp- I3~i4)- P* 75 "^
3® W. Pitt : Leicester, 1809, p. 28.— s® John Monk : Report, 1794. PP-
W. Pitt : Report, 1809, pp, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95. ^^4. ^®7. ^®9.
130 n., 188.— »» John Mordant : Op. cit., p. 275. Young : Eastern Tow,
I, p. 107. Marshall: Midland Counties, 1, pp. I3^>. ^39. 142. 208. Pitt.
op. cit., pp. 54;^4.
1203
A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION INTO THE
OCCURRENCE AND CAUSES OF HAIR CRACKS
IN HEN EGG SHELLS. H*
R. CoLES,B.A.,Ph.D.,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
Mottling. The water present in shells is evidenced by the
mottling of the shell.*! It is presumed that most — ^probably
all — eggs are produced with mottle-free shells, and that the
rapidity with which an egg shell can absorb moisture varies
with the individual egg. These mottlings, examples of which are
shown in Fig. 3, disappear in a warm, dry atmosphere until
die shell appears to be perfectly plain. An increase in the
moisture content of the atmosphere, however, has the effect
of bringing back the mottles — ^the patches appearing in the
original positions. The rate of disappearance and re-
appearance varies with individual shells, and the success with
which mottles can be induced in shells by dampening them
varies considerably. Apparently the visible effect of moisture
on hen egg shells is similar to that of oil on paper— the
moistened patch becoming slightly translucent under the
candling light. The external appearance of the shell under
a normal light shows the mottles as faint greyish patches, and
it is by these patches that buyers often judge the quality of
the eggs when candling facilities are not available. It appears
that eggs with these greyish patches are thought to be of poor
quality or of some age. There is possibly some reason for
^ method of judging egg quality, since under normal con-
ditions the shell is bacterium proof, but moisture lessens its
impervious character.®
Ihe egg with a heavily mottled shell is often rejected by
candlers, although it is not necessarily of poor quality. A
number of eggs with and without mottles, retained by the
writer at normal atmospheric conditions, certainly showed
that the eggs with mottled shells deteriorated rapidly. Suf-
ficient evidence appears to be available to show that egp
stored at high humidities are open to the entry of many fungi,
* I of this Article appeared in the Fettfuary, 1938, issoe.
t For references see p. 1S13.
i«04
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
and it is a reasonable assumption that a shell that is either
more moist, or absorbs moisture rapidly (i.e., easily mottles),
is a poorer egg in the trade sense, than an egg that is not
subject to mottling. It is on the contention that the damp
egg shell is open to the entry of bacteria that the argument
against washing is based.
In Fig. 3 four types of mottling are shown, which it is
believed cover the entire range of mottling. The shell 3a is
perhaps the most common type. It is proposed to call this
type Ae patch mottle, since the distinctive features are the
large irregular mottles, and the rapidity with which these
patches spread over the shell. They are also easy to dry out,
and their reappearance is easily brought about by wiping the
shell with a damp cloth and exposing to a moderate warmth.
A very different t}^ of mottling is presented by the shell
of type 36. The few pin-prick-like mottles appear under the
candle as small translucent discs, and occasionally coincide
with dimple-like dents in the shell. ‘ The number of those
small mottles rarely shows any appreciable increase, and the
mottles only disappear if dr5nng is carried on for some time.
It is also rather difficult to cause them to reappear.
A similar type of mottling is shown in 3c, where ffie small
circular mottiing is encountered in great profusion. The
mottling is far easier to dry out or to cause to reappear. The
type is rather uncommon, and, owing to the high-sounding
clink emitted when two eggs of this type are tapped together,
has been named " glassy ” t3^e.®
A further t)^ of patchy mottle is shown in Fig. 3(i. The
patches in this type are not clearly defined, and have different
degrees of translucency throughout the same patch of mottle.
The appearance of shells with this type of mottle is usually
poor, fragile, chalky and unattractive. The texture of t}^
3<i is the thick, heavy-looking shell, emitting a low-pitched
clink when tapped, and usually favoured by buyers, T}^
36 presents a ^e china-like surface, and is associated with
the “ glassy ” t5rpe as regards ffie note emitted when lightly
struck. The note of type 3d varies.
It is believed that ffie pitch of ffie note emitted by ffie various
shells when struck is connected with the thickness of these
shells. This belief is supported by the measurements obtained
from eggs produced in ffie south-east of England. A sample
case (180 eggs) was drawn from each consignment despatched
to a packing station by eight large producers. It was known
1205
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
that certain of these producers were troubled with large num-
bers of hair cracks, whilst others were comparatively free
from this fault. The contents of the sample case were
candled during the same day in April, the eggs broken out,
and the shells measured. The following table shows the
average figure for the thickness of the four shell types of the
eggs consigned by the eight producers (8 x i8o eggs) :
Shell Type
TABLE I
a b
c
d
Average Shell
mm. mm.
mm.
mm.
Thickness
0-36 0*31
0*33
0*34
Range of Shell
mm. mm.
mm.
mm.
Thickness
. o* 29-0*41 0*275-0*36
0*30-0*36
0*285-0*41
From these figures it appeared that patchy mottled shells
(a) were thickest; the mixed type (d) and the two pin-prick
types (c and b) following in that order. The range of shell
thickness was greatest in type d — the mixed type, whilst the
“ glassy ” type showed a comparatively small variation.
It was, of course, impossible to relate directly these figures
for thickness, or mottle type, to the percentage of hair cracks,
but the percentage of eggs with different types of mottles
at tile time of drawing the sample could be compared with the
percentage of hair cracks in the consignment, and the average
percentage for the whole year (Table II) :
TABLE II
Hair •
Hair
Producer
No. of Eggs under
Mottle Type
a he d
Cracks in
Consignment
%
Cracks for
Year
%
Soil
A
76
104
—
10*5
11*0
Sandy
B
44
86
50
17-5
14*0
Sandy
Alluvium
C
53
86
41
10*0
10*5
Chalk
D
30
143
7
10*0
6*5
Sandy
E
58
T 22
7*0
7*0
Sandy
Loam
F
1 19
69
—
3*0
2*0
Clay
G
70
69
31
5-0
2*5
Alluvial
Clay
H
1 08
72
(not
divided)
3*0
3*0
Clay
The first five producers consistently had large quantities of
eggs rejected for hair crack faults. It will be noticed that the
figures returned for the consignments (which were drawn in
April — an average month from the point of view of production,
weather, etc.) approximated very nearly to the annual figure.
The variation was greater with the last three producers, who
1206
lo f(HC pilgc I20(i
I'lC’. .\(i <>1 Slull, sliowmu l*in prit k Motile (
Fi(. SectHJii ol Sound Shell f 200 )
* • Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
had, however, low figures for their annual hair crack
percentages.
The consignments with high hair crack percentages also
showed that the majority of eggs had shells with the pin-prick
type of mottle (types b and c). The reverse obtained with
those producers where the hair crack percentages were low.
Type d occurred both in consignments which contained many,
and in those which contained few hair cracks. The main
conclusions to be drawn from these figures appear to be that
consignments subject to hair cracks have many eggs with the
pin-prick type of mottle, and that the average shell thickness
is less than that of consignments having few hair cracks, in
which the majority of eggs have a patchy mottle. It must,
however, be borne in mind that the distribution of type d
makes an additional complication.
Effect of Shell Type on Egg Quality. Before proceeding
to the account of the microscopical examination of the shell,
some mention of the apparent effect of the various shell types
on egg quality might be of interest. As far as could be ascer-
tained from the records of the eight individual producers and
others in the south-eastern area, it appeared Aat with eggs
from producers in which shell type a was dominant, the
keeping quality of the egg was comparatively p>oor, but the
eggs from producers whose consignments were subject to hair
cracks appeared to remain as first quality eggs for a much
longer period. Exainination of records and packs in packing
stations in the south-west and the west Midlands showed that
the number of eggs rejected for hair cracks was comparatively
low — ^below 3 per cent. At the same time it was noticed that
the eggs received in these western packing stations were pre-
dominantly (about 85 per cent.) of the patchy, mottled type,
whilst it has been argued in an earlier article in fcis Journal’
that the keeping quality of the eggs from these districts was
comparatively poor. In view of Rettger's remarks and
these observations it would appjear that there is a strong
relationship between keeping quality, shell mottling and thick-
ness, and the liability of an egg to crack easily.
It seems obvious that shell type is intimately bound up wi&
the problem of hair cracks, and, since the chemical composi-
tion shows such slight variations, it was thought probable
that physical differences that were responsible for the shell
types (rendered apparent by mottling) would be discernible
1207
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
under fee microscope. Wife this end in view sections of
shell were prepared from shells showing fee various t5rpes of
mottle, and from shells wife and without hair cracks.®
The appearance of fee horizontal sections showed no sig-
nificant differences. The “ pin-prick ” portion of fee shell
showed a structure entirely similar to fee remaining part of fee
shell, and fee patchy mottle was also fee same as fee other
parts of fee shell. Eggs from fee same consignment showed
no variation in fee appearance of the horizontal section
between shells wife and without hair cracks. The only dis-
cernible difference was fee apparent variation in fee amount
of colouring matter (or protein), whilst a variation was also
observed in fee looseness of fee cr3^talline structure. It is
possible feat eggs wife a more open structure may be able
to accommodate shocks more easily and so be less apt to crack.
Although this avenue could not be fully explored, it is possible
feat it is a contributory cause towards fee West Country's com-
parative freedom from hair cracks.
The only result of fee inspection of fee flat section was to
establish fee fact feat there was no variation in fee crystalline
structure, and feat fee “ pin-prick ” mottles did not appear
to be related to fee porosity of fee shells.
Similar inspections of fee vertical sections of shell were much
more satisfactory. Variations were observed between indivi-
dual shells in fee feickness of fee shel] and in fee distribution
of colouring matter (protein). It was also noticed feat certain
shells were not of fee same feickness throughout. From fee
shells examined it was apparent feat this variation in fee
feickness of individual shells took fee form of " dimples *'
both in fee outer amd inner surfaces; fee shell, in fact,
appearing rickety (Fig. 4a). In fee micro-photograph of this
rickety shell fee unevenness in fee distribution of fee protein
material is at once apparent, and fee shell presents a very
ragged appearance when compared wife fee example in
F^. 4&. In fee latter, an appreciably thicker shell will be
observed, a much more even festribution of fee dark-coloured
protein, whilst fee thickness of fee shell is constant. Actually,
fee first example was cut from a shell showing a “ pin-prick "
mottle — ^fee section passing across fee centre of a pin-prick.
It must, however, be stated feat not all “ pin-prick " mottles
feowed fee " dimple ” effect in fee vertical structure. The
second section was cut from a sound shell from fee consign-
ment of a producer whose returns showed him not to be
1208
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
troubled by hair cracks. The shell showed broad spreading
patches of mottle (type a) under the candling light.
A number of shells showing the two distinct t3rpes of mottling
(a and b) were examined, and the great majority repeated the
characteristics observed in the two sections shown in Fig. 4.
The “ pin-prick " mottled shells were predominantly thinner
and more ragged looking, but in spite of this uneven rickety
texture the structure appeared to be very compact. The
patchy mottled shells were usually thicker shells with an even
texture. The great majority of shells from eggs with hair
cracks, or from eggs in consignments from producers troubled
with the hair crack problem belonged to the former class.
In the face of this evidence it is difficult not to conclude that
hair cracks ” are apt to occur in the comparatively thin
rickety shells characterized by the pin-prick mottiings. It
is believed that the liability of these shells to crack easily is
due, not only to the thin nature of the shells, but also to
the uneven shell failing to transmit shocks evenly. Probably
the uneven distribution of the shell matrix may also result
in lines of weakness, and doubtless be the cause of the small
pin-prick-like mottiings. This uneven distribution of the shell
matrix (protein) presumably results in portions of tiie shell
having a much more compact structure®, which, while it may
lessen evaporation, causes the shell to present greater resis-
tance to water and so inhibit mottling. The compact nature
of the shell will, of course, make it more apt to crack.
•
Causes of Hair Cracks. Having concluded an account of
the immediate cause of “ hair cracks ” in eggs, the question
naturally arises as to the reason why certain eggs should have
this fault and whether any remedy exists. The suggestion that
certain hens only produce eggs that are apt to crack easily
(i.e., have the “ pin-prick ” mottle) is not entirely satisfac-
tory. It is freely admitted that the inheritance factor is most
important in egg quality, but it is tentatively suggested that
locality is also an important factor, and may be predonmant
if any deficiency exists in the diet. That diet deficiencies do
not have an effect on shell texture and strength does not seem
a reasonable premise.
The assumption that inheritance is the sole cause of shell
differences (e.g., shell mottle, liability to hair cracks, etc.) does
not appear to be at all satisfactory if Fig. i is inspected. Is
one to believe that the distribution of satisfactory birds shows
1209
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
an annular pattern so closely related to the soil? It may
be maintained that the quality of farming will be reflected
in the quality of the poultry, but while it is difficult to believe
that a good standard' of farming would be maintained con-
tinuously throughout the same tract, it is conceivable that the
type of vegetation produced on the adjacent farms would have
much in common. It is in fact obvious that certain vegeta-
tional qualities would be confined to certain soil tracts, and it
must be borne in mind that the percentage distribution of hair
cracks showed a close relationship to flie regional pattern.
It appears a reasonable argument to put forward that eggs
with “ hair cracks ” predominate in districts of light sandy
or chalky soils — soils on which the natural vegetation is light,
although in the chalk areas the shell-forming material may
be plentiful. It is interesting to recall in this connexion the
fact that the mottle types c and d were not necessarily deficient
in thickness of shell, although apparently subject to haur
cracks.
The areas where producers are not greatly troubled by
hair cracks are mainly districts of heavy loams and clays,
land where the vegetation is rich. One would naturally expect
the effect of the vegetation to be seen in the eggs of free-range
poultiy on land of this description, and, indeed, it is common
knowledge that eggs produced on rich pasture lands —
notably the west — are characterized by heavy rich yolks and
dark shell colour. These eggs, however, are not usually of
good keeping quality.
It is possible that both soil and vegetation may directly
affect the shell. The former has been dealt with in a previous
issue of this Journal^®, and it is not proposed to enlarge upon
that problem in this article. Vegetational differences ■will, no
doubt, affect the supply of vitamins A, D and E, and the
supply of protein. It will be recalled ffiat vitamin A is con-
cerned with general health, whilst bone formation is influenced
by the presence of vitamin D. Vitamin E is the anti-
sterility vitamin, and is no doubt of some importance in the
production of eggs.
It is suggested that eggs with h, c and d type of mottling,
which are apparently subject to hair cracks, are d'ue to a
deficiency of vitamins A, D and E in the diet — ^vitamins that
poultry on the heavier clay land pasture can naturally acquire.
It is believed that lack of sufficient green food will cause poor
health and result in poor egg production generally. A defi-
12X0
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
ciency of vitamin D (which can be obtained from plant life)
will have obvious effects on the bird, and induce a rickety
condition in the poultry and possibly in the eggs.
A poor supply of green food will probably affect the protein
content of the egg. The rich colouring of egg yolks is due to
the colouring matter found in vegetation, and the withdrawal
of this material from the diet of the bird will lead to a loss
of colour, and presumably a lowering of the quantity of matrix
found in the shell. It was particularly noticeable that the
eggs produced along the Wealden Valley of south-east England
had a rich yolk and shell colour. The shells in particular
showed a heavy, almost earthenware-like, texture and
appeared able to resist a blow that would have shattered the
‘ ' glassy ’ ' type of shell. The quality may almost be described
as “ spongy.”
In connexion with die Wealden Valley poultry, it is interest-
ing to recall one poultryman's empirical test for good quality
birds. This producer, situated on the sandy land above the
Weald, stated that he judged his birds by the bright appearance
of the outer ring of the eye. Within the Weald Clay
Valley other producers demonstrated that on this ruling their
stock must be remarkably good as the rings on the eyes of
all their birds appeared to be veiy bright. It is no less
interesting to recall that a common symptom of vitamin A
deficiency in human beings is xerophthalmia, in which the
eye appears with a ring-like tiiickening of the surrounding
membrane.*^
Vitamin E is necessaiy for reproduction and this important
material is found in the germ of plants. In many instances
the grain given to poultiy has the germ partly or wholly
absent. In these circumstances the hen derives its total
supply of vitamin E either from other sources of its artificial
feed, or from the plant food it picks up by ranging. It is
believed that the poor-textured thin shells are, to some extent,
caused by deficiencies of this material, and this view is sup-
ported by die fact that poor-textured shells predominate in
districts where the natural vegetation is poor. Fuidier, the
seasonal change in the number of hair cracks experienced by
producers seems to find a logical cause in this explanation.
The late winter and early automn are both seasons when the
light soil areas are either frozen or baked hard and the
vegetational supply is at its minimum. One must also add
to this cause of the production of poor-textured shells, the fact
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
that at these two ^asons laying is commencing or ceasing.
Candlers of eggs usually report poor texture at these two
seasons of tiie year, and appear surprised that poor shells and
weak whites — “ summer eggs ” in appearance — should be
present in packs during bitter winter months. Indeed, the
number of poor quality eggs found in easterly packing stations
in winter is surprising, and many unsatisfactory packs are
reported in the East Anglian area during the month of
Februaiy.
Remedial Measures. If these reasons for the presence of
hair cracks be accepted — reasons put forward only on the
results of a preliminary survey, a request for some remedy is
a natural consequence. As it has been argued that these shell
faults are due to the absence of vitamins A, D and E, the
poultry keeper must ensure that their stock have sufficient
quantities of these vitamins supplied. They can be supplied
in the cheapest form by sunlight and green food. Vitamin D
can also be supplied by certain liver oils, which also contain
vitamin A.
Vitamin E, the importance of which is being increasingly
recognized, is found in the germ of plants. It has already
been stated that the germ is often missing from the grain food
supplied to poultry, and it would seem to be a more satis-
factory state of affairs for farmers tq supply their own
green food. Certain grasses have a high vitamin E con-
tent, and this is also true of such plants as kale. Indeed,
several poultry farmers have found that chopped kale
(leaves and stalk) fed regularly to their poultry has had an
extraordinarily beneficial effect upon shell texture.
One word of advice to poultry farmers is tentatively offered.
It must be realized that modem poultry farming is highly
artificial, and, with an increased output by the birds, the
drain on the birds’ constitution must be counteracted by other
artificial methods. Even if this is done, slight changes in diet,
changes in weaffier, etc. , will have a significant effect on ffie
eggs produced, and poultry farmers will have to realize that
a high egg output must necessarily increase the egg faults
unless they study bolh the more obvious diet factors and those
small indirect factors that affect egg production. Some
improvement in egg quality, no doubt, would be effected if
ffiere were a return to more natural methods. This, of course,
would entail a diminishing egg production, and it is possible
1212
Hair Cracks in Egg Shells
that poultry farmers would prefer the present method, with
its concurrent exaggeration of the normal incidence of faults,
but which at the same time maintains a high annual egg
production. .
References
* Holst, Almquist, Lorenz : A Study of Shell Texture, Poultry Science,
1932, XL
* Rettger, L. F. : The Bacteriology of the Hen's Eggs, Storrs Agric, Expt,
Sta., Bull. 75, 1913-
• Almquist, H. J. : Relation of the Candling Appearance of Eggs to
their Quality, Cal. Agri. Expt. Sta., Bull. 561.
’ Jour. Min. Agric., XLIII, i 936 » July • Egg Quality.
® The shell sections were prepared by Mr. A. V. Weatherhead, of the
Geological Department, King's College, London, who employed the
technique of rock sectioning.
• It may be also recalled here that an excess of carbonate in any bony
material results in increased brittleness. Those parts of the shell from
which the matrix is absent may be regarded as having an excess of
carbonate.
Jour. Min. Agric., XLIII, 1936, July.
Harris, L. J. : Vitamins in Theory and Practice, p. 155.
1213
MARKETING NOTES
Bacon Supplies in 1937. The following table shows the
supplies of bacon (including salted pork and tinned hams) that
were available from all sources for consumption in the United
Kingdom in each month of 1937 : —
Month
Great Britain OutputJ
Northern
Ireland
Output
Net
Imports!
Total
Supply of
Bacon to
the U.K.J
Market
From
Home
Pigs
From
Imported
Pigs*
Total
1937
cwt.
cwU
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
cwt.
January . .
153,100
31,200
184,300
54 » 7 oo
607,800
846,800
February . .
131,300
30,900
162,200
49,800
579,700
791,700
March
149,400
39,400
188,800
52.400
672,100
913,300
April
172,300
44,100
216,400
51,800
642,200
910,400
May
162,500
49,500
212,000
41,300
b 95 , 7 oo
949,000
June
160,700
43, boo
204,300
36,800
613,900
855,000
July
164,600
55.500
220, 100
58,900
618,500
897,500
August
171,900
55,300
227,200
60,700
632,400
920,300
September
191,300
50,000
241,300
68,000
555,700
865,000
October . .
191,200
37.300
228,500
69,000
598,800
896,300
November
158,600
35,000
193,600
60,800
649,500
903.900
December
137,600
36,200
173,800
58,300
652,000
884,100
Total . .
1,944.500
508,000
2,452,500
662,500
7,518,300
10,633,300
♦ Including Northern Ireland pigs shipped to Great Britain,
t Imports minus re-exports.
X Subject to revision.
Total supplies (exclusive of the output of the small regis-
tered curers) amounted to 10,633,300 cwt. compared with
10,644,000 cwt. in 1936.
Bacon Import Arrangements, January-April, 1938. In
the light of recommendations of the Market Supply Committee
foreign quotas for the four months January to April, 1938,
were fixed at the same rate as that obtaining during the period
October 15 to December 31, 1937.
The allocations to the individual foreign exporting countries
are as follows : —
Country
Allocations
Country Allocations
Denmark . .
cwt. (a)
. . 1,087,954
Argentina
cwt. (a)
11,993
Netherlands
162,765
U.S.A
I 37 »o 65
Poland
136,208
Allowance for imports from
Sweden
80,526
foreign countries not
Lithuania . .
50,543
scheduled to the Bacon
Estonia
12,850
(Import Regulation)
Finland
6,853
Order
4 L 450
Latvia
U.S.S.R. . .
11,993
14.563
Total
1.754.763
(a) Subject to amendment as regards certain individual countries in
respect of overshipments or undershipments in previous periods.
1214
Marketing Notes
Milk Marketing Scheme. The wholesale price for liquid
milk (other than Tuberculin Tested milk) in January, 1938,
was IS. 6 d. per gal. the same as in the previous month, but
a id. more Aan in January, 1937. The wholesale price for
Tuberculin Tested milk in January, 1938, was is. Sd. per gal.,
the same as in the previous month.
Pool prices for January, 1938, are given below, with com-
parative figures for December, 1937, and January, 1937.
Jan.
Pool Prices
Dec.
Jan.
1937
1937
d.
d.
d.
Northern
i 5 i
14
North-Western
i 5 i
14
Eastern
••
16
141
East Midland . .
•• I 5 i
15?
I 4 i
West Midland . .
•• 15
15?
13 ?
North Wales . .
15
152
13?
South Wales . .
•• 15 ?
i 5 *i
14
Southern
.. 15?
i6i
i 4 i
Mid-Western . .
15
i 5 i
14
Far- Western . .
15
i 5 i
T 3 l
South-Eastern
16
I6J
14J
Unweighted Average . .
• 15*34
15-64
14*05
These prices are exclusive of any premium for special ser-
vices and level deliveries, and also of the quality bonuses for
Accredited and Tuberculin Tested milks. The estimated
gallonage on which quality premiums have been earned
was 30,973.571-
The inter-regional compensation levy was fixed at id. per
gal., compared with i\d. per gal. in January, 1937. Sales
on wholesale contracts were as follows: —
Liquid
Manufacturing
Jan., 1938
{estimated)
Gal,
51.769.973
14.944.581
Jan., 1937
(estimated)
Gal
48,145,121
16,006,196
67.714.554
64,151.317
Percentage liquid sales
Percentage manufacturing sales . .
77*59
22*41
75*05
24*95
The average realization price of manufacturing milk during
January was y.yzd. per gal. compared with 6.25^. per gal.
for January, 1937. The quantity of milk manufactured into
cheese on farms was 593,753 gal- compared with 660,220
gal. in the previous month and 351,617 gal. in January, 1937.
1215
Marketing Notes
Pigs Marketing Board. Annual Elections, 1938. The
following unopposed candidates have been elected as district
members of the Pigs Marketing Board: —
South-Western District Mr. S. H. R. Eva
South-Eastern District Mr. R. Rowland
Eastern District . . . . . . . . Captain J . H. Wilson
Two candidates have been nominated in Ihe East Midland*
District.
Hops Marketing Scheme. The 1937 crop fell somewhat
short of the estimated market demand, and at the end of
the period of trading which, by agreement between the
Hops Marketing Board and the Brewers’ Society, had been
extended for a further period of 14 days, very few hops
remained unsold.
The Board have made a final payment to growers which,
with the two previous advances, represents 100 per cent, of
the value of their quota hops less agents’ commission and the
Board’s overhead expenses.
Potato Marketing Scheme. Census of Stocks. All regis-
tered producers and authorized merchants have been requested
by the Potato Marketing Board to furnish returns showing
die stocks of potatoes on hand on the night of February 12.
A similar census has been taken in previous years.
List of Authorized Merchants. THe Board have recently
revised and brought up-to-date the list of authorized merchants,
and copies of the revised list have been issued to all registered
producers.
Amendments to Scheme. The Board have prepared certain
amendments which they propose should be submitted to
Ministers in due course. In accordance with the procedure
laid down in the Agricultural Marketing Act, 1931, the Board
have published the proposed amendments to all registered
producers.
Consumers* Committee for England. The Consuiners'
Committee for England have made a report to the Minister
of Agriculture and Fisheries on the terms of the MUk Marketing
Board’s contract for the year ending September 30, 1938.
Copies of the report can be obtained free of charge from the
Secretary, Consumers’ Committee for England, 10, Whitehall
Place, London, S.W.i.
T2I6
Marketing Notes
The Committee was appointed under Section 9 of &e
Agricultural Marketing Act, 1931, to consider and report to the
Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries on the effect of marketing
schemes, applicable in England and Wales, upon consumers
of the regulated products, and on complaints made to the
Committee as to the effect of any such scheme upon consumers.
Wheat Act, 1932: Sales of Home-grown Wheat — Cereal
Year 1937-38. Certificates lodged with the Wheat Commission
by registered growers during the period August 1, 1937, to
February 4, 1938, cover sales of 14,474,396 cwt. of millable
wheat as compared with 13,710,534^ cwt. in the corresponding
period (to February 5) last year.
Advance Payment to Registered Growers on Account of
Deficiency Payments for 1937-38. In accordance with their
Byelaw No. 31, the Wheat Commission decided to make a pay-
ment in advance to registered growers on account of deficiency
payments that will become due under the Wheat Act for the
cereal year ending July 31, 1938. This advance was made in
respect of valid wheat certificates delivered to the Commission
on or before Thursday, January 27, 1938, and was at the rate
of 8d. per cwt., equal to 3s. per quarter of 504 lb.
The question of making an advance payment to growers
who deliver wheat certificates after January 27 will be con-
sidered by the Commission.
Sugar Industry (|teorganization) Act, 1936: Production
of Home-Grown Beet Sugar during 1937*38 Campaign.
According to information furnished by the British Sugar Cor-
poration Ltd., the total quantities of beet sugar manufactured
in Great Britain during January, 1938, and the corresponding
month in 1937 were :
1938
1937
White Haw Total
cwt. cwt. cwt.
53,634 323-852
669,784 800.222 1,470,006
The 1937-38 campaign has now closed and the total quan-
tities of beet sugar produced during the campaign, with the
corresponding figures for the 1936-37 campaign were ; —
White Raw Total
cwt. cwt. cwt.
Campaign 1937-38 . , 3,044,051 4-774-522 7-818,573
„ 1936-37 . . 3,375-716 5.371-670 10-747-386
c •
Marketing -Notes
Livestock Industry Act, 1937 . CattU Fund. The follow-
ing table gives particulars of payments made out of the fund
set up under the Cattle Industry (Emergency Provision) Acts,
1934 to 1936, and the Livestock Industry Act, 1937 : —
Period
April, 1935, to January, 1936,
inclusive
April, 1936, to January, 1937,
inclusive . .
April, 1937, to January, I93S*.
inclusive . .
From commencement of subsidy
payments to January 31, 1938 . .
Average
Payments
i
Animals Payment per
Animal
£ s. d.
3,161,329
1.334. 159
275
3.298.590
1,405,268
2611
3.209.576
1.311.951
28x1
13.089.078
5.479.556
2 7 10
* The payments during this period comprised 1,357, 847 tor 581,712
animals certified under the Emergency Provisions Acts, and ;^i,oi7,i29
for 314,627 animals of quality standard, and ^^834, 600 for 415,612 animals
of ordinary standard certified under the 1937 Act.
Approval Orders Under Section 14. The Livestock Com-
mission, with the approval of the Minister, have made an
Order under Section 14 of the Act approving the premises
known as the Penrith Farmers’ and Kidd's Auction at Kirkby
Stephen, Westmorland, for use as a livestock market. The
Order was necessitated by the fact that the market has recently
been extended to include premises which were not used for
the purposes of a livestock market during the year ended
November 30, 1936.
A similar Order has been made and approved in respect of
an extension to the Wharfedale Farmers Auction Mart at
Leeds Road. Otley.
National Mark Egg Scheme. The total output of the 195
authorized packing stations operating in the scheme during
1937 was 502 million eggs, of which 85 per cent, were packed
under the National Mark. This figure shows a slight decrease
on the total output in 1936, attributable largely to the economic
difficulties that have faced the industry during the past year.
It is gratifying to record, however, that the quantity packed
under the National Mark has increased from 418 milUons in
1936 to 424 millions in 1937.
The year 1937 was the first complete year of operation of
the reduced statutory grade weights which came into force in
September, 1936. The increase in the proportion of eggs
packed in the Special and Standard grades as a resillt of ffie
m8 :
Marketing Notes
revision of the grade weights has been veiy noticeable — 8i
per cent, of the total National Mark output falling into these
two grades during 1937, as compared with 66 per cent, in
1935.
New features of the scheme introduced during the year
include :
(a) the use of standard returnable cases for wholesale trade under
licence of the Minister ;
(b) the improvement of the facilities for quality control inspections
by the Ministry's Officers at packing stations ; and
(c) an alternative specification for fibreboard egg cases as recom-
mended by the Forest Products Research Laboratory (see issue
of this Journal for December, 1937).
National Mark Dressed Poultry. The aggregate output
of the authorized packing stations during 1937 was 1,382,000
birds, of which 412,000 were packed under National Mark
labels, including 15,000 turkeys and 100 geese that were
graded and marked under the special National Mark Christmas
Scheme for Turkeys and Geese. The National Mark output
for this period is the highest recorded for any year since the
inception of the National Mark Dressed Poulhy Scheme in
1930, and represents an increase of 24 per cent, over the
previous year's National Mark output of 333,000 birds.
The inspections of National Mark dressed poultry during
the year indicate that authorized packers in the Scheme are
compl3dng satisfactorily with the prescribed standards both
in regard to the quality of their produce and the method of
packing. Some exttbmely good packs were seen.
The special arrangements for the application of the National
Mark to turkeys and geese for the Christmas trade were
repeated in 1937 upon precisely the same lines as in the pre-
ceding year. The number marked was about the same as
in 1936, and reports indicate that generally the quality of the
birds was exceptionally good.
National Mark PubUcity. A National Mark “ Week ”
and Exhibition will be held at Middlesbrough from March
30 to April 8, with the co-operation of the Civic Authorities.
An appropriate exhibit will be staged at the Town Hall during
dus period, when a comprehensive range of National Mark
products will be displayed. Samples of produce will be on
sale, together with a selection from the Ministry’s publications.
. tztg
MARCH ON THE FARM
R. W. Wheldon, D.Sc.,
King’s College. Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Longer days, bright sunshine and indications of growth all
round are features of the present month; another season, with
all its hopes and fears, has definitely begun. March on most
farms is a busy month and often an anxious one. Heavy
snow at the end of the winter season may seriously check
outlying stock. Sheep and lambs are likely to suffer,
while on hill farms the losses may be serious. Weather
is a most important factor for the arable farmer as well as
for the stockman and flockmaster.
Much spring corn is sown during the month. Oats and
barley have both commanded better prices during the past
season, and it is interesting to note how this has acted as a
stimulus to the farmer. During the period of low prices there
was little enquiry from farmers as to the most suitable
varieties to sow and manures to apply, but there has been a
marked increase in the number of enquiries made in recent
months.
The average yield of these cereals for the country, while
better than Aat in most other countries,, is still in the region
of i ton per acre. Cultural conditions, variety, quality of
seed, manuring, soil and climate all affect the resultant crop.
The first four are under the control of the farmer, and the
neglect of proper attention to any one of these may result in
reduced returns from the others. Money spent on good seed
and manures may not be returned if cultivations are
neglected, while good cultivations cannot make up for inferior
seed and lack of manure.
From the point of view of cultivations, March is often a
critical month, there is always an anxiety to push on with
the work, and farmers are often tempted to be on the land
when it is not fit. Soils, especially those of a strong character,
may be put out of condition by working while wet, and if
this takes place in spring there is often little opportunity, even
wife much toil, of restoring them.
Z9ZO
March on the Farm
Although much attention has been given in recent years
to the scientific study of cultivation, it remains true that it
is an art only acquired by experience and close observations
of the behaviour of the particular soil or soils worked by tiie
farmer. Mechanization has become more general and has
entailed the frequent reconsideration of methods and conditions
for crop growth. The problems that have arisen on many
farms after work by the gyrotiller are an example of this.
Manuring of Leys. Some of the advantages of alternate
husbandry were referred to in the February notes. A produc-
tive emporary ley is a prime necessity for the success of
this type of farming. While seedbed and the right seeds
mixture are important, manorial treatment must not be over-
looked, as the satisfactory development of the grasses and
clovers sown is largely dependent on the encouragement
afforded by suitable manuring. When making up a seeds
mixture, plants that are productive and capable of persisting
under the climatic and soil conditions are included. If these
are not kept in vigorous growth, the competition of less pro-
ductive plants results in their disappearance. For example,
in Northumberland, on boulder clay soils. Bent Grass and
Crested Dogstail very quickly make their appearance if the
better types of plante are not able to compete satisfactorily,
while, on the lighter soils, Yorkshire Fog soon api^ars. Once
these plants become established in a ley, they will persist to
the end.
If Wild White Clover, now invariably used in mixtures for
the longer temporary leys, can be kept vigorous by suitable
soil conditions and manuring, it quickly spreads and holds the
ground against the inroads of weed such as those mentioned.
This plant and Perennial Ryegrass are particularly valuable in
that they give a good sole to the sward and keep out, or sup-
press, undesirable plants.
The chief aim of manuring should be to ensure a good
clover plant, and for this purpose phosphatic manures are
most important. The choice of the phosphatic manure
depends very largely on soil conditions. With plenty of .
moisture and some acidity. North African phosphate has ^ven
very satisfactory results. \^en the soil is less acid, highly citric-
soluble slag usually gives better results than North African
phosphates. On dry soils with plenty of lime, superphos-
phate may be preferable. Acidity is always a disadvantage
March on the Farm
for young seeds because it hinders the successful establishment
of the wild white clover and the better grasses. In many
instances, the application of lime to such soils has been the
best method of their improvement. On the strong clay soils
of the north of England, potash manures have not been so
necessary for pasture land, but on the lighter soils there is
frequentiy a marked potash deficiency, especially where
fermyard manure has not been liberally applied.
The roots of the Wild White Clover, once established, pro-
vide sufficient nitrogen for the needs of the grasses, and it is
usually better to allow the grasses to depend on the clover root
for their nitrogen than to make direct applications. When
the latter is done, however, the grasses may compete so
successfully as to reduce the proportion of clover in the
pasture. Where there is special need for an early bite
in spring, nitrogenous manures are sometimes used with
success. In the north of England, however, the chief limiting
factor to growth in spring does not appear to be lack of nitro-
gen, but weather conditions. Even where an early growth
has been secured, it is doubtful if it can be fully utilized in
all seasons, for it has a strong laxative effect on the grazing
stock, which is especially harmful during spells of cold weather.
Nitrogenous manures should be used only for special
purposes. The main needs of the pasture, as far as manures
are concerned, should be met by phosphates and potash. It
should be borne in mind that higher productivity demands a
higher standard of management of the grazing stock.
For land in comparatively good heart, nitrogenous manures
are not to be recommended in the early stages of die estab-
lishment of a ley. When applied at the time of seeding, they
tend to produce increased straw in the nurse crop, which may
then become laid and so smother or overshadow the young
plants. Nitrogen further tends to encourage the grasses,- so
that they are able to compete unduly with the young clover
plants.
On strong land in the north of England, an application
of 10 cwt. of high-grade basic slag to the maiden seeds is
customary where the grass is to lie for about 3 years.
If, as is frequently done, the ley is left for a longer
period, perhaps for 10 years, a dressing of 5-8 cwt.
basic slag is usually given at 3-year intervals. Although
it frequently happens that no apparent return is obtained
for the addition of potash, there are instances where
1222
March on the Farm
potash manures show good results in better returns from the
stock, even on clay soils. On tiie lighter soils, profitable
returns am usually obtained from the use of potash in addition
to phosphates, the rate of application being 5 cwt. of basic
slag and 2 cwt. kainit or pota^ salts every three years.
Farmyard manure gives variable results in the north of
England. On very poor soils, particularly those that are
sandy in character, it is frequently found that a liberal dressing
of farmyard manure, applied before the seeds are sown,
assists greatly in obtaining a good " take.” Where, after one
or two years, the sward has become very thin or dry, dung
has proved useful in helping the recovery. In Cumberland
and Westmorland, farmyard manure is frequently applied
to young leys in the first year, and good results are obtained.
On the stronger soils in Northumberland, however, and once
a good take has been obtained, farmyard manure has fre-
quently given results much inferior to those obtained from
phosphates; this is true both for hay and pasture.
At Cockle Park on boulder clay soil, 10 cwt. of high-grade
basic slag applied every third year gave an average yield
of 32J cwt. of hay, while 10 tons of dung in addition to 10
cwt. of high grade basic slag has given, on an adjoining
plot, only 29^ cwt. of hay. The effect of the dung has been
to produce a much more uneven sward, characterized by more
top growth, but lacking in the uniformity and thickness of
the ‘‘ slag alone ” plot.
The great necessity for suitable phosphatic manuring for the
development of a good Wild White Clover ley is shown by
the following results from plots sown at Cockle Park in 1906.
For II years thereafter the average crops of hay per acre were
as follows: —
No basic slag, no wild white clover . . . . . . si cwt.
No basic slag, but with wild white clover . . . . 9}
Basic slag and no wild white clover . . . . 23^ ,,
Basic slag and wild white clover . . . . . . 34 »»
Early Management of Leys. The early management of
the ley is important. The ultimate composition and character
of the sward depend to a very large extent on the treatment
received in the early years. Provided a satisfactory plant of
seeds has been obtained, it is usually best, except perhaps on
light sandy soils, to take a hay crop in the first year. It is
important, however, that this should be cut early, for if it
is allowed to become too mature the plants, especially Perennial
c • * . 1223
March on the Farm
Ryegrass and the cultivated clovers, are considerably reduced
in vitality. The aftermath is best grazed; if allowed to grow
for a second cut of hay, the grasses and the wild white clover
are overshadowed by the single-cut Cow Grass and do not
become well established in the autumn before bad weather
sets in.
Special care is needed to control the grazing in subsequent
years so that there is an opportunity for both clovers and
grasses to become established. Wild White Clover benefits
from heavy grazing. Cocksfoot, which does not become well
established in the north of England in the first year, will not
tolerate the same degree of close grazing as wild white clover
and perennial ryegrass. If closely grazed in the early years,
little Cocksfoot may remain in the sward. Many farmers
consider that Cocksfoot is a most important constituent
in the pasture, since a good mixture of grass and clover
is provided when it is present in suitable quantity.
Without Cocksfoot there is frequently a tendency for wild
white clover to dominate the Perennial Ryegrass, with the
result that the bulk of the pasturage consists of clover. Stock
do not thrive so well on pastures where clovers provide the
bulk of the herbage : in the moist climate in the North of
England the high protein content and the succulent character
of the clover cause scouring. Cocksfoot is also valuable
when it is desired to take a hay crop. Provided it is
cut early, it gives a large amount of. hay of good feeding
value. It has already been said that Cocksfoot will not
tolerate severe grazing, and in some instances, where there
are signs of falling off in the amount and vigour of the Cocks-
foot after pashning for a year or two, it has been found
advisable to take a hay crop, the rest period enabling the
Cocksfoot to become re-established.
While careful control of grazing is important for all pasture
land, there is need for special consideration of land newly
laid down to grass. Too light grazing tends to give patchi-
ness, allows seeding and may check Ae development of the
Wild White Clover. If Wild White Clover is not developed in
quantify, it is usually found that the Perennial Ryegrass dies
out at die end of three or four years.
The class of grazing animal has a very distinct effect on
the pasture produced. Horses are bad grazers and should
not be allowed on young leys; they are curiously selective,
and bite too closely in particular areas, and their neglect
1224
March on the Farm
of areas where their dung is deposited causes these to become
coarse.
Sheep alone are unsuitable grazing stock for much of the
better pasture land. They have greater selective powers in
grazing than cattle and choose the finer bottom or leafy
herbage, refusing the stronger portions of Ihe herbage and the
flowering stems.
At Cockle Park it was found that, when sheep alone were
used for grazing improved pasture, only one-half the live-
weight increase per acre was produced as compared with that
obtained from a mixed stock of cattle and sheep. In the
early life of a pasture it is particularly important that some
cattle should be run with the sheep stock; with sheep alone
it is very difficult to prevent a large number of the plants
sending up flowering stems, unless by grazing so heavily as
to check seriously the Cocksfoot and Timothy. Cattle are
the best grazing animals because they graze much more evenly
than other stock.
Young leys are not so suitable for wintering stock, especially
cattle. Apart from the fact that cattle do not thrive well
because they lie cold and wet, they plunge the ground.
Yoimg pastures are chacteristically more open and free from
turf than old ones, and heavy treading may be very harmful.
1225
AGRICULTURAL MACHINERT TOPICS
S. J. Wright, M.A.,
Director, Institute for Research in Agricultural Engineering,
Oxford
Tractor Plouffhiiif. From the rather limited amount of
general information that is available, it would appear that the
estimated rates of ploughing tabulated in the January number
of the Journal represent at least double what is actually
accomplished on most farms. For example, accurate records
coveiihg some 700 acres of medium-land ploughing on one
farm show that a track-laying tractor of rather under ao draw-
bar h.p. averaged about 0.56 acres per hour; whereas,
according to the estimates referred to, it should have achieved
at least an acre per hour, A still greater difference, between
estimate and practice, is disclosed by the figures given by
North* for the rate of ploughing on his farm. Two tractors
were concerned, one of 12 and the other of 25 drawbar h.p.,
and together they averaged only about 0,5 acres per hour
on the farm, against an estimate of something like 2 acres.
In both instances the differences are large enough to be worthy
of inquiry.
In the first place it must be remembered that the tabulated
estimates are not purely theoretical, since they represent the
performances actually achieved by tracfbrs during a full day's
work under strictly practical conditions during the recent
R.A.S.E. tests. In particular, they include full provision
for time lost in turning and in clearing the plough. On file
other hand, there are two factors that are not covered. First,
on the farm the appearance of the work is generally at least
as important as the acreage covered, so that, particularly in
starting a field, rather more time might be devoted to setting
the plough than was done in the tests. Secondly, the time
spent on servicing the tractor at the beginning and end of a
day’s ploughing would, in most farm record, be charged
against the ploughing itself. However, if one were to allow
a full hour per day for these, there would still be an uncom-
fortably big margin between estimate and performance
Nor can it be objected that the difference lies in the fact
♦ Roger North. '' The Application of Power to Farming.*' This
Journal^ XLIII, June, 1936, p. 22$,
1226
Agricultural MiicHiNmiY Topics
that under test conditions the operators 'were keyed^p to
cover the ground as quickly as possible regardless of personal
comfort or indination; for from the records it was possible
to make for every tractor, a fairly reliable estimate of the
“ lost time ” — ^that is, the difference between the time actually
taken to plough a given acreage and the theoretical time cal-
culated from speed and working width. As was to be
expected, the lost time varied inversely with the length of
the work (the longer the furrow the less the time lost) and
directly with the width of the implement, because with a wide
plough, and particularly when two were coupled together,
more time was wasted in manoeuvring on the headland I But,
quite apart from these causes, there were enormous variations
from one tractor to another; and since in some instances as
much as 20 per cent, of the total time could not be accounted
for, it is to be assumed that on the whole the operators were
not out to break records.
The one outstanding difference between the tests and
ordinary farming was simply that, in the former, the tractors
were provided with implements wide enough to utilize their
full power, while in the other they are only too often under-
loaded. In this connexion two instances noted by the writer
during the last month or two are of interest. In the first,
two tractors were working side by side with exactly similar
ploughs. According to test figures, one of the tractors was
just 40 per cent, more powerful than the other — and, inciden-
tally, had cost nearly twice as much. Yet both machines
were working in bottom gear with the result that the less
powerful one was doing appreciably more work than the
other because it happened to be slightly higher geared. In
the second instance a farmer was anxious to demonstrate that,
owing to careful maintenance, his 3-year-old track-la5dng
tractor of about 19 h.p. had not lost any of its original power,
and he therefore provided it with what he thought was a full
working load. Dynamometer records showed that it was
actually developing only 9 h.p. as loaded by the farmer, but
was nevertheless capable, with proper loading, of doing
nearly twice as much.
Snm ll Tractoxis. Just recently the writer has had to deal
with a number of inquiries about tractors suitable for small-
holdings; and has found that in' most instances it is veiy
difficult to give a satisfactory answer. A t3^ical iristance is
1227
Agricultural Machimery Topics
a holding of 50^ acres devoted mainly to livestock — a few
milking cows and some pigs and poultry— but including some
arable land that received liberal dressings of muck. We need
not ask whether there is a case to be made out for using
mechanical power at all on such a holding, because for the
moment a good enough answer is provided by the inquiries
themselves. They show that many small-holders would like
to use a tractor if only they could find one suited to their
requirements. These requirements will, of course, vary with
circumstances, although in general terms they are not difficult
to define.
In the first place, unless the holding is devoted to intensive
market gardening or some similar hdghly-productive enter-
prise, comparison with larger farms would suggest that the
tractor should not exceed 5-6 drawbar h.p. , and, including any
equipment specially connected with it, should not cost more
than about £150. Even these figures are on ttie high side,
and their justification lies mainly in the fact that an ideal
tractor will allow much more work to be done by “ family
labour." The real difficulty, however, comes when con-
sideration is given to the various jobs, besides ordinary
ploughing and cultivating, which the machine must tackle
if it is to be worth having. These include all the operations
of grassland management and haymaking; haulage of various
kinds, and particularly dung carting; and, almost always,
some form of row-crop cultivation. . The possible tractors
include a wide range of two-wheeled market-garden cultivators ;
one or two small track-laying machines,; and possibly one or
two of the smallest of the wheel tractors used on larger
farms. Of these, only the two-wheeled machines meet the
situation as far as cost is concerned; and they fall rather
short of what is required as regards the work. The more
powerful of them would tackle the ploughing, seedbed
preparation and row-crop cultivation satisfactorily. They
might even, with a suitable attachment, manage the mowing,
although this will often be rather heavier work than the size
of farm would suggest. Having regard, however, to the way
in which the load varies as the implement jumps about, grass-
land harrowing, if severe enough to be wordi doing at all,
would probably be altogether too much for the man in con-
trol. As for the other jobs— haymaking, harvesting of what-
ever crops are grown, and transport generally — ^they would
be out of the question unless a good deal of ingenuity, and
1228
Agricultural Machinery Topics
probably quite a lot of money, were devoted to contriving
suitable attachments. Both the available track-laying
machines are too expensive; the cheaper of them is also too
limited as regards speed of operation, and neither is veiy well
suited to row-crop work.
From every point of view something like an ordinary wheel
tractor would best fill the bill; but even the smallest of those
now on the market is rather too large to use economically with
existing horse-drawn implements, some of which a small-
holder would quite rightiy want to utilize if possible. The
position is, in fact, that none of the inquirers gets a very satis-
factory answer, so that most of them presumably give up the
idea of mechanical power and carry on with horses as before.
Yet it would not be at all impossible to provide something
like the ideal; not track-laying, because tracks are too expen-
sive; and not two- wheeled because if the machine is self-
supporting it will be so much more adaptable; power enough
to plough one good furrow; wheels convertible for road use;
and the price as near £ioo as the maker can manage.
Muck Carting. There has been so much discussion in
recent years about the uses and abuses of farmyard manure
that it is surprising that so little progress has been made
towards improved methods of handling the material. It is
not as if any ordinary form of livestock fanning could be
carried on without the dung cart; whether one believes in it or
not, there the stuff is and someone must load and cart it some-
where; and the job Is usually both unpleasant and expen-
sive. On the Continent rather more attention has been
devoted to the subject, although few of the devices that have
been evolved from time to time can be said to have come
into very general use. In America, on the other hand, the
dung-spreader is a prominent feature of most stock farms, but
even then only tackles the easiest end of the problem and
leaves the more difficult job of loading to be done by hand as
before. Continental devices vary in complexity from elaborate
permanent systems involving overhead run-wa57s and tipping
carriers to simple elevator-loaders or grabs rather on the lines
of a hay fork.
The more elaborate of these devices can be left out of
account here, because most of them could not be installed
in connexion witii existing buildings without practically recon-
structing them from the start. In any event, these permanent
1229
Agricultural . Machinery Topics
systems do. not take the dung right to the field, but only to
a dump from which it, must be re-transported later. Of die
simpler devices — ^the elevator-loader and the manure fork —
the former, would appear to be the most likely to succeed
on account of its greater adaptability. An earlier German
report on the subject claimed that an electrically-driven loader
reduced the costs of handling an annual outyut of about
2,000. tons of dung by rather more than one-third, even when
25 per cent, of the first cost was charged for depreciation and
maintenance. This outfit cost round about £6o and could,
of course, have been driven equally well by a portable engine.
It cannot, however, be assumed that this device would have
worked equally well under our conditions,.because in Germany
dung-making generally follows an elaborate ritual, and to
cany out the long unrotted stuff that we often handle would
be regarded almost as a crime.
Incidentally, a British loader that made its appearance two
years or so ago included a device for breaking up long or
matted dung, but the writer has heard nofiiing of the machine
since it appeared and so can give no particulars about its per-
formance. The German report, already referred to, also
claimed for mechanical loading and handling devices that
they greatly increased the efficiency of manuring by making
it easier to apply the dung at the right time and without
wastage. A rather similar claim might be made on behalf
of tractor-hauled dung spreaders or any device that would
speed up carting and distribution as distinct from loading;
for, even on the farms of the most Bevoted adherents of
organic manuring, the dfects of concentrating the doses on
the fields near the yards to the neglect of those situated at a
distance are very often evident. Now that pneumatic-tyred
tractors and trailers are generally available, only a little atten-
tion to the approaches to the yards is necessary to allow high-
speed dung carting to be practised on any farm. With a little
more attention to the dung-heap itself, so as to reduce the
amount of long material, there is no reason why mechanical
spreaders of the American pattern should not be much more
generally used. The latest types of these machine are
specially adapted for tractor use wifii a power take-off drive
and a two-wheeled trailer body with a capacity about d<Htble
that of earlier patterns.
Corniced Seed end DriOs. In a .note read at
Agricultural Machinery Topics
the recent Oxford Conference the writer suggested that British
manufacturers have not yet gone^ to the length of building a
combined com and fertilizer drill. This suggestion was
incorrect, for according to later information, some British
implements of the kind are made; and one firm, at least, has
been making them for something like 6o years. On the other
hand, the suggestion had this much truth in it; that combined
drilling — regarded as a method which is rapidly gaining
ground all over the country, and not as one which may have
been practised long since in isolated districts — ^is a new develop-
ment, definitely associated with the tractor. As such, the
method, together with suitable machines — ^that is, madiines
wide enough for tractor use, but light enough for convenient
handling, and at a reasonable price — ^was imported fi:om
overseas, just as many other ready-made devices were; when
the move towards mechanization began 8 or lo years ago.
It would, however, be interesting to know just why some
British farmers went in for combined drilling as long as 6o
years ago; for the recent move towards the process seems to
have arisen mainly from the modem urge to hurry- thin^
up by doing two jobs at once; and it is only recently that it
has been claimed that die process leads to more efScient
manuring.
1231
NOTES ON MANURING
F. Hanley, M.A.,
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
Spring Applications of Nitrogen for Cereals: Wheat.
Developmental studies of this type made on the wheat crop
have ^own diat the way in which it responds to nitrogenous
fertilizer varies with the stage of grow& at which the fer-
tilizer is applied. Application in the early stages increases
the production of tillers, whilst application at a later stage
tends to increase the number of grains set ip each ear. Extra
tillers are useless unless formed early in the season, for late-
formed tillers do not usually carry ears at harvest. In practice
this means that spring applications of nitrogenous fertilizer
cannot be relied upon to give a substantial increase in the
number of ears, but if applied at the right time they will often
increase the size of the ears. Applied at the wrong time, a
considerable part of a spring top dressing only serves to pro-
duce useless tillers and to increase the amount of straw,
diereby rendering the crop more liable to “ lodge.”
It is often best, therefore, to delay the spring top dressing
imtil tiller production has practically ceased. For wheat crops
that have wintered badly, or require to be stimulated to grow
away from some pest or disease, a nitrogenous top dressing
in Februaiy or March may be imperative. On the other
hand, where the crop has wintered satisfactorily, late April
to mid-May now seems likely to be the best time, though the
efficiency of this late dressing is dependent on a reasonable
amount of rain in later months so that the crop can utilize the
added nitrogen. If the suggested delay in the time of appli-
cation seems contrary to local requirements or local practice
the matter should be discussed with the County Organizer.
Investigations have shown quite clearly that in suitable cir-
cumstances a top dressing at the right time can be a very
profitable investment.
Spring Barley. As long as nitrogenous fertilizer is not used
in such large quantities as to cause the crop to ” lodge ” it
is not likely to have any serious effect on ffie market value
of the wheat grain. Malting barley, however, presenis a
different problem. Ihe practical application of ffie principle
that floury grain and low nitrogen content usually go hand in
1232
Notes on Manuring
hand is to be found in the importance that growers attach to
die correct manuring of the barley crop. Indeed, the ten-
dency on some farms has been to over-emphasize the risks
involved in the use of nitrogenous fertilizer for barley, with
the result that yields have sometimes suffered through too
severe restriction of supplies of nitrogen.
In a recent paper* Dr. Hunter, of the Cambridge Plant
Breeding Institute, discussed the question of nitrogen content
of the grain from the standpoint of the plant breeder and
suggested that a high tiller-survival rate may be an index of
low nitrogen content. In an attempt further to elucidate this
problem, especially in relation to supplies of nitrogen in the
soil. Dr. Hunter has carried out experiments on the variety
Spratt Archer, varying the time of application of a dressing
of I cwt. per acre of nitrate of soda from seeding time on
some plots to as late as 3 weeks after flowering (or 15J weeks
after seeding) on others.
Plots that received nitrate of soda before the tillers assumed
an erect position (approximately weeks after seeding, or
loj weeks before harvest) all showed a definite increase in the
yield of grain and in the number of surviving tillers, but no
increase in the percentage of nitrogen in the grain. Plots
that received later dressings of nitrogen showed little or no
increase in the 3neld of grain or in the number of surviving
tillers, but a very marked increase in the percentage of nitro-
gen in the grain. In other words, an increase in the number
of surviving tillers was associated with an increase in the jdeld
of grain, but not with any increase in the percentage of nitro-
gen in the grain.
It should be noted in passing, that although the dressings
of nitrate of soda applied towards the end of the first half
of the growing season did not increase the percentage of
nitrogen in the grain, they did apparently lead to the sumval
of a number of small tillers that bore only small grain ^a
point of importance in considering the uniformity of file
resulting samples of grain.
The influence of tiller survival on the percentage of mtro-
gen in the grain, as well as on the yield of grain, was further
demonstrated by plots on which the number of tillers per plant
was artificially controlled — ^tillers being cut down (and kept
cut) on different plots at different stages in the growth of the
• C.R. Ve V»^ Congr. Int. Techn. Chim. Industr. Agric. Scheveningue,
*937 (Sect. 4).
Notes on MANtTsoiG
plant. The zemoval of tillers resulted in a high percentage
of nitrogen in the grain from the surviving tiUers. Hence,
as with the wheat crop, the effect of nitrogen on the growth
of barley may be manifested in either of two wa 3 rs according
to the physiological stage in the life of the plant at which it
becomes operative. Nitrogen available to the plant between
seeding and the time when the tillers become erect tends to
increase the number of ear-bearing tillers and hence the yield
of grain, but used in moderate amounts does not increase
the percentage of nitrogen in the grain. Nitrogen available
later in the season does not affect tiller survival, for tillering
has almost ceased, but finds its way into the grain, which,
though it may be increased in size, will also usually exhibit
a high nitrogen percentage and lower malting quality.
Soils rich in organic matter or well supplied with dung or
other slowly-decomposing organic matter, liberate nitrogen to
the plant not merely during the early part of the growing
season, but also during the post-flowering period, and any
excess nitrogen in the latter period will tend to pass into the
grain, thereby increasing its nitrogen content.
To die farmer, however, the matter is not confined solely
to quality or value per quarter, but rather to value per acre.
Hence, 3deld per acre and the possibility of nitrogen, whether
from organic or inorganic sources, increasing the yield, is
important, especially if with increasing knowledge of the
effect of nitrogen on the development of the pl^nt, he is able
to utilize nitrogen in such a way that yields are increased
without serious detriment to quality. ,
There is no evidence to suggest that any advantage may
accrue from the application of nitrogenous fertilizer to barley
as an early top dressing rather than on the seedbed. Indeed,
in view of the harmful effects from the presence of excessive
suppUes of nitrogen in the soil late in the growing season, it
seems that application not later than seeding time is by far
the safest. \^ere the condition of a young crop seems to
warrant it, however, a small top dressing can be given with-
out imdue risk of serious injury to the quality of the grain,
provided it is applied as soon as the need for it becomes
aq>parent, and at any rate in tinie for the nitrogen to take effect
b^ore the tillers begin to assume an erect position. To
encourage quick action any such emergency top dressing should
supply fee nitrogen in fee form of nitrate, e.g., nitrate of soda,
nitrate of lime or nitro-chalk.
1334
NoiXS ON Manuking
One-y^ur ** Seeds ” Leys. A “ seeds ” ley frequently has
to put up with whatever treatment is deemed best for the nurse
crop. Nevertheless a " seeds " ley is often grown, partly
at any rate, for its value in helping to maintain the fertility
of the soil, and not solely for the hay crop it produces, and
from this standpoint a good proportion of clover is very
desirable, even in a one-year ley. There is no doubt about
tibie value of a goqd dressing of basic slag on the seedbed of
a three- or four-year ley, and phosphate is equally important
for one-year leys.
For the sake of the nurse crop it is not desirable to encourage
too much clover, but on many farms complaint is made that
the leys are regularly short of clover, and it is not always
possible to attribute the failure to genuine clover sickness. On
light soils, to help the clover in a ‘ 'seeds’ ' ley, it is just as essen-
tial to give potash as phosphate, and even if there is no likeli-
hood of the nurse crop deriving benefit from potash, i cwt. per
acre of muriate of potash may make all the difference between a
ley containing a good proportion of clover and one consisting
almost entirely of rye-grass. The potash should be worked
into the soil when preparing the seedbed for the nurse crop.
A good ley should not need any fertilizer in the spring of
its harvest year. Where very little clover survives the winter,
however, though it is too late to do anything to increase the
clover, it may be worth while giving a top dressing of about
I cwt. per acre of nitrogenous fertilizer to encourage the rye-
grass, especially where as much hay as possible is required
for winter keep. .
Injection Methods for the Diagnosis of Nutrient
Deficiencies. Though a plant or tree is known to be siiffering
from a lack of some particular element of plant food, the
application to the soil of a substance containing the missing
element does not always result in its immediate recovery.
This difficulty is often encountered with fruit trees and has 1^
to the trial of other methods of getting a tree to assimilate
elements of plant food. Of the methods tried, the injection
of a solution containing the missing element into the tree itself
has often proved successful. An interesting point about this
injection treatment is that, in some circumstences, injection
methods can also be used as a means of ascertaining ^m what
deficiency a tree is suffering. Quick and accurate diagnosis of
the cause of unsatisfactory plant growth is often difficult. This
1235
Notes on Manuring
is particularly so with the many different troubles that result
in the devebpment of a yellowish colour in the foliage. Mai^
ffictors may cause yellowing of foliage, and these include
such widely different troubles as waterlogging, nitrogen starva-
tion, iron deficiency and some virus diseases. Careful
examination of the tree or plant enables some of these to be
distinguished from others, but frequently the distinction is not
easy. Chemical analysis of soil or plant may indicate probable
deficiencies, but often such analyses provide no satisfiictory clue.
Investigations by W. A. Roach and his colleagues at the
East Mailing Research Station have now shown that it is pos-
sible to diagnose some of these troubles by injection methods.
Dilute solutions of substances containing elements that may be
required are injected into the tree or plant, thereby ensuring
that they do enter the plant and also shortening the time
required for their effects to become visible. To overcome
the difficulty of detecting a small change in the general colour
of a large plant or tree the injection can be confined to a single
shoot, a single leaf, or even a single interveinal area of a leaf.
In the last method the injected area is compared with other
areas on either side of it. Even a secondary vein is apparently
sufficient to prevent ffie rapid spread of the influence of the in-
jected solution to the rest of the leaf. This method ensures ffiat
the control and treated areas are as nearly as possible identical,
not only in colour, but in other features, such as texture, and
being so close to one another the two areas can be compared
with ease and accuracy. Thus much smaller changes can
be detected than where the comparison, is between different
leaves or different trees.
The rapidity of the method in suitable circumstances is shown
by the fact that in one instance iron shortage was detected in
less than a week.*
Much remains to be discovered on such points as the mineral
deficiencies and the plants for which leaf injection can be
used. There is already some evidence that it is not suitatfle
for all types of leaves, e.g., it is said to have been used suc-
cessfully with Ihe foliage of apple trees and strawberries, but
was not successful with tomato leaves. So far most attention
has been directed to its use for detecting iron deficiency, but
further experiments using the common nutrient elements are
said to be in progress at East Mailing.
The results will be of considerable interest.
1236
* East MalUog R^ort for 193 ^.
PRICES OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
Average prices per ton (2,240 lb.)
1 Description
during week ended Feb. 16
Costs
Bristol
Hull
L'pool
London
per
Unit^
£ e.
i e.
£
i «.
s. d.
Nitrate of Soda (N. 15*%) . . ^
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
10 4
„ ,, Granulated ^N. x6%)
Nitrate of Lime (N. 13%)
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
8 oc
10 0
7 le
7 le
7 je
7 7«
II 4
Nitro-Chalk (N. 15*%)
Sulphate of Ammonia : —
7 10c
7 IOC
7 IOC
Neutral (N. 20 • 6%) . .
7 12c
7 I2C
7 I2C
Calcium Cyanamide (N. 20 * 6%) ^
7 Hi
7 Hi
7 Hi
Kainite (Pot. 14%) . , . . 1
2 18
2 15
2 15
2 15
3 II
Potash Salts (Pot. 30%)
5 4
5 1
5 0
5 I
3 5
.. „ (Pot. 20%)
Muriate of Potash (Pot. 50%)
3 15
3 12
3 12
3 12
3 7
8 10
8 8
8 5
8 8
3 4
Sulphate ,, (Pot. 48%)
Basic Slag (P.A. i5|%)
10 2
10 0
9 17
10 0
4 2
2 i2d
2 56
—
2 106
3 2
.. .. (P.A. 14%)
Gtd. Rock Phosphate (P.A. 26-
2 86
2 06
2 06
2 66
3 3
a7i%)
3 7«
3 2a
2 i8a
2 12a
2 0
Superphosphate (S.P.A. 16%)
3 4
—
3 5/
3 og
3 9
.. (S.P.A. I3f%)
3 1
2 17
3 2/
2 l6g
4 I
Bone Meal (N. 3!%. P.A. 20*%)
Steamed Bone I^ur (N. }%,
7 5
7 5*
7 2
P.A. 27l-29i%)
5 5«
5 20
4 *7*
4 «
Abbreviations : N. =* Nitrogen ; P.A. =« Phosphoric Acid ;
S.P.A. « Soluble Phosphoric Acid : Pbt. =* Potash.
♦ Prices are for not less than 6-ton lots, at purchaser's nearest railway station^
unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on carriage-pwd prices.
$ Prices are for not less than 2-ton lots, nett cash for prompt delivery f.o.r. in
town named, unless otherwise stated. Unit values are calculated on f.o.r. prices.
a Prices for 4-ton lots f.o.r. Fineness 85% through standard sieve.
h Prices for 6-ton lots. 'Prices at Bristol are f.o.r. Bridgwater ; at Hull and
Liverpool f.o.r. neighbouring works, and at London f.o.r. at depots in London
district. Fineness 80% through standard sieve.
c For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots
of 2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, and for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, 10s. extra.
d Delivered in 5-ton lots at purchaser's nearest railway station. For lots of
2 tons and under 5 tons the price is 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under
2 tons, los. per ton extra, and for lots of 4 cwt. and under i ton, 20s. extra.
e For lots of 4 tons and under 6 tons the price is is. per ton extra, for lots of
2 tons and under 4 tons, 5s. per ton extra, for lots of i ton and under 2 tons
75. 6d, per ton extra, and for lots of under i ton, 20s. extra.
/ Prices shown are f.o.r. Widnes,
g Prices shown are f.o.r. northern rails ; southern rails, is. 3a. extra.
k Prices shown are f.o.r. Appley Bridge,
f Price shown is f.o.r. Newport, Mon.
T| These em calcukUed by regarding a ion as comprising loo nnris {equal parts
of 22*416.) so i^at a fertiliser, for example, with 16 per cent mtrogen, contains
16 suck ** units *' in a ton. Then, if the price per ton of such a feHthser be dtvwd
by the percentage figure, the deduced cost is thal of a ** unit ** of that agent. Those
in the table Move are based on London prices. (For further explanat^, see
Advisory Leaflet No. 146. The Valuation of Artificial Manures, obtainable from
ike Ministry, free ^charge.)
1237
fiEEDiNG
Charles Crowther, M. A., Ph,D.,
Harper Adams Agricultural College
Use of Milk and Miflc Products ki Pfg Feeding, pie
great increase in the demand for milk for human consumption,
pccasicmed by the rapid growth of the population during die
nineteendi and early twentieth century, coupled with improve-
ment of transport, has largely restricted die utilization of
whole milk on the farm to the minimum requirements for
calf-rearing. For other purposes it is now commonly regarded
as too expensive, except pediaps when surplus to &e require-
ments of the liquid milk market.
It should not be too readily assumed, howbver, that the
use of milk is necessarily uneconomic because the food value
of milk, when assessed in terms of the protein, fat and carbo-
h3«irate it supplies, usually compares very unfavourably in
terms of cost with that of alternative feeding-stuffs. Modem
research has demonstrated that milk as a food may possess
virtues that are not assessable in terms of the above ingredients,
and that its use along with other foodstuffs may enhance the
nutritive effects obtainable from the latter. Some factors in
milk that may contribute to this special effect are known,
such as its content of vitamins, the high “ quality ” of its
proteins, and the nice balance of its mineral ingredients. All
these may play a part, but there are doubtless other factors,
as yet unknown, &at contribute to place milk in a position
apart from all other feeding-stufk. c
These special properties of milk are retained to some extent
in the by-products arising from it, such as separated milk,
buttermilk and whey, certainly in the liquid forms, and to a
less degree in the dried forms. This has always been cleariy
recognized in connexion with pig-feeding, which is traditionally
associated with dairying, and in the minds of many older
farmers can still only be practised witii profit when so
associated. That tiiis view is exaggerated is obvious from the
fact that so much of our pig-feeding to-day is carried on
successfully by tiie use of " milk sutetitutes," sudi as fi^
meal and meat meal, which when properly u^ give results
in rate of growth almost, if not quite, equal to those obtain-
abte with milk. It is still probably hue, however, ffiat milk
(or skim milk) if available at a suitable cost, is the faisft of
all supplements to the cereal meals for feeduog, and a
1*38
Nom ON FBEmNG
sununajy of evidence from expetimental work may be hel{^
ful in forming an estimate of its possibilities tmder present
conditions.
Whole Milk, and Separated Milk. The striking improve-
ment in growth rate that can be affected by the addition of
even very small quantities of whole milk to a cereal meal
diet was examp|ified in experiments at Shinfield some ten years
ago, when in ^ch of six separate comparisons the ad^tion
of only half a pint of whole milk per head daily to ffre ration
increased the growth rate of the pigs by about lo per cent.
The further improvement that is possible when more milk
is used may be illustrated by the results of a comparison made
at the Harper Adams College, in which by tire use of 4 pints
of whole milk per head daily the growth rate was increased
by no less than 42 per cent, as compared with that of similar
pigs receiving the same cereal meals (plus minerals) but no
mUk. Included in this experiment was also a third lot
receiving meals and 4 pints daily of separated milk, and here
die improvement in growtii rate was about 26 per cent. Whole
milk thus proved markedly superior to ffie separated milk in
its effect upon rate of growth, but the difference was found
to represent in fact a very poor return for the butterfat fed
in the whole mUk, as compared with what might have been
obtained if ffie cream had been removed and sold as such or
made into butter.
The conclusion ffiat tiie feeding of whole milk to pigs is
uneconomic as compaired with the use of separated milk has
also been confirmed by Norwegian experiments. The two
sets of experiments also agree in indicating that in its effect
upon gro^^ rate whole milk has only about times ttie value
of separated milk, and not double the value as is commonly
assumed on the basis of the old Danish feeding experiments
upon which the Scandinavian table of food unit values is
based.
The one place in the feeding scheme where whole milk can
probably ^ used to advantage, both physiological and
economic, in comparison with separated milk, is in the period
before and just after weaning, say up to about 45 lb. live-
weight. Thereafter the balance of economy, as between the
two fcnms of milk, changes rapidly in favour of separated.
The difierence of effect between whole milk and separated
ndik is hurgefy one of degree, and the following observations,
1239
Notes on Feeding
although concerned specifically with the use of separated milk,
would probably apply also in principle to whole milk.
The return obtainable from separated milk terough the pig
will vary with die rate at which it is fed and the stage of
growth of the pig at which it is used. Broadly speaking, the
return per gallon will be the greater the smaller the daily
allowance and the younger the pig. Thus in one of the
Harper Adams experiments in 1930 the returns per gallon
of separated milk, under the price conditions then prevailing,
were estimated to be as under: —
When given at the rate of 4 pints per head daily 2 * 8d.
#» »# 2 ,, ff • « 3*4^*
II II II I II II • • 4 ’ 7^*
In another experiment with pip weighii^ initially about
50 lb. each the profit from the use of separated milk was
greatest in the first six weeks and least in the last six weeks
of die feeding period.
' In farm practice the allowance will be determined by the
amount of milk and the number of pigs available, but it is
clearly a sound economic policy to spread the milk over as
niany pip as possible, giving preference, if necessary, to
younger over older pip.
On die question of the optimum ratio between meal and
milk, guidance is available from Scandinavian reports based
upon large numbers of observations. In a Swedish report
(1925) that reviews the results of 23 experimente involving die
use of more than 400 pigs, the conclusion is drawn that the
full value of the separated milk is only realized if the daily
allowance of milk does not exceed about one-third of the tot^
nutritive value of the daily ration. (The same was also found
to apply with whey feeding.) Undiluted buttermilk was found
to be practically equal to separated milk in feeding value.
In a more recent Danish report (1930) the average results
given below were obtained in extensive comparisons of various
ratios of separated milk to meals (mixed maize and barley) : —
Group I lb. Milk per Daily Gain DaUy Gain
1 lb. Meal in Liveweighi Group / «» x * oo
lb. lb. lb.
1
2
3
4
3
0*0
0.5
1*0
1*5
2*0
0 - 53
I 04
1- 3I
1*55
x-56
1*00
1-96
a '47*
a ‘93
*•94
* In an experiment at Harper Adams College in 1933, the comqioading
figure for tile use of separated milk with mixed barley and oat* at tiie
average rate of i lb. milk per t lb. meal was z’36.
1240
Notes on Feeding
It will be noted Ibat the first 0.5 lb. of milk (per i lb. of
meal) practically doubled the rate of growth, and that although
the efiects of successive increases of milk supply steadily
grew less they were considerable up to a supply of 1.5 lb.
of milk per x lb. of meal. At this point the deficiencies of
the cereal diet have apparently been remedied by the milk, and
litfle further specific advantage is to be gained by increasing
the proportion. These are average figures for the whole
feeding period, however, and probably it would be better
in practice to use die milk rather more liberally in the earlier
stages, reducing the proportion of milk to meal gradually as
the pig grows.
It ^ould be observed that the meals used in the above
experiments were plain cereal mixtures, and it is only with
such mixtures that a large response is to be expected from
the use of milk. Theoretically a “ balanced mixture ” should
be complete in itself, its cereal ingredients having been
" balanced " by the admixture of a, milk substitute such
as fish meal. In- the present state of knowledge of food
requirements, however, a perfect balance is only attainable
by accident, and it is possible that even widi a mixture diat
is regarded as “ balanced ” some further small improvement
in results may be obtained by the use of milk. It is more
likely, however, that this will involve an excessive supply of
protein, and the safer, cheaper and more sensible plan where
a supply of separated milk is available is to remove the " milk
substitute ” partiy or entirely from the ration.
There is some e>^ence that when separated milk is used
as the protein supplement it is possible to work profitably to
a higher level of protein supply than with the ordinary
balanced mixtures fed with water. Thus in one of the Harper
Adams experiments (1932) the maximum average growA
rate obtained when using so3^-bean meal as protein
concentrate was 1.23 lb, per head per day; with the same
amount of digestible protein given as liquid separated milk
it was X.30 lb., whilst with x^ times the amount of protein
given as separated milk it was raised to x.37 lb. per day.
This is also in accord with the observation that the standards
of effective protein supply arrived at in this coimtry from
experunents in which the pigs were given meals and water
are slightly lower than the Scandinavian standards which are
based upon milk feeding.
Regarding the use of milk for pigs, one point of detail ffiat
X241
Notes on Feboimo
is often raised is whether die d^fiee of sourness ni the mine
is a matter of any practical consequence. Chi this point
evidence of die Swedish experiments referred to above was
that souring seemed to lower the value of separated mille
slightiy, but where the milk must of necessity be given sour,
it appeared to do best when completely sour, that is, to die
point of curdling. The quantity given is perhaps a dedsive
factor in this connexion, and if this is no more than 2 to 4
pints per head the degree of sourness is probably of litde or
no importance, especially if about i per cent, of carbonate
of lime is given with it.
Whey. Pig-feeding is traditionally associated with cheese-
making, but despite long years of experience die views held
in practical circles as to toe feeding value of toe whey are
curiously diverse. This doubdess arises from toe ease with
which disappointing results may ensue if whey is used
improperly. Judged by chemical composition toe whey
“ soli^ " bear a close resemblance to toe low-fibrous cereal
meals in being rich in carbohydrates and relativdy poor in
protein, but differ in that toe carbohydrate in whey is milk
sugar, while toe minerals of toe whey are better " balanced ”
toan those of cereals. The presence of a litde lactic add in
whey is also often claimed to be of advantage. Whey differs
chiefly from separated milk in its comparative poverty in
protein, and in this respect can obviously pot serve as a sub-
stitute for toe milk. The chief practical disadvantage of
whey is toe high proportion of water to solids (about 14 : 1).
This can, however, be reduced to a suitable proportion in toe
total ration if about 3^ lb. of diy meal be given with each
gallon of whey. On this basis a suitable allowance of whey
would range from about half a gallon per head daily for
small pigs up to 2 gallons for big pigs. Whey can be fed
more finely toan this if desired, but only at toe risk of undue
laxativeness and the certainty of very wet floors. The Swedish
experiments indicated toe maximum amount desirable to
be about 2j^ to 3 gallons, or not more toan about one-third
of toe total food value of toe ration. Practical experience
indicates that whey should be fed sparingly to 3;^ung pigs
until they reach the live- weight of 80^ lb., and again kter
toe amount toould be reduc^ for the last two or three vweks
before slaughter.
That whey when used properly and in moderation is a
1242
Notbs on Fbbdino
valuable suj^jlement to cereal meals for the pig is undoubted.
In die Scandinavian " food unit ” table it is credited with
one-half of the value of separated milk, and tiiis was roughly
confirmed in die test made at Harper Adams College in 1923
to which reference has already been made.
Dried Milk Products. If the drying of separated milk,
buttermilk and whey were no more than a removal of water,
diere would be no obvious reason why the dried products
should not retain the full nutritive properties of the original
liquid forms, including those special virtues that would justify
higher prices than diose of competitive milk substitutes. The
balance of evidence from pig-feeding experiments so far,
however, has provided littie support for tiiis view. Thus in
Canadian experiments in 1931 skim milk powder was only
2.9 per cent, more efficient for producing liveweight gain than
a special protein-mineral mixture with which it was compared.
In two experiments at Harper Adams College no advan-
tage has been found from replacing extracted soya-bean meal
by an equal weight of dried separated milk. Similarly in a
Sottish test in 1935 resulte obtained with dried skim milk
were inferior to ffiose given with liquid skim milk.
Experience has been much the same also in tests of dried
whey. These have rarely given warrant for any claim to
special virtue for the dried whey beyond what its content
of proteins, fats and carbohydrates would lead one to
anticipate.
In ^ort, these dried products, whilst excellent, and probably
the most efficient in ffieir class, do not appear to be equal
to the liquid forms from which they are made, and, except
possibly for the earliest stages of rearing, do not display that
measure of superiority over competitive feeding stuffs that is *
required to neutralize their disadvantage in cost.
Space will not permit of disctission of the influence of milk
and milk products upon the quality of the pig’s carcass, and the
general observation must suffice that this effect is beneficial,
both as to carcass percentage and quality of fat, provided tiie
amounts of milk or whey used are not excessive. The improve-
n^t is usually obvious in the appearance of the live animal.
1243
nUGBS or FBBDINO STUTFS
Manu*
Cost of
Starch
Price
Price
Price
rial
food
per
unit
per
Pro-
Description
per
value
value
equiv.
lb.
tein
ton
per
per
per
100 lb.
starch
Starch
equiv.
ton
ton
equiv.
equiv.
s.
£
s.
£
s.
5.
4f.
d.
%
Wheat, British
8
7
0
9
7
18
72
2
2
i*x6
9*6
Barley, British feeding
9
0§
0
9
8
11
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
„ Canadian, No. 3
Western
9
0
0
9
8
II
71
2
5
1*29
6*2
,, Argentine
9
o§
0
9
8
II
7X
2
5
1*29
6*2
„ American
8 lof
0
9
8
I
7x
2
3
X*2I
6*2
„ Persian
8 I3§
0
9
8
4
71
2
4
1-25
6*2
„ Russian
9
o*
0
9
8
II
7x
2
5
t*29
6*2
Oats, English, white . .
9
0
0
10
8
10
60
2
10
1 52
7*6
„ „ black and
*
grey
8
13
0
TO
8
3
60
2
9
1*47
7-6
„ Scotch, white . .
„ Canadian, No. 2
9
3
0
10
8
13
60
2
II
1-56
7*6
Western
10
13*
0
10
10
3
60
1-83
7*6
„ Canadian, mixed
feed . .
8
10
0
10
8
0
60
1-43
7-6
„ Canadian, No. i
feed . .
8 I5§
0
10
8
5
60
2
9
1*47
7-6
Maize, American
7
5
0
7
6 18
78
X
9
0*94
7*6
„ Argentine
7
18
0
7
7
II
78
I
XI
I 03
7-6
„ South African,
No. 2, white
7 lot
0
7
7
3
78
I
xo
0*98
7*6
Beans, English, Winter
8
0§
0
18
7
2
66
2
2
I *16
19*7
Peas, English, blue . .
12 IO§
0
15
II
15
69
3
5
1*83
i8*i
„ Japanese
21
lot
0
15
20
15
69
6
0
3-21
x8*i
Milling Offals—
Bran, British
8
2
0
17
7
5
43
3
4
1*79
9.9
„ broad . .
8
12
0
17
7
15
43
3
7
X*92
XO'O
Middlings, fine
C
imported . .
8
7
0
14
7 13
69
2
3
X*2X
X2*X
Weatings}
8
10
0
15
7 15
56
2
9
x*47
xo*7
„ SuperffneJ
8
17
0
14
8
3
69
2
4
1*25
X2*I
Pollards, imported . .
8
2
0 15
7
7
50
2
IX
1*56
xx-o
Meal, barley . .
10
0
0
9
9
II
7X
2
8
1*43
6*2
., „ grade II ..
9
5
0
9
8 x6
7X
2
6
1-34
6*2
„ maize
8
12
0
7
8
5
78
2
I
I*X2
7*6
,. „ South African
7
15
0
7
7
8
78
1
XI
x*03
7*6
„ germ
„ locust bean
8
15
0
XX
8
4
84
X
XI
1*03
xo*3
7
15
0
6
7
9
7*
2
I
X*X2
3-6
„ bean
9
7
0
18
8
9
66
2
7
1*38
X9-7
„ ffsh (white)
„ Soya bean
15
0
2
6
X2
*4
39
4
4
2*32
53*0
(extracted)! . .
9
5
1
XI
7 14
^4
2
5
X*29
38- 3
Maize, cooked, flaked
linseed cake —
9
0
0
7
8
84
2
I
x*xa
9-2
English, 12% oil . .
xo
17
X
X
9
16
74
1 2
8
143
24*6
*» 9% »»
xo
5
X
X
9
4
74
2
6
1*34
24*6
„ 8% ..
xo
0
1
X
8
X9
74
2
5
1*29
24*6
1244
FRIGBS OF FBEDINO 8TUFF8 (conHmed)
description
Price
per
ton
Manu-
rial
value
per
ton
Cost of
food
value
per
ton
Starch
equiv.
per
100 lb.
Price
per
unit
starch
equiv.
Price
per
lb.
starch
equiv.
Pro-
tein
equiv.
Cottonseed cake.
£ s-
£
£
1 5. d.
d.
%
English, Egyptian
1
I !
\
seed, 4|% oil
5 10
0 19
4 II
42 i
2 2
I 16
i7‘3
Cottons^ cake,
j
Egyptian, 4^% oil . .
5 5
0 19
1 4 6
42
2 I
1*12
17*3
Cottonseed cake.
decorticated, 7-8% oil
8 of
I 10
6 10
68
I II
I 03
34-7
Cottonseed meal,
decorticated, 7-8% oil
8 5t
I 10
6 15
70
I II
1*03
36-8
Coconut cake, 5% oil
■ 7
0 19
6 16
77
1 9
0-94
i6*4
Ground nut cake,
6-7% oil . ,
7 0*
I 0
6 0
57
2 1
1*12
273
Ground nut cake.
decorticated, 6-7% oil
8 12*
I 9
7 3
73
2 0
1*07
41-3
Ground nut cake,
imported decorticated.
6-7% oil
7 12
I 9
6 3
73
I 8
0*89
41-3
Palm-kernel cake.
4K5i%oil
7 lot
0 13
6 17
73
I II
1*03
i6*9
Palm-kernel cake meal,
4t% oil . .
Palm-kernel meal.
7 I5t
0 13
7 2
73
I 11
1
I 03
i6*9
1-2% oil
6 17
0 13
6 4
71
i I 9
0-94
i6-5
Feeding treacle
5 0
0 8
4 12
51
1 1 10
©•98
2-7
Brewers' grains, dried ale
6 12
0 12
6 0
48
1 2 6
1-34
12-5
„ „ „ porter
6 5
0 12
5 13
48
1 2 4
125
12-5
Dried sugar-beet pulp
From £6 os. od, to £6 15s. od. per ton ex-factory
(according to factory)
• At Bristol. § At Hull, t A.t Liverpool.
X In these instances manurial value, starch equivalent and protein
equivalent are provisiong^l.
Note : The prices quoted above represent the average prices at which
actual wholesale transactions have taken place in London, unless other-
wise stated, and refer to the price ex mill or store. The prices were
current at the beginning of February, 1938, and are, as a rule, con-
siderably lower than the prices at local country markets, the difference
being due to carriage and dealers' commission. Buyers can, however, easily
compare the relative values of the feeding stuffs on offer at their loc^
market by the method of calculation used in these notes. Thus, if
cake is offered locally at £1 1 per ton, then since its manurial value is
£x IS, per ton as shown above, the cost of food value per ton is £g 195.
Dividing this figure by 74, the starch equivalent of linseed cake as ^ven
in the table, the cost per unit of starch equivalent is 2s. 8rf, Dividing
by 22*4, the number of pounds of starch equivalent in one
unit, the cost per lb# of starch equivalent is i • 43d. Similar calculations
will show the relative cost per lb. of starch equivalent of other feeding
stuffs on the same local market. From the results of such calculations
a buyer can determine which feeding stuff gives him the best value at
the prices quoted on his own markets. The figures given in the table
under the headi ng manurial value per ton are c^culated on the basis of
the following unit prices -N., 75. jd, ; PA» 2$. jd , ; KjO, 3s. M,
1245
FARM VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS
The prices in respect of the feeding stuffs used as bases of comparison
for the purposes of this month's calculations are as follow
Barley (imported)
Maize
Decorticated ground-nut cake
„ cotton-seed cake
(Add 10$. per ton, in ea
Starch
Protein
Ptr
equivaient
equivalent
ton
Per cent.
Per cent.
£
• 71
6 a
8 17
. yS
7.6
7 *8
• 73
413
8 2
. 68
34-7
8 0
instance, for carriage.)
The cost per unit starch equivalent works out at 2*37 shillings, and
per unit protein equivalent 0*10 shilling. An explanation of the method
of calculation employed is given in the Report of the Departmental
Committee on Rationing of Dairy Cows.*
The table is issued as- a guide to farmers respecting the feeding value of
their crops in relation to current market prices. (The ** food values,"
which it is recommended should be applied by Agricultural Organizers
and other advisers in connexion with advisory schemes on the rationing
of dairy cows, are given in the November, 1936, issue of the Ministry's
Journal, p. 816.)
Farm Values
Crop
Starch
equivalent
Protein
equivalent
Food Value
per ton, on
farm
Per cent.
Per cent.
£ s.
Wheat
72
9*6
8 12
Oats . .
60
^ 7-6
7 3
Barley
71
6*2
8 9
Potatoes
18
0*8
2 3
Swedes
7
0-7
0 17
Mangolds
7 '
0*4
0 17
Beans
66
19-7
7 18
Good meadow hay . .
37
4-6
4 8
Good oat straw
20
0*9
2 7
Good clover hay
38
7-0
4 »
Vetch and oat silage
13
1*6
I II
Barley straw
23
0-7
2 15
Wheat straw
13
o-i
I II
Bean straw
23
1-7
2 15
♦ Obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway,
London, W.C.2, price 6d., post free yd.
MISCEIXANEOUS NOTES
Hie Agricaltnral Index Number
The general index number of prices of agricultural produce
for January is 134 (base, January, 1911-13=100) or two
points higher than a month ago and 4 points above that
recorded for January, 1937. If allowance be made for pay-
ments under &e Wheat Act, 1932, and the Livestock Industry
Act, 1937, the revised index for the month becomes 138.
Compared with December, the average prices of oats, fat
cattle and poultry advanced; while those of wheat, felt
sheep and pigs, eggs and butter declined.
Monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, (Corresponding
months o^ 1911-13 = 100.)
Month
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
January
107
1 14
117 •
119
130
134
February . .
106
112
115
118
129
—
March
102
108
112
116
130
—
April
105
III
119
1-23
140
—
lif^y
102
112
in
II5
133
—
June
100 !
no
in
116
I3I
—
July
lOI 1
114
114
117
I3I
—
August , . . .
105
119
113
119
133
—
September , .
107.
119
120 I
127
137
—
October
107
114
II3 i
125
I3I
—
November . .
109
:
II3 1
125
133
—
December . ,
no
1
113
114 1
126
132
—
T
Revised monthly index numbers of prices of Agricultural Produce, allowing
for payments under the Wheat Act (a) and for the Cattle subsidy (6).
Month
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
January
in
119
124
125
133
138
Februaiy . .
no
117
122
123
133
March
106
112
118
122
134
—
April
109
116
126
128
M 3
—
May
105
116
117
120
136
—
June
104
114
1 117
121
134
—
July
104
117
120
121
134
—
August
122
120
1 124
136
—
September . .
in
125
128
133
142
—
October
112
121
119
129
134
—
November . .
113
120
119
129
137
—
December ,,
114
120
120
130
1 136
(») Commenced August, 1932. (b) Commenced September, 1934.
M47
Miscellaneous Noies
In the following table the monthly index numbers of prices
of individual commodities are shown for the mon^ of
October, 1937, to January, 1938, January, 1937, and January,
1936; base, the corresponding mondis of i9ii-i3=»'ioo.
Commodity
1938
1937
1937
1936
Jan.
Dec.
Nov.
Oct.
Jan.
Jan.
Wheat
II4
116
120
124
133
85
Barley
165
i6o
152
148
125
101
Oats
124
1 19
120
124
120
87
Fat cattle . .
123
113
113
XII
97
97
„ sheep . .
133
131
137
134
140
127
Bacon pigs .
134
131
129
124
130
107
Pork ,, . .
140
X39
137
131
131
115
Eggs
120
121
126
13^
95
115
Poultry
133
130
132
133
X20
127
Milk
181
181
181
171
I7I
171
Butter
105
no j
1x6
III ’
95
93
Cheese
125
120 i
121
122
107
93
Potatoes
142
152 j
156
153
205
; 201
Hay
77
79 1
79
86
98
83
Wool
122
117 j
133
140
131
Dairy cows
123
121
XI9
120 i
lli^
Store cattle
119
1x2
107
III >
99
■9
„ sheep
113
112
116
129 ;
1x8
„ pigs . .
164
159
167
164 1
152
Mm
Revised index numbers due to payments under the Wheat Act and to the
Cattle subsidy.
Wheat
Bi
135
132
134
135
124
Fat cattle . .
127
128
C 126
1X2
III
General Index
Wm
136
137
134
133
125
Grain. Wheat, at an average of 8s. ^d. per cwt., was zd.
lower on the month and the index declines by 2 points. If
the deficiency pa5nnent under the Wheat Act, 1932, is taken
into account the index is 135. Barley was unchanged at
13s. 2 d. per cwt., but, owing to a fall in the base price, the
index advances by 5 points. At 8s. bd. per cwt, oats realized
2 d. per cwt. more than a month ago and the index moves
upwards by 5 points. In January, 1937, wheat averaged
9s. 9d., barley los. and oats 8s. 2 d. per cwt.
Live Stock. Quotations for fiit cattle continued to ajqxreciate
during January, second quality averaging 41s. xid. par live
c^. compared with 40s. 4d. the previous month, and the index
rises by 10 points to 123. If tbe subsidy under the Livestock
Miscellaneous Notes
Industry Act, 1937, is added, the index becomes 138. Fat
sheep at tod. per lb. for second quality averaged less than
in l]^cember, but, as the fall was proportionately more in the
base period tire index is higher by two points. Baconers at
las. and porkers at 14s. 6 d. per score (20 lb.) were reduced
in price by 4<i. and jd. respectively. During the months of
January, 1911-13, however, price movements, although
similar, were relatively greater and the indices move upwards
by 3 points and i point respectively.
Prices of dairy cows and store pigs declined during the
month under review, but a proportionately larger reduction
having been recorded in the base prices, the index for the
former rises by two points and for the latter by 5 points. Store
cattle and sheep were dearer as compared with December, the
relative indices appreciating by 7 points and i point.
Dairy and Poultry Produce. The regional price of liquid
milk was again unchanged and the index continues at 181.
Butter at is. 3id. per lb. was lower by id. per lb. , the index
falling by 5 points. Eggs at 15s. 5d. per 120 were reduced
by 5s. and the index is i point lower. Cheese averaged £4 iis.
per cwt. , the same as a month ago, but, with a fall in the base
period, the current index advances by 5 points. Quotations
for poultry moved upwards, as a rule, and the combined index
is 3 points higher.
Other Commodities. Potatoes at £5 8s. 6 d. per ton, and
clover and meadow hay at £3 i8s. 6 d. and £2 i6s. per ton
respectively, were unaltered in price, but, owing to increases
which took place during the corresponding months of 1911-13,
the index for potatoes is 10 points and the combined index
for hay 2 points lower. At is. 3fd. per lb. the December
average price of wool was repeated, but the index shows an
advance of 5 points.
Bidex Numbers of Agricultural Prices
A new series of price indices of agricultural commodities
designed to replace the existing series is in course of prepara-
tion. The new series will be related to a new base period;
the general price index of agricultural produce and those for
groups of commodities will be computed on a different
wei ghting system; additional indices will be calculated where
applicable to show both actual price changes and price
nhang es due to causes other than normal seasonal variation;
and sundry other revisions will be introduced in the case of
1249
Miscbll/u«eous Noibs
certain products relating to the selection prices and Htdr
averaging, and the methods of eliminating seascmal variation.
The new series will, it is anticipated, be introduced next
month, but as revised indices for the last xo years are also being
I»epared the sutetitution will, in effect, date back to 1927.
A full description of tiie new indices, with tables showing coni-
parisons wi& the existing series, will be issued as a Separate
publication.
Agricultural Scholarships
The Ministry invites applications for the undermentioned
scholarships which are being offered for award this year
under the scheme of scholarships for the sons and daughters
of agricultural workmen and otoers: —
*
Ten Senior Scholarships, tenable at Agricultural Colleges or University
Departments of Agriculture, for diploma or degree courses in an agriculture
subject, or at Veterinary Colleges for courses in veterinary science ;
Ten Extended Junior Scholarships (for those who have already held
Junior Awards), and 120 Junior Scholarships, tenable at Farm Institutes
or similar institutions, for courses not exceeding a year in duration, in
agriculture, horticulture, dairying, or poultry husbandry.
The scholarships are open to the sons and daughters of
agricultural workmen or of working bailiffs, smallholders
and other rural workers whose means and method of liveli-
hood are comparable with those of agricultural workmen,
and to persons who are themselves bona fide workers in
agriculture. The value of the awards is such that neither
the recipients nor their parents are norm^ly required to make
any contribution towards the cost of ^e training provided.
The usual method of selection is by interview, no written
examination being required, but candidates must be able to
satisfy the Selection Committee that they are in a position to
derive educational benefit from the proposed courses of
instruction and must also intend to follow an agricultural
pursuit on completion of their training.
Full informktion concerning the scheme, including forms of
application and a leaflet outlining the types of career open
to students who have completed courses of training, may be
obtained from the Secretary, Ministry of Agricolture and
Fisheries, lo, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.i, or localfy
from the of&ces of County Councils. The latest date fw
submitting ai^>lications is April 30, 1938.
1250
APPOINTMENTS
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIONAL STAFFS: ENGLAND
^rkthire : Miss F. J. Atkinson, N.D.D., has been appointed Assistant
Instructress in Dairying.
^ucklnilhamshire : Mr. F. W. Webb has been appointed Assistant Adviser
. in Horticulture, vice Mr. J. N. Acaster.
Oxford; Mr. J. Harrison, B.Sc. (Agric.), has been appointed Instnictor
in Agriculture.
WALES
Brecon and Radnor. Miss D. J. Corfield, N.D.D., has been appointed
Instructress in Dairying, and Miss J. T. Cock, N.D.P.. as In-
structress in Poultry-keeping, vice Miss E. Jones, N.D.D., Instructress
in Dairying and Poultry-keeping, resigned.
MINIMUM RATES OF WAGES
Enforcement of Minimum Rates of Wages. During the month ending
February 12, 1938, legal proceedings were taken against seven employers
for failure to pay the minimum rates of wages fixed by the Orders of
the Agricultural Wages Board. Particulars of the cases follow : —
Committee
Area
Court
•
Fines
Imposed
Costs
Allowed
Arrears of
Wages
ordered
No. of
workers
involved
1
.d.
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
mm
Cheshire . .
Congleton
6 0
0
0
16
0
67
0
0
Glamorgan
Bridgend
(A)
3
3
0
5
0
0
Glamorgan
Gowerton
2 0
0
—
13
19
9
Lancashire
Liverpool
5 0
0
—
60
0
0
Pembroke . .
Narberth
7 10
0
—
28
17
2
Worcester . ,
Tenbury . .
I 0
0
0
2
6
26
10
2
Yorks (W.R.)
Dewsbury
2 0
0
0
5
0
23
14
0
Totals
23 10
0
4
6
6
225
I
B
(A)-a= Dismissed under Probation of Offenders Act.
1251
WIRELESS TALKS, MARCH, 1988
SUUion and
Date
Time :
p.m.
Speaker
Subject
National :
March 2
6.20
Mr. A. Hurd and Mr.
J. Fox
The Pig Scheme.
.. 9
6.20
Mr. A. Hurd
Listeners' Opinions on Pig
Scheme.
16
6.20
Selling Home Produce.
- 23
6.20
Ulster's Example.
30
. 6.20
»•
Soil Fertility.
North:
March ii
6.40
—
North Country Farming.
M 25
6.40
—
Agricultural Labour.
Midland :
March 3
6.40
Mr. W. J. T. Curtis and
Prin. H. G. Robinson
The Young Farmer's Policy
To-day.
M 16
6.40
Mr. C. Norbury
Spring Spraying of Fruit Trees.
Can We Keep Men on the
Land ? "
.» 25
8.00
Mr. G. Boumphrey and
others
West:
March 3
6.00
Mr. G. Scott and a
Young Farmer
Horses.
.> 10
1
8,30
Messrs. A. W. Ling,
A. C. Lanyon and A.
i
Sheep Farming.
.. 17
6-45
Mr. E. Harvey and a
Young Farmer
Cattle.
.. 24
6.40
—
Odd Crops.
Welsh :
March 11
Scottish :
8.05
Discussion
Egg and Poultry Market.
March 3
6.20
Mr. A. D. Buchanan
Smith
Glasgow Stallion Show.
B
6.25
Mr. J. F. Duncan
—
- 17
7.40
Mr. R. L. Scarlett
Reconditioning the Land.
- 25
6.30
Mr. Allan Fraser
—
Northern
Ireland :
March 7
7-30
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Farmers' Work and Worry.
10
8.30
Discussion
—
- *4
7.30
Mr. H. G. Lamont and
a Farmer
Pig Diseases.
». 21
730
Mr. P. Fitzpatrick
Fanners' Work and Worry,
" Should Farmers Grow
V^etables ? "
M 28
1 7-30
Discussion
1252
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
Since the last issue of the Journal the Kent and East Sussex ; the
Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex ; and the Berkshire, Oxford and Wiltshire
Infected Areas have been released from restrictions.
Forty*eight further outbreaks of disease were confirmed during the
period January 20 to February 18 inclusive. Twenty-five of these
occurred in the existing Dorset, Wilts, etc.. Infected Area, of which two,
via., at East Tytbcrton, Wilts, on January 21, and at Netherhampton,
Wilts, on January 24, made it necessary to extend the area under
restrictions.
Fifteen outbreaks of disease were confirmed in the Somerset Infected
Area. Two of these occurred at North Curry on January 31 and
necessitated an extension of that area.
Another outbreak was confirmed in the Berkshire, Oxford and Wiltshire
Infected Area on January 24, but as there was no further outbreak sub-
sequently in this Area it was released from restrictions on February 15.
Other outbreaks which were confirmed during the period under review
necessitated the imposition of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Area
Restrictions as follows : —
Essex, — Approximately 15 miles radius round an infected place at
Kelvedon at which disease was confirmed on January 22. No further
case of disease occurred in the locality and the restrictions were with-
drawn on February 13.
Hampshire, — Approximately 15 miles radius round an infected place
at Shedfield where disease was confirmed on January 23 and again on
February 6. Another outbreak was confirmed at Owslebury on
February 7, and, therefore, an Infected Area of approximately 15 miles
radius round the new Infected Place was declared. This Infected Area
included the area around Shedfield, which at the time of the outbreak
at Owslebury consisted of a circle wdth radius approximately 5 miles
in length.
Yorkshire, W,R, — Approximately 15 miles radius round an infected
place at Stocksbridge at* which disease was confirmed on January 25.
This Area included the then existing Area of approximately 5 miles
radius round Dore, Sheffield. There was another outbreak on
January 26, but as no further outbreak occurred subsequently the
restrictions were withdrawn on February 17.
On February 19, Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infected Area Restrictions
were in operation as follows : —
Dorset, Wilts, etc,. Infected Area. A combined Area of approximately
15 miles radius round infected places at Gillingham, Salisbury, Burbage
and Yatton Keynell.
Somerset Infected Area. A combined Area of approximately 15 miles
radius round the infected places at Wedmorc and Glastonbury, and
5 miles round the infected place at North Curry.
Hampshire Infected Area. Approximately 15 miles radius round the
infected place at Owslebury.
Hampshire and Dorset Infected Area. Approximately 15 miles radius
round an infected place at East Christchurch, Hampshire, at which
disease was confirmed on February 18.
X253
NOTICES OF BOOKS
Feeding Ai^ciaUy Dried GraM. By S. T. Watson, D.Sc., F.LC. Pp. 67.
(Fertiliser and Feeding Stuffs Journal. X937,
This is a report on the feeding of dried gr^, prepared for the Grass
Driers* Association, and is intended as a guide to the efiSicient use of
this product for farm stock of various classes and ages. It may, perhaps,
be unusual to devote a farming book entirely to the use of one commodity.
With dried grass, however, two circumstances call for such a book, viz.,
that it claims attention because it is a recently introduced home-grown
feeding stuff that, if produced under favourable conditions, can r^lace
part or all of the concentrates in the ration, and also that, unlike the
concentrates that it may replace, it is extremely variable in nutritive
value.
The book is self contained, and chapters are included on the nutritive
requirements of farm animals, and on feeding standards in general use ;
the basis of rationing is explained in a simple «and effective manner.
After a discussion of the nutritive values of the various qualities of dried
grass, and the place of this product in the ration, recommendations are
made for the different classes of stock according to maintenance and pro-
duction requirements. Farmers will find these easy to carry out, since
the author is obviously acquainted with the practical difficulties of rationing,
and recommends S3^tems that can be put into practice on the farm. An
appendix is included, giving the results of experiments, and the experi-
ences of practical men. The book is sure to fulfil its purpose ; it is full
and clear, without being encumbered with too much detail
General and Economic Botany. By E. E. Stanford, Ph.D. Pp. xx 675,
and 436 Figs. (New York and London : D. Appleton-Century Co.
1937. Pri<^
This volume, intended as a text-book for students, is of interest because
an attempt has been made to combine the subject-matter that usually
appears in elementary botanical text-bookS with a study of the
importance and uses of plants and plant-life to the world in general and
to mankind in particular. It is stated in the preface that the principal
objective of the volume is ** to introduce the student to one great area of
the biological world as a larger place to live in, rather than to train botanists
to join an overcrowded profession,” and that ” If the introduction be
accomplished in a manner which may to some degree integrate the science
of botany with other interests of life to which it should contribute, such as
agriculture, horticulture, landscape gardening, agronomy, forestry,
zoology, pharmacy, or even medicine, so much the better.”
A wide field is covered by the work. The earlier chapters are devoted
to a general discussion on ” life and living things*' and ” the plant
kingdom.” Then follow descriptions of cells and tissues and the dif^nt
p^s of the plant along with accounts of their functions. The various
divisions of the vegetable kingdom occupy a large portion of the book, the
space devoted to Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) being 140 pages. Here
families are arranged sy^ematkally, and the more important economic
genera and species belonging to th^ are described or mimtkmed and
the nature of their product outlined. The final chapter is entitled
^lEvolution, Heredity and Plant Breeding,” The writer attmnpts to
initiate his reader into all the botanical science or bimnchee boitaiqr.
The book appears to be well fmepared and carefully wriMen, and is
freely illustrated with drawings and photographs in the text.
Notices of Books
The Natton’t Watar Supply. By R. C. S. Walters, B.Sc., M.Iiist.C.E„
F.G.S., M.Cons.E. Pp. xv + 244, and 78 Figs.
(Lon^n : Ivor Nicholson & Watson, Ltd. 1936. Price 315. 6d,)
This description of the water supply of Great Britain is written primarily
for members of the general public who are concerned with or otherwise
interested in the subject. Although the language employed is non-technical
throughout, the book does not claim to be in any sense " popular,'* and it
will doubtl^ have a value for engineers and meteorologists. The com-
prehensive nature of its contents will be gathered from the following
summ^. The work is divided into eight sections, the first three of which
deal wi^ rainfall and geological and chemical relations to water supply.
The Rainfall Section treats of its distribution with special reference to the
average, minimum and maximum rainfall, and also shows how rainfall
statistics are used for calculating run-ofi. The Geological Section deals
with those rocks suited to impounding reservoirs and those suited for
subterranean supplies. The salient features of chemical and bacterio-
logical analyses are described in Part III. The next three parts deal with
impounding, underground and river schemes throughout the country,
and the last two with legislation and engineering in relation to water
supply. The book is copiously illustrated with photographs, diagrams
and coloured maps, which definitely serve to elucidate the text.
The Journal of the South-Eastern Agricultural College. Edited by the
Rev. S. G. Brade-Birks, M.Sc.(Manc.), D.Sc.(Lond.), F.Z.S. No. 40.
Pp. 188. (Wye ; South-Eastern Agricultural College. July, 1937.
Price 75. post free ; residents in Kent and Surrey, 4s. post free.)
The wide range of activities carried on in field and laboratory at Wye
College is reflected in the new issue of its o£&cial journal, which contains
articles on apple scab, artificial drying of p3a*ethrum flowers, brewers'
grains as a substitute for millers* oflals, conversion of pasture into lawn and
cricket ground, meta-fuel " and slug control, milk cooling, milk
production, selection of potato seed, soil detritals, soil profiles and t5nro-
glyphids : and accounts of investigations on machinery used in spraying,
and on the insect and allied pests of cultivated mushrooms. As might be
expected, there are several articles concerning hops, hop drying, the
honey fungus attacking fruit and hops, the downy mildew of the hop,
fhe preservative value of hops of the American type, and a new variety
called ** Early Promise." The Rev. R. W. H. Acworth contributes an
unusual and interesting paper on " Hop Tokens in Kent and Sussex," a
valuable collection of which has been presented b}'' him to the College.
Germatiy : the Last Four Years, an Independent Examination of the
Resets of National Socialism. By " Germanicus." Introduction by
Sir Walter LayiX)n. Pp. 116. (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
1937. Price 55 )
This is, in substance, a reprint of a series of articles criticizing various
aspects of the Nazi regime which appeared in the February issue of The
Banker, According to the introduction, it is the work of about a dozen
men of some achievement in Germany's military, financial and industrial
aflairs." The subjects discussed include German finances, war prepara-
tlonB, foreign trade, banking, the press, and agriculture. An at^k on
the agricultural article published by the Berlin Institute for Busmess
Reseanfli^ia reprinted in an appendix, together with a reply by the author
o< the putfcle.
1255
Notices of Books -
An Introduction to Economic Botany. By James Gillespie. The New
People's Library, VoL III. Pp. 96, 7 Figs. (Victor GoUanct, Ltd.
Price IS. 6d. cloth, is. paper.)
Those who read An Introduction to Economic Botany " with the
expectation of gaining an elementary knowledge of those plants and
their products that are most useful to man, will be disappointed. The
author of this book is not, in fact, concerned with economic botany in the
generally accepted sense of the term, but rather with such subjects as
plant diseases, plant breeding and the eradication of weeds. In Edition
there are chapters dealing with plant anatomy, the chemical basis of
plant life, the energy relationships of plants, and growth and development.
These aspects of botany are interesting enough in themselves, but to
deal with them in a small book on economic botany is both unnecessary
and misleading. Brief reference is made to rubber, tea and cotton, but
otherwise the reader is left in ignorance of the world's botanical products.
Besides the misleading title there is a great deal in this book that calls
for criticism. The anatomical diagrams are extremely crude, and the
one of the potato blight fungus on p. 54 is Very misleading to the
uninitiated, because there is nothing to indicate that the fungus is growing
through a stoma in the surface of a leaf. Ve^ little care appears to have
been devoted to the arrangement of the subject matter. Thus, on p. 42
we hnd an account of the morphology of a flower in the middle of a para*
graph that opened by referring to Mendel. Then on p. 43, in a fresh
paragraph, although the reader has not yet been told of the loss of Mendel's
papers, he is suddenly informed that they were rediscovered ! Such slang
expressions as " dole out " and " suburbanites " seem out of place in a
scientiflc book, and the author appears to delight in the use on all possible
occasions of the much abused verb " to get." It is rather surprising to
learn on p. 10 that the Industrial Revolution acted as an incentive to the
study of plant anatomy ; and persons who are familiar with the appear-
ance of tropical rain forests wfll be amazed to read on p. 73 that they
are " ablaze with colour." A statement to the effect that the gene theory
of inheritance supports a materialistic philosophical outlook also seems
to be out of place in a book of this kind.
That a brief, inexpensive book on economic botany for popular use
would serve a useful purpose none will deny, but it is felt that Mr.
Gillespie's attempt to fulfll this need leaves much to be desired. The
main interest of the book lies in the fact that the author has shown in
what directions recent advances in botany may be applied to agricultural
or horticultural practice.
Printed under the authority ol Hii MA|asTtr*s StAfiOHEXY OlYicz,
By WiLLtAic CLOwas St Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.B.t.
INDEX TO VOL. XUV
April, 1937, to March, 1938
Page
Accommodaticm of Pickers of Hops, Fruit and Vegetables 267
Acts of Parliament, Orders, etc. ; see also Marketing Notes.
Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act, 1924 617
Agriculture Act, 1937 525
,, ,, ,, Part IV, Diseases of Animals 725, 828, 1176
„ ,, ,, Land Drainage 613
Cattle Indttstiy (Emergency Provisions) Acts, 1934-36 143, 906
Destructive Imported Animals Act, 1932 420
Destructive Insects and Pests Act, Importation of Raw Cherries
Order, 1937
Land Drainage Act, 1930 617
Livestock Indust^ Act. 1937 i59» 264, 377, 427
Seeds Act, Working of during Season, x 936-37 1095
Agricultural Machinery Topics ... 987,1226
Combined Seed and Fertiliser Drills 1230
Implements at Smithfield 990
Lime and Chalk Grinding 989
Muck Carting 1229
Small Tractors 1227
Tractor Ploughing 1226
Tractor Power in Ploughing 987
Agricultural Policy 525, 937
Agricultural Research Council 1153
,, ,, ,, Field Station 732
Agricultural Returns and Statistics :
Cattle, Pigs and Sheep, December, 1937 1041
Index Number ... 90, 187, 287, 397, 491, 600, 695, 803, 914,
1027, 1133, 1247
Machinery Census ..., 1041
Pigs in England and Wales 835
Returns of England and Wales, 1937 595, 700, 1031
Statistics, 1935 (Part II) 3
„ Value of the September Inquiry 632
Turkeys, September, 1937
Winter Wheat Census 1157
American Farmer Comes to College 749
Anemones from Cornwall and Devon 959
Apple Pith Moth 138
Apple Scab Spraying Experiments at Wisbech. — IV 1184
Appointments loi, 194, 298, 410, 496, 607, 700, 810, 919 »
1032, 1139, 1251
Askew, R. P, : Recent Changes in Sheep Breeding in the Arable Area 450, 562
Autumn Leaves in the Garden 74^
Berrie, G. : The Blowfly in Australia : Some Methods of Prevention 50
Birds, Interesting 6, 108, 204, 310, 421, 519, 612. 722, 830
Blowdy in Austria, The 50
Boddington, E, G. : A Native Agricultural College ii95
Book Notices, see also Pubiications and Reports.
Agiicultutal Prices (F. L. Thomsen) 5^4
Agricultaral Survey of the Northern Province (J. A. Hanley »
A. L. Boyd and W. Williamson) 59i
Agricultural Progress 299
iv
Index
Book Notices : (continued) Page
Biochemistxy of Cellulose (A. G, Norman) 1:143
British Goat Society’s Yearbook for 1937 (ed. H, E. Jeffery) ... 512
Canning Practice and Control (O. Jones and T, W, Jones) ... 306
Changes in the Economic Organization of Agriculture ... ... 1144
Chemistry of Food and Nutiition (H, C. Sherman) 30X
Cheshunt Experimental and Research Station Annual Report 1x47
Comment on Soigne son Jardin (G. Truffaut) 510
Conditions de Production en Tchi^coslovaquie (V. Brdlik) ... 50S
Conservation of the Soil (A. F. Gustafson) 1149
Com and Com Growing (H. A. Wallace and E. N. Bressman) ... 307
Cycle of Weathering (B. B, Polynov) 926
Deserts on the March (P. B. Sears) 821
Deutsche Siedlung Raumordnung und Siedlungswesen im Reich
und in den Kolonien (J, H. Schultxe) 308
Economic Botany (A, F. Hill) 1x44
Egg Prices (O. J. Beilby) 819
Electrihcation of Agriculture and Rural Districts (E. W, Golding) 817
Farming England . G. 1151
“ Feathered World ” Yearbook, 1937 303
Feeding Artificially Dried Grass (S. J. Watson) 1255
Feeding of Crops and Stock : Part I — ^The Plant {Sir Daniel Hall) 299
Part H — Soils and Fertilizers (Sir Daniel Hall) 51 1
General and Economic Botany (E. E. Stanford) x 253
German Agricultural Policy, 1918-34 (/. B. Holt) 502
Germany: the Last Four Years (G^rmanfrus) ... ... ... 1236
Grass Drying (S. W, Cheveley) 822
Grass Drying (E. /. Roberts) 822
Grass-Drying : A Study of Production Costs in 1936 (B. N.
Dixey and R. P. A shew) 300
Great Farmers (/, A. Scott Watson and Af. E. Hobbs) 304
Growth Hormones in Plants (P, B. Jensen) 823
Hill Country of Northern New England (i/, F, Wilson) 304
Hill Lands of Britain (R. G. Stapledon) 923
Internal Parasites and Parasitic Diseeuses of Sheep (/. C. Ross
and H. M. Gordon) 8x6
Introduction to Economic Botany (/. Gillespie) 1236
Introduction to the Principles of Plant Phy^ology (W. Stiles) ... 103
Jahresbericht fOr Agrikultur-Chemie (ed. F, Mock) 310
Jc^es' England : Nature Essays (ed. S. J. Looker) 823
Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society,
1937 299
Journal of the British Dairy Farmers* Association 303
J ournal of the Royal A^c. Soc. of England. Vol. 97 817
oumal of the S.E. Agricultural College 1236
Land Classification in Dorset (L. Ellis Taverner) 1 147
Land Reclamation in Italy (C. Longobardi) 103
Laying Battery Management (if. E. Swepstone) 820
Leguminous Forage Plants (/. if. Robinson) 928
Life on an English Manor (H. 5. Bennett) 926
Milk Consumption (K. A. H. Murray) 1148
Milk Ration indicator (£. David) 925
Monthly Bulletin of Amcultural Economics and Sociology ... 4
Mushroom Handbook (L. C. C. Krieger) 414
National Farmers* Union Year Book, 1937 ^yf^)
National Income and Outlay (C. Clark) 503
Nation's Water Supply (R. C. S. Walters) 1256
Or<diard and Small Fruit Culture (£. C. Auchter and H, B. Knapp) 8x8
Outline of Cytological Technique for Plant Breeders 502
Overseas Plant Products (/* if* Holland) XX5^
Parliamentary Land Enclosures in Nottinghamshire (W, £. Tate) 508
Plant Diseases of Great Britain (G. C. Ainsworth) fio8
Plant Ecology (H. Drabble) ... 822
Pork Production (W. W, Smith) 1x46
Index
Book Notices : (continued)
Practical C^rse in Agricultural Chemistry (F. Knowles and
£. Watkin)
Preservation of Our Scenery (V, Cornish)
Preservative Treatment of Estate and Farm Timber (R, C. V,
Gardner)
Principles of Economic Planning (G. D. H. Cole)
Proceedings of the IVth International Conference of Agricultural
Economists, 1936 (ed. P. Maxion)
Production of Field Crops : A Textbook of Agronomy (T, B,
Hutcheson K, Wolfe and M. S. Kipps)
Profitable Culture of Vegetables (T. Smith and W. E. Shewell-
Cooper)
Prosperity and Depression (G. von Harberler)
Records of a Yorkshire Manor (Sir T. Lawson-Tancred)
Report on the Marketing of Wheat in India
Robert Loder's Farm Accounts, 1610-1620 (ed. G. E. Fussell) ...
Scientific Horticulture (ed. R. T. Pearl)
Second International Congress for Microbiology, 1936 (cd.
R. St. John-Brooks)
Second Report on the Cx)rrosion of the Tinplate Container by
Food Products (T. N. Morris and /. M. Bryan)
Social History of American Agriculture (J. Schafer) ...
Soil Conditions and Plant Growth (Sir John Russell)
Soja dans le Monde, I-c
Solon Robinson, Pioneer and Agriculturist (ed. H. A. Kellar) ...
Study of Fluid Milk Prices (J. M. C assets)
Sugar : A Case Study of Government Control (J K Dalton) . . .
Taschenbuch der Grkser (E. Klapp)
Tuberculin-tested Milk (R. N. Dtxey)
Uber Abschreibungen und Wert ungen im Landwirtschaftlichen
Betrieb (G. Klauder)
Up from Poverty in Rural India (D. Spencer Hatch)
Vegetable Crops for Market (.4 H Hoare)
Weed Plates (E. Korsmo)
World Consumption of Wool, 193O
World Trade and its Future (Sir A Salter)
Year-book of Agricultural Co-operation, 1937
Breaking Up Grass Land
Brcnchley, W. E. : Some Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants
Broccoli, Fhroductioii in West Cornwall
Britain's Grass Land Must Be Improved
Page
301
507
1145
«i 5
411
304
503
1150
115^
413
1039
509
302
194
303
511
502
509
1150
1x48
927
505
819
194
510
925
818
820
f>o 7
25
iiO
841
()I9
Brown, C. A. Cameron : Electrical Heating for Horticultural Purposes 552
Buddin, W. : Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips and Its Control. . . ... 54, 1 158
Burton, C. : Starting a Central Apple Packing Station ... 1073
Caseby, J. A. ; Picture-Films as an Aid in Agricultural Education 465
Cattle Industry (Emergency I^ovisions) Acts, 1934-36 ... 143,906
Cereals, see also Diseases of Plants.
Cereals for Autumn Sowing 618
,, ,, Spring Sowing 115^
Malting !^rley (>>nfcrence 930
Oats and Barley Subsidy Scheme 629
Wheat, Sampling Observations on (Reports, 1936-37) 3 M» 7oi
Winter Wheat Acreage ii 57
Chlorate 'Weed-killers, Use of
Coles, R. : A Preliminary Investigation into the CXcurrencc and
Causes of Hair Crac^ in Hen Egg-shells 1088, 1204
Colleges and Research Stations :
Native Agricultural College 1 195
Research Institutes, Report 403
Rothamsted and Woburn, Summer Visits to 289
Composts 330
Vi
P^aE
Commissions, Committees and Councils, see also
£lectro«Culture Committee * tiz
Livestock Advisory Committee .** B33, 9BX
Poultry Xecbnical Committee of Gt. Britain
Omferences and Congresses :
International Congress of Asp^culture, The Hague, 1937 *
, International Congress for Miat>biolo|y, London, 1936
Intmnational Grassland Congress, Oxford and Aberystw3rth, r937
Malting Barley
Midland Collie Poultry Conferexme, 1937
Oxford Farming Conference, X938 ...
Poultry and Dmry Instructors
World's Dairy Congress, Berlin, X937
Comer, S. L. : Farming and Factory MaSoagement in Denmark
Council of Agriculture for England : 4Sth and 49th Meetings
Beef Prices
Cheaper Milk Schemes
Clearing of Water-courses ...
Consumption of Milk
Expenses of Worker Members
Fidd and Tile Drainage
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Lime and Basic Slag Subsidy Scheme
Marking of Import^ Eggs ...
McCreagh Estate
Milk Distribution
Minister's Address
Parliamentary Secretary's Address
Pigs and Bacon
Proposed Ploughing-up Subsidy
Rural Housing
Transfer of Veterinary Functions
Wheat Act, 1932
County Council Smallholdings in Dorset and Hampshire
Crop Husbandry in the XVIIIth Century
Crowther, C. : Notes on Feeding ... 82,
xtfo
Cultivation of Asparagus Fern
Cutworms as Sugar-beet Pests, and Their Control
309
302
434
930
5«3
83X, 1052
...803, 970
209
636
358, X006
366, 369
367
X007, 1022
370
367» 363
367
10x7
1007, X020
364
358, X019
X016, 1025
... 358
... 1006
... X 0 X 8
... xox8
1008, 1023
1014
364, XOI5. I02X
x8, 123, 214, 348
36. 353. ^ 5 *. X W
177, 278, 388, 481, 587, 6S7,
" 793. 897. 998, 11x8, 1238
458
43
Dairying :
Dairy Instructors’ Conference 805
Simplified Method of Calculating Balanced Mixtures for Milk
Producticm 853
Davies, W. Maldwyn, and R. P. Hobson : %eep Blowfly Investi-
gations 222
Denmark, Fanning and Factory Management in 63^
Diseases and Pests of Animals :
Agriculture Act, X937, P»rt IV
Animal Diseases Rmarch Association
Blowfly in Australia
Bovine Mastitis
Foot-and-Mottth Disease in Great Britain ...
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks
49^* 605, 70:
Handbook of Diseases of Animals Acts and <
Minister’s Statement on Animal Diseases ...
Poultry Disease Services at Weybridge ...
Shei^ Blowfly Investigations
Sleep Scab
Tnberculoria (Attested Herds) Scheme
725. 828
307
31
943
101, 194. 398. 303. 4«9.
814. 9*3. *037. **4*. W5S
ders XX35
... 2 X3
203
... 222
94
294
Index
vn
piseases and Pasts of Plants ; Pags
Apple Pith Moth 138
Apple Scab Spmyiitf Experiments at Wisbech. — ^IV 1184
Chrysanthemum Midge 93
Cutworms as Sugar-beet Pests 43
Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants 116
Finger-and-Toe Disease .. 679
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips 54, 1 158
Local Destructive Insects and Pests Orders 933
Marsh Spot in Pea Seeds 202
Onion and LeSk Smut Control 1048
Onion Fly Control 1081
Plum Sawfly» Spraying for 858
Poison Bait for Slugs 242
Potato Blight 546
Smuts of Wheat 61 1
Stem Eelworm Disease of Field Beans 130
Whiteheads or Take-all of Wheat 231
Economics of Turkey Production 655
Education and Research, see also Appointments, Colleges, Reports and
Scholarships.
Agricultural Economics Society's Essay Competition 493
American Farmer Comes to College 749
Jones-Bateman Cup for Research in Fruit-growing 494
Maymard Ganga Ram Prize : 3rd Award 401
National Diploma in Agriculture and Fream Memorial Prize . . . 399
Picture- Films as an Aid in Agricultural Education 465
Poultry and Dairy Instructors' Conferences 805, 970
Eggs, see also Marketing Notes and Poultry.
Hair Cracks, Occurrence and Causes 1088, 1204
Electrical Heating for Horticultural Purposes 552
Farming and Factory Management in Denmark
Farming in Soviet Russia
Farm Notes (Monthly) ... 69, 164,
Bovine Mastitis
Breeding for Fat Lambs
Cake Feeding on Grass *
CatUe
Cereal Crops
Drainage
Early Management of Leys
Early Winter Beef
Finger-and-Toe Disease
Grass Consumption by Sheep
Grass Land
Grazing
Grazing of Aftermath
Hay muddng
Hesses
Land Fertility Scheme
Labour
lime and Phosphates
live Stock
636
1063
272, 382, 475, 581, 675,
782, 885, 982, 1106, 1220
385
47 <>
273
7o» 784* 888
72, 168, 886.1 106
886
1223
583
679, 783
180
72, 581, 887, ri07
384. 679
274
167
984
479
382
985
Manuring of Leys ... ,
MeadcmHay
Meadow Land
Mdk Keooiding
mt yields
Phflam Land
SkHMoes and Root Crops
X22X
72
165
676
478
164, 272
73» 675. 782
viii
Inixbx
Farm Notes (Monthly) : {contintted) Fags
Phultry x^7
Root Crops 275
Seed Rates 952
Seedbeds * 982
Sheep 69, x66. 274, 583, 785, H09
Wheat 583, 785
Farm Values of Feeding Stuffs (Monthly) ... 89. 186, 286« 396, 490, 594,
694, 802, 905» 1005, X128, 1246
Feeding (Monthly) Notes on 82, 177, 278, 388, 481, 587, 687,
793. B97. 998, 1118, 1138
Assessment of Productivity of Grassland 278
Digestibility of Huskless Oats 590
Dried Milk Products 1243
Fibre 8a
Food R^uirements of Sheep 177, 281
Grassland Produce ... 793
Grit, Influence of, on Digestibility of Grain by Fowls 1121
Influence of Food Oil on Body Fat in the Fowl x8r
Meat Meals 587
Pasteurized Milk in Calf Rearing 1118
Pig Feeding Experiments in Northern Ireland 485
Pig Feeding, use of Milk and Milk Products 1 238
Poultry Experiments in Northern Ireland 481
Protein Requirement of the Laying Hen 689. 1000
M .1 of the Pig 998
Rabbits : Digestion of Food 1122
,, Water Needs 1124
Raw versus Pasteurized Milk 39 r
Research at Shinfleld ... 388
Restricted Rationing of Pigs O87
Water Consumption by Suckling Sows 999
Whey 1242
Winter Ke^ 793* 897
Feeding Stuffs, races of (Monthly Tables) ... 87, 184, 284, 394. 488, 592.
692. 800. 903, 1003, 1126, 1244
Ferguson. R. G. : A Survey of the Grass Land of Hertfordshire . . . 335
Ferguson. W. S,. and S. J. Watson ; Nutritive Vklue of Meadow Hay 247
Findlay. D. H., and E. T. Sykes ; Control of Potato Blight by Spraying
and Destruction of Haulm 54 ^
Fishwick, V. C. : Rearing Young Pigs ... 534. f>45
Freeman. J. A. : The American Farmer Comes to College 749
Fruit :
Imperial Fruit Show. 1937 *37
Starting a Central Apple Packing Station ... 1073
Fussell, G. E. : Crop Husbandry in ttic XVIIIth Century :
Bedford. Cambridge and Huntingdon 353
East Anglia 36
Lincoln and Rutland (>3X
Northampton and Leicester i X99
Gamer. H, V. : Composts 330
Effect of Manures on Size of Main Crop Potatoes 1 169
Gimingham. C. T.. and H. C. F. Newton : A Poison Bait for Slugs ... 242
Goats : Stud Goat Scheme. 1937-38 97. 1138
Grass, see Pasture.
Grey Bulb Rot of Tulips and Its Control 54. 1 X58
Grey Squirrels ... 1x58
Hair Cracks in Hen Egg Shells, a Prdimixxary Investigation into the
Occurrence and Causes zo88. 1204
Hall, Sir Daniel : Oxford Fanning Conference. 1938 ... ... 1052
Hainan. £. T. : A Simplified Mi%hod of Calculating Balanced Mix*
tures for Milk Production 853
Index
uc
Hanley, F. : Notes on Manuring 75, 170, 680, 787, 890, 992, iiii, 1232
Hay, Nutritive Value of 247
Hoiwn, R. P., and W. Maldw3m Davies : Sheep Blowfly Investi*
gations 222
Immature Grass and Young Swards 317, 442
Imperial Fruit Show, 1937 837
Johnson, L. R., and H. W. Thompson : Stem Eelworm Disease of
Field Beans 130
Johnstone, K. H., and A. D. H. Walbank : Market Anemones from
Cornwall and Devon 959
Land Drainage :
A^culture Act, 1937, Part III 613
River Nene Improvement Works 1161
River Trent Catchment Area, Some Remedial Works 9^6
Land Fertility Committee 516
,, ,, Scheme O24, 715, 1050, 1160
Lit^ary of the Ministry, Additions, etc 195, 414
Lime, Untreated and Inexpensive Materials as a Source of 73f>
Live Stock, see also Notes on Feeding.
Cattle, Pigs and Sheep, Deccmb^, 1937 1041
Export of Breeding Stock 291
Pigs in England and Wales 835
Pigs, Rearing Young 534,645
Report on Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37 754, 870
Sheep Breeding, Changes in 5^2
Macdonald, A. J,, and M. S. Miller : Economics of Turkey Production 655
Maegregor, J. J. : Production of Broccoli in West Cornwall 841
Machinery, see also Agricultural Machinery Topics :
Agricultural Machinery Census 1041
Agricultural Machinery Testing Committee 113^
R.A.S.E. Tractor Tests ... ... ... ... ... 1029
Manures, Prices of Artificial (Monthly Tables) ... 81, 176, 277. 387, 480, 586,
686, 792. 896, 997, 1 1 17, 1237
Manuring :
Autumn Leaves in the t^arden 74 ^
Composts 330
Effect of Manures on Size of Main Crop Potatoes 1189
Manuring (Monthly) Notes on ... 75, 170, 680. 787, 890, 992. im. 1232
Autumn<sown Cereals 790
Balanced Manuring
Brussels Sprouts
Dried Poultry Manure Experiments
Injection Methods for the Diagnosis of Nutrient Deficiencies
Lime and Basic Slag, Use of
Lime and Soil Organic Matter
Lime Losses from Soils
Maintenance of Soil Productivity
Marrow Stem Kale
Mineral Phosphate
One-year " S^s *’ Leys
Phosphate and Seedling Growth
Potash on Potatoes
Potash on Sugar-beet..
Soil Conditions and Response to Fertilizers
Soil Organic Matter and Quicklime
Spring Applications of Nitrogen for Cereals
Spring Cabbage : Top Dressing
ITIl
80
107
T235
680
996
890
172
77
992
1235
894
1112
1113
787
996
1232
IU5
iNCEX
Mantuing (Monthly) Notes on : (conHnuid)
Swedes, Manuring for
Trends in Fertilizer Consumption ...
Vegetable Growing on the General Farm
Marketing Notes :
Bacon and Hams. Regulation of Imports
Bacon Development ^heme
Bacon Market^ Scheme
Canada : Trade Agreement with ...
Cattle Fund
Consumers' Committees
Demonstrations at Agricultural Shows
63. * 5 S
«. 378
773
61. 978
64
*64, 376, 472. 579 . 689
26a, X2S7
158, 266, 381. 474. 884
Fat Stock : Carcass ^e by Grade and Dead Weight 156, 473. 776, XX04
Hops Marketing Scheme 61, 262, 376, 575. 673, 879. 97 ^*
1 101, X2x6
Intematioi^ Beef Conference 15^
Irish Free State, Trade Arrangement with 65
Livestock Advisory Committee 833* 98x
Livestock Industry Act 159, 264. 377, 472, 77b. 881, 980, XX03, 12x8
Meat. Regulation of Imports: July-December. X936 ^ 66
Milk Acts, 1934-37 ••• 62. 153, 26a, 377, 469, 667. 774. 879, xxo2
Milk (Amendment) Act, 1937 57 ^
Milk Marketing Scheme 60, 152, 261, 374, 468, 469. 572.
573. 869, 77 «» 878.
Milk Supplies, Direction of 4^9
Mutton and Lamb, Imports 1937 379
National Mark Beef 158, 778. 1105
„ ,, Canned Fruit and Vegetables 380, 777
„ Cheese I 57 ' 472> 873, 884
„ ,, Cider 157
,, ., Creamery Butter 87. 473
,, ,, Dressed Poultry 67, 266, 580, 883, 1219
„ .. Eggs 882, 1218
,, „ Fruit Products 380 , 979
„ „ Honey *84
„ „ Plums 379
„ „ Trade Committees 579
„ „ Wheat Flour 265, 778
,, ,, ,, ,, Baking Tests 883
Northern Ireland, Potatoes from 8x
Pigs Marketing Scheme ^ 81, 976, 12x6
Potatoes : Supplies 81, 779, 977
Potato Marketing Scheme 262, 469, 575, 673, 773, 879, 976, ixox, X2i6
Publicity 580, 674, 778. 1x05, X219
... 158.
67, 266, 580,
Regulation of Imports of Bacon and Hams 86. 378
p. p. M Meat 86
South Africa : Agricultural Marketing Act, 87, 381
Sugar Beet Marketing Scheme 575 * 878
Sugar Industry (Reoiganization) Act. X936 ... 63, 155, 263, 47X,
578, 669, 774. 880, 979, 1*03, 12x8
Wheat Act. 1932 62. 154, 263, 378. 471, 377 » 867, 774,
880, 978. 1X02. X2X7
MUes. M. : The Apple Pith Bloth 138
Milk, see also MarheHng N( 4 €S and Dairying,
A^fricultural Policy 937
Wik Nutrition Committee ...
Whey X09
Miller. M. S., and A. J. Macdonald : Eccmomics of Turkey Produetloa 635
Miaistar's Address. Agricultnral Educetioii Associatiim 989
p» „ Council of .^[ricultiire S58
». .. East Susseac&liootof Ai^ttlture ... 7^9
IP ». Young Farmers' Cldbs 7X5
.. Broadcast. Graidaad liii q Mo v eineot ... 809
Statement. Agricultural Polky ... ato. 525»957
Ikdsx
xi
Pagb
Native Agricultural College 1195
Neglected A»>ect ol Pig>keepiug and Manure Production 850
Nekton* H. C. F., and C. T. Gimingham : A Poison Bait lor Slugs ... 242
Notes lor the Month and Miscellaneous Notes, see also Fartn Notes.
Accredited Poultry Breeding Stations Scheme X047
Advice on Camps lor Hop-pickers 495
Advtory Leaflets 95, 494, 698, 1030
Agricultural Economics Society's Essay Competition 493
Agricultural Indebtedness 4
Agricultural Index Number ... 90, 187, 287, 397, 491, 600, 695, 803.
914. 1027, 1x33, X247
Agricultural Machinery Census 1041
Agricultural Machinery Testing Committee X136
Agricultural Research Council 1153
Agricultural Research Scholarships and Studentships for Research
in Animal Health 190, 524
Agricultural Statistics, 1935 (Part II) 3
Agriculture Act, 1937 : Land Drainage O13
Agriculture Act, 1937 • (Diseases of Animals) 828
Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act, 1924 : Report of Pro-
ceedi^, 1935-36 O17
Animal Diseases Research Association 307
Annual Conlerences of Dairy and Poultry Instructors 805
Bee Research at Rothamsted 603, 809
Bibliography of Literature on Agricultural Meteorology ... 5
Bibliography of Literature on Mechanization of Agriculture . . . 403
Cattle, Pigs and Sheep. December. 1937 1041
Carnegie Trust 404
Cereals lor Autumn Sowing 618
Cereals lor Spring Growing 1156
Control ol Onion and Leek Smut in England and Wales ... 1048
Coronation Day Bonfires 19 1
Coronation Planting Committee 831
County Egg-Laying Trials 808
Demonstrations to Parties of Farmers at Rothamsted and
Woburn 289
Diseases of Animals in 1936 615
Dried Poultry Manure Experiments 107
Dutch Meth<^ of Sand Dune Reclamation {H. Mortimer Batten) 518
East Sussex School of Agriculture 7^9
Electro-Culture Committee Report 112
Eradication ol Bracken : Demonstration Scheme 6x4
Essex Seed Growers* Association 1044
Export of Breeding Stock
Exportation of Horses Act, 1937 7 *®
Farm Institute Live Stock Jud^g Competition 402
Food Council Report on Retail Milk Distribution 9 i 9
Fruit : A Summary of Figures of Production 3 ^
Gas^storage of Eggs (T. Moran) 4^7
Glasshouse Crops, Output ol ^
Grassland Improvement Campaign 609
Grey Squirrels 420 » ^ 15 ®
Handbc^k of Diseases ol Animals Acts and Orders ... ii 35
Indoor and Outdoor Farrowing : A Comparison (S. Williams) ... 421
Interesting Birds : (2) Nightjar $
„ (3) KStrel 108
♦. ,, (4) BUckbird
(5) Song-Thrush
,, (6) IRMn 421
.. M ( 7 ) Wren 5^9
„ », (8) Long-tailed Tit
»» ( 9 ) Spotted Flycatcher 7 **
„ .. (lo) Lapwing
xii
Index
Notes for the Month : (confinu^) PAOn
International Coni^ess of A^culture, The Hague 209
Importation of Cherries tSg
Importation of Chrysanthemums , ... 95
Imported Poultry and Eggs ... 832
Jones-Bateman Cup for Research in Fruit-growing 494
Land Division of the Ministry, Report, 1936 1050
Land Drainage Act, 1930 : Report 617
Land Fertility Committee 516
Land Fertility Scheme 715, 1050
Linton Village Centre 717
Livestock Advisory Committee 833
Local Destructive Insects and Pests Orders 933
Malting Barley Conference 930
Marsh Spot in Pea Seeds 202
Maynard Ganga Ram Prise : 3rd Award 401
Meat : A Summary of Figures of Production 308
Melancholy Thistle (H. C. Pawscn and Brynmor Thomas) ... 424
Midland College Poultry Conference, 1:937 523
Milk and Nutrition ^ 201
Minister's Address to Agricultural Education Association ... 929
National Diploma in Agriculture and the Fream Memorial Prize 399
National Institute of Agricultural Botany 5
National Institute of Agricultural Botany Farm Crop Variety
Trials 405
National Rat Week, 1937 614
New Index Number of Agricultural Prices ... ... ... 1154
New Method for Harvesting Roots (/. St. Bodfan-Gtiffitk) ...519. 700
Nutrition and Agriculture 713
Official Seed Testing Station in 1935-36 * ... 8
Oxford Fanning Conference 831
Pigs in England and Wales : 1935-1937 835
Plum Sawfly 113
Potato Synonyms ... ... ... ... ... ... ...92. 109
Post Graduate Agricultural Scholarships and Refresher Course
Grants 95* 807
Poultry Disease Services at the Veterinary Laboratory, Wey-
bridge ' 203
Prevention of the Introduction of Foreign Pests and Diseases ... 721
Progress in the Transport and Storage of Foodstufis 513
Quick Drying of Hay (/. St. Bodfan-Griffith) ' 3**
R.A.S.E. Tractor Test 1029
Reduction of Charges for Certain Poultry Disease Services . . . 203
Register of Dairy Cattle 402
Research on Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Sit Joseph Arkwright) ... 305
Rothamsted Winter Lectures 723
Royal Veterinary College and Hospital 825
Rural Housing Report 9^6
Sampling Observations on Wheat, 1936-37 : Report ... 3M» 7®*^
Scholarships for the Sons and Daughters of Agricultural Work-
men and Others 698
Scientific Principles of Poultry Feeding ... m
Seed Potatoes (N. I. A. B.) 9^7
Seed Potato Frauds ... 723
Sheep Scab Prosecution 94
Single-handed Hay Making (T. 5. 207
Silver Leaf Disease (W. F. Cheat) 4*^
Smuts of Wheat ... 6ii
Stud Goat Scheme, 1937-38 97»
Sugar-beet Seed 7
Tar Marking of Sheep
Tithe Redemption Annuities 192
Travelling Scholarship in Agriculture
Tubercubsis (Attested Herds) Scheme (England and Wales) ... 204
Index
Notes for the Month : (continued) Page
Turkeys, Numbers of 836
United Dairies' Scholarships, 1937-38 699
Use of Lime (Bulletin No. 35) 1051
Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds 404
Wart Disease Immunity Trials, 1938 1137
Weed Destruction 1
Whey 109
Wild White Clover Certification Scheme no
Winter Wheat Acreage X157
World FeeSing-Stuffs Position 105
Worid's Dairy Congress 209
Work of Agricultural Research Institutes ^03
Young Farmers' Clubs 713
Nutrition and Agriculture 713
Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay 247
Oats and Barley Subsidy Scheme 629
Oldershaw, A. w. : Breaking Up Grass Land 25
Untreated and Inexpensive Materials as a Source of Lime . . . 736
Onion and Leek Smut, CSontrol of 1048
Onion Fly, Control of io8i
Owen, O. : Note on Use of Chlorate Weed-killers 866
Oxford Farming Conference, 1938 1052
Pastures, see also Farm Notes.
Breaking-up Grass Land 25
Britain's Grass Land Must Be Improved (Ministry's Manifesto) 619
Grassland Improvement Campaign (Minister's Broadcast) ... 609
Immature Grass and Young Swards 317, ^^2
Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay 247
Quick Drying of Hay 3ji
Survey of the Grass Land of Hertfordshire 335
Pigs :
Neglected Aspect of Pig-keeping : Manure Production 850
Numbers in England and W^es : 1935 to 1937 835
Rearing Young Pigs 534, 645
Petherbridge, F. R., and J. H. Stapley ; Cutworms as Sugar-beet
Pests, and Their Control 43
Petherbridge, F. R., and I. Thomas : Spraying for Plum Sawfly ... 858
Picture-Films as an Aid in Agricultural Education 4C5
Poison Bait for Slugs - 242
Potato Blight, Control of, by Spraying and Destruction of Haulm ... 546
Potatoes, see also Marketing Notes.
Effect of Manures on Size of Main Crop Potatoes 1189
Potato Synonyms 92, 109
Wart Disease Immunity Trials, 1938 1137
Poultry :
Accredited Poultry Breeding Stations Scheme 1047
Economics of Turkey Production 655
Hair Cracks in Hen Egg Shells 1088, 1204
Poultry Instructors' Conference 805, 970
Poultry Technical Committee of Great Britain 1170
Smallholdings in Dorset and Hampshire 348
Turkeys, Numbers of. in September, 1937 836
Prices of Ar^cial Manures, see Manures.
Prices of Feedii^ Stuffs, see Feeding Stuffs.
Publications (Ofneial), see also Reports.
Advisory Leaflets 95. 494. 698, 1030
Bibliography of Literature on Agricultural Meteorology 5
Bibliography of Literature on Mechanization of Agriculture
(5th Selection) 405
Fruit : A Summary of Figures of Production and Trade (Imperial
Economic Committee) 309
Meat : A Summary of Figures of Production and Trade (Imperial
Economic Committee) 308
xiv
Xkdex
Publications (Official) : (coniinuid) Pags
Miaistzy's Publications 344
Register of Dairy Cattle, Vol. XX 40a
Scientific Principles df Poultry Feeding (Bulletin No. 7) z i x
Use of Lime (Bulletin No. 35) 1051
Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds : A Summary of Figures of Produc-
tion and Trade (Imperial Economic Committee) 404
Rats : National Rat Week, 1937 614
Rearing Young 534. 6^5
Recent Changes in She^ Breeding in the Arable Areas ... 450, 562
Reports, see also Publicaiions.
Agricultural Research Institutes 403
Agricultural Wages (Regulation) Act, 1924 : Report of I^roceed-
ings, 1935-3^ * ^^7
Electro-Culture Committee ZZ2
Food Investigation 513
land Division of the Ministry, 1936 1050
Land Drainage Act, 1930 617
League of Nations : Rriation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture
and Economic Policy 7x3
Live Stock Improvement, 1936-37 ... 734. 870
Milk and Nutrition : New Experiments Reported to the Milk
Nutrition Committee 20 z
National Institute of Agricultural Botany 5
Official Seed Testiim Station, 1935-36 8
Poultry Technical (^mmittee of Great Britain 1x70
Retail Milk Distribution (Food Council) xox6, 1025
Rural Housing 916
Seeds Act, 1920, Season 1936-37 1095
Richards, £. Hannaford : Autumn Leaves in the Garden 746
Russell, Sir E. J. : Farming in Soviet Russia 1063
Samuel, G. : Whiteheads or Take- All in Wheat 231
St. Bodfan-Griffith, J. : A New Method for Harvesting Roots ... 519
Scholarships :
Agricultural Research Scholarships and Studentships for Research
in Animal Health * 190, 5^4
Post-Graduate Agricultural Scholarships 95
Scholarships for the Sons and Daughters o^ Agricultural Work-
men and Others 698
Travelling Scholarship in Agriculture ... 191
United Dairies’ Scholarships, 1937-38 6^
Seeds and Seed Testing :
Essex Seed Growers’ Association 1044
Wild White Clover Certification Scheme xio
Selected Contents of Periodicals i97» 4^^> 7®9
Selman, I. W. : The American Farmer Comes to College 749
Sheep :
Numbers of Sheep, December, X937 1041
Recent Changes in Sheep Breeding 5^^
Sheep Blowfly Investigations as*
Shewell-Coopi^, W. E. : The Cultivation of Asparagus Fern 45®
Simplified Method of Calculating Balanced Mixtures for Milk Pro-
duction 853
Small Livestock, see Liv$stwh and Pptdiry,
Some Deficiency Diseases of Crop Plants xl6
Smallholdings : County Council Smallholdings in Dorset and Han^
shire ... ... •*.. ... xa, X23f s^4
Spraying, Weed Destruction by ^
^^ring for Plum Sawfiy ; With Notes on Red S{nder and Thrips ... 858
Stai^edon, R. G. : Immature Grass and Young Simds ... 3x7,442
Sta|dey, }. H., and F. R. Petherbridge: Cittworids as Begitf^^beet
Pests, and Their Control *
43
Index
XV
Startixig a Central Apple Packing Station
l^worm Disease of Field Beans
Sugar-beet and Beet Sugar, see also Marketing Notes,
Sugar-beet Seed
Survey of the Grass Land of Hertfordshire
Sykes, E. T., and D. H. Findlay : Control of Potato Blight by Spraying
and Destruction of Haulm
Pack
1075
130
7
335
54 ^
Thomaa , £. : County Council Small Holdings in Dorset and Hamp-
shire iB, 123, 214, 34B
Thomas, I., and F. R. Petherbridge : Spraying for Plum Sawfly ... 85B
Tithe Redemption Annuities 192
Turnbull, J, : Imperial Fruit Show, 1937 837
Untreated and Inexpensive Materials as a Source of Lime 736
Vegetables : Broccoli Production in West Cornwall ... 814
Wages :
Enforcement of Minimum Rates ... lox, 192, 296, 409, 496, 605, 707,
812, 922. 1037, 1141, 1251
Farm Workers* Minimum Rates 97, 292, 406, 603, 811, 920,
1032, 1140
Walbank, A. D. R., and K. H. Johnstone : Market Anemones from
Devon and Cornwall 959
Watson, S. J., and W. S. Ferguson : Nutritive Value of Meadow Hay 247
Weeds :
Destruction by graying i
Use of Chlorate Weed-Mcrs 866
Wheat, see Cereals.
Wheldon, R. W. : Farm Notes (Monthly) ... 69, 164. 272, 382, 475. 581,
675, 782, 885. 982, X106, 1220
Whiteheads or Take- All in ^hcat 231
Williams. Stephen : A Neglected Aspect of Pig-keeping : Manure
Production 850
Wireless Talks to Farmers ... 102, 193, 297, 410, 497. 606, 708, 813,
924, 1038. 1143, 1252
Wright, D. W. : The Control of the Onion Fly 1081
Wright, S. J. : Agricultural Machinery Topics 987, 1226
Printed under the an^ri^ ol His Miicsry’s Stationxky Office,
By WnxiAM Ctowis ft Sons, Ltd., Duchy Street, Stamford Street, S.E.i.
I. A. E. I. 75*
IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
INSTITUTE LIBRARY
NEW DELHI.
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